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Cintineo HP, Bello ML, Walker AJ, Chandler AJ, McFadden BA, Arent SM. Monitoring training, performance, biomarkers, and psychological state throughout a competitive season: a case study of a triathlete. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-023-05414-x. [PMID: 38236302 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05414-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ironman triathletes undergo high workloads during competition preparation which can result in nonfunctional overreaching or overtraining syndrome if not matched with adequate recovery. PURPOSE The purpose of this case study was to observe changes in physiological and psychological status over the course of a competitive season in a free-living triathlete. METHODS The subject was a 41-year-old triathlete competing in three 113.1-km events. Over the course of a 40-week period, the participant arrived at the laboratory every 4 weeks and underwent body composition testing via air displacement plethysmography, a blood draw for analysis of various biomarkers, and a treadmill-based lactate threshold test. Workload during training and competitions was monitored via a wearable heart rate-monitoring device. RESULTS Throughout the season, training volume remained high (12.5 ± 3.4 h/week) and body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) continuously decreased, while biomarkers including cortisol, testosterone, and markers of immunological status exhibited minor changes. Laboratory performance remained relatively consistent, while competition performance continually improved. Following the completion of the competitive period, training volume decreased, FFM remained below baseline levels, free cortisol increased, and both free and total testosterone decreased. CONCLUSIONS Workload and recovery seem to have been properly managed throughout the season, evidenced by minimal fluctuations in endocrine and immunological markers. The reason for changes observed in testosterone, cortisol, and body composition following the last competition is unclear, though it may be attributed to changes in stressors and recovery practices outside of training. It is recommended that athletes follow a structured plan during the transition period into the offseason to ensure recovery of physiological state and to set up a productive offseason.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry P Cintineo
- Department of Kinesiology, Lindenwood University, Saint Charles, MO, USA
| | - Marissa L Bello
- Department of Human Studies, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Alan J Walker
- Department of Exercise Science, Lebanon Valley College, Annville, PA, USA
| | - Alexa J Chandler
- Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Bridget A McFadden
- Department of Family, Nutrition, and Exercise Science, Queens College, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shawn M Arent
- Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA.
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Grosicki GJ, Pugh J, Wosinska L, Quilter K, Mattimoe D, Allen J, Joyce SA, O'Sullivan O, Close GL. Ultra-Endurance triathlon competition shifts fecal metabolome independent of changes to microbiome composition. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2023; 135:549-558. [PMID: 37391884 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00024.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding changes to gut microbiota composition and metabolic output in response to acute exercise may be necessary for understanding the mechanisms mediating the long-term health and performance benefits of exercise. Our primary objective was to characterize acute changes in the fecal microbiome and metabolome following participation in an ultra-endurance (3.9 km swim, 180.2 km bike, 42.2 km run) triathlon. An exploratory aim was to determine associations between athlete-specific factors [race performance (i.e., completion time) and lifetime years of endurance training] with pre-race gut microbiota and metabolite profiles. Stool samples from 12 triathletes (9 males/3 females; 43 ± 14 yr, 23 ± 2 kg/m2) were collected ≤48 h before and the first bowel movement following race completion. Intra- and inter-individual diversity of bacterial species and individual bacterial taxa were unaltered following race completion (P > 0.05). However, significant reductions (P < 0.05) in free and secondary bile acids [deoxycholic acid (DCA), 12-keto-lithocholic acid (12-ketoLCA)] and short-chain fatty acids (butyric and pivalic acids), and significant increases (P < 0.05) in long-chain fatty acids (oleic and palmitoleic acids) were observed. Exploratory analyses revealed several associations between pre-race bacterial taxa and fecal metabolites with race performance and lifetime history of endurance training (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that 1) acute ultra-endurance exercise shifts microbial metabolism independent of changes to community composition and 2) athlete performance level and training history relate to resting-state gut microbial ecology.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to characterize acute changes in gut microbial ecology and metabolism following an ultra-endurance triathlon. We demonstrate changes in gut microbial community function, but not structure, as well as several associations between gut microbiome and fecal metabolome characteristics with race completion time and lifetime history of endurance training. These data add to a small but growing body of literature seeking to characterize the acute and chronic effects of exercise on the gut microbial ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Grosicki
- Biodynamics and Human Performance Center, Georgia Southern University - Armstrong Campus, Savannah, Georgia, United States
| | - Jamie Pugh
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Wosinska
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
| | - Karina Quilter
- School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Darragh Mattimoe
- School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Jacob Allen
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, United States
| | - Susan A Joyce
- School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Orla O'Sullivan
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- VistaMilk SFI Research Centre, Fermoy, Ireland
| | - Graeme L Close
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Triathlon is an increasingly popular sport that includes swimming, cycling, followed by running. The triathlete should not be seen merely as a cyclist who also swims and runs. Notable differences are seen in the type of bike used, training patterns, lower extremity demands, and cumulative nature of the sport. Injury prevention and treatment strategies need to take into account the triathlon distance, the type of bike used, athletic experience, prior injuries, risk factors, and a thorough understanding of the demands placed on the body through all 3 disciplines (swim, bike, and run).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Cushman
- Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Utah, 590 Wakara Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA.
| | - Nathan Dowling
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Utah, 590 Wakara Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Meredith Ehn
- Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Utah, 590 Wakara Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Dana H Kotler
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Sinisgalli R, de Lira CAB, Vancini RL, Puccinelli PJG, Hill L, Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, Andrade MS. Impact of training volume and experience on amateur Ironman triathlon performance. Physiol Behav 2021; 232:113344. [PMID: 33516745 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the association between training volume, sleep time, signs and symptoms of excessive training (overtraining), and previous triathlon experience with overall and split race times in the Ironman distance triathlon. METHODS Ninety-nine triathletes (19 women and 80 men) answered an online survey containing questions about anthropometric characteristics (body mass and height), weekly training volume (hours per day and days per week), previous experience in Ironman distance triathlon race, and signs and symptoms of excessive training. Data of race times of all participants were collected by a single race (the Ironman Brazil 2019 - Florianópolis). All surveys were collected between 28 and 30 days before the race. The athlete was instructed to answer the questions according to what was happening in the week before completing the survey. RESULTS Total race time did not differ among those who trained up to 14 h per week (11:28:46±01:54:30 h:min:sec), between 15 and 20 h per week (11:37:31±01:20:26 h:min:sec) or more than 20 h per week (11:30:18±01:31:28 h:min:sec) (p = 0.922). Total race time of the triathletes who presented (12:42:22±01:49:36 h:min:sec) or no (11:23:06±01:29:02 h:min:sec) unintentional body mass loss (p = 0.006), feeling (12:46:17±02:03:13 h:min:sec) or no (11:24:09±01:28:07 h:min:sec) of decreased performance (p = 0.009) or feeling (12:08:58±01:47:12 h:min:sec) or no (11:16:34±01:24:53 h:min:sec) loss of energy (p = 0.011) in the week prior to the race were significantly different. Triathletes who had a previous experience in Ironman races achieved a better performance (11:15:21±01:32:04 h:min:sec) than those without previous experience (12:06:38±01:32:10 h:min:sec) (p = 0.010). CONCLUSION In summary, high volumes of training (more than 20 h per week), when performed forty days before a race, may not have a positive impact on performance compared to lower volumes of training (up to 14 h per week). However, athletes who had a previous experience in Ironman race presented better results in swimming splits and overall race time. Moreover, the presence of overtraining symptoms, such as unintentional loss of weight, sensation of fatigue and/or performance decrease impact negatively triathlon performance.
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Lalonde F, Martin SM, Boucher VG, Gosselin M, Roch M, Comtois AS. Preparation for an Half- Ironmantm Triathlon amongst Amateur Athletes: Finishing Rate and Physiological Adaptation. Int J Exerc Sci 2020; 13:766-777. [PMID: 32509136 PMCID: PMC7241627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Long distance triathlon has gained in popularity amongst the general population. Coaches establish training programs based upon their knowledge, personal experience and on current training principles. The goal was to observe the effect of a triathlon training program for a half Ironman event in neophyte amateur athletes. A specific triathlon training program was followed from February to June 2016 by a group preparing for their first half ironman. Out of the 32 participants (19 Males and 13 Females; mean age of 39 ± 9.9 years old; body weight of 72.7 ± 13.4 kg and a height of 171.5 ± 10.2 cm), only one did not complete the event. A mean training volume of 410 ± 201 min per week led to a mean finishing time of 6 hours 28 minutes. The training program significantly increased the maximal oxygen consumption (45.9 ± 8.2 to 48.6 ± 7.5 ml/kg/min, p =0.002) and the maximal power output (293.1 ± 63.7 to 307.8 ± 58.7 W, p < 0.001). The absolute oxygen consumption and power output at both ventilatory thresholds also significantly increased (VT1: 2.2 ± 0.4 to 2.5 ± 0.5 L, p = 0.001; 157.8 ± 41.8 to 176.7 ± 41.1 W p = 0.009 and VT2: 2.9 ± 0.4 to 3.0 ± 0.4 L, p = 0.017; 229.3 ± 62.0 to 244.8± 55.2 W, p = 0.022 ). A significant diminution of waist circumference was observed (83.2 ± 10.0 to 81.8 ± 9.5 cm, p = 0.032) with no significant changes in body weight. Thus, a 24-week specific training program appears to be safe and efficient for amateur athletes aiming to finish their first half- Ironman event.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Lalonde
- Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montréal, Québec, CANADA
| | - Sarah-Maude Martin
- Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montréal, Québec, CANADA
| | - Vincent G Boucher
- Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montréal, Québec, CANADA
- Department of psychology, University of Quebec at Montréal, Montréal, Québec, CANADA
| | - Marc Gosselin
- Medical chief officer for Ironman Mont-Tremblant, Province of Québec, CANADA
| | - Mélanie Roch
- School of readaptation, Faculty of medecine and health sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, CANADA
| | - Alain S Comtois
- Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montréal, Québec, CANADA
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Abstract
This brief review investigates how sex influences triathlon performance. Performance time for both Olympic distance and Ironman distance triathlons, and physiological considerations are discussed for both elite and non-elite male and female triathletes. The relative participation of female athletes in triathlon has increased over the last three decades, and currently represents 25–40% of the total field. Overall, the sex difference in both Olympic and Ironman distance triathlon performance has narrowed across the years. Sex difference differed with exercise mode and exercise duration. For non-elite Ironman triathletes, the sex difference in swimming time (≈12%) is lower than that which was evidenced for cycling (≈15%) and running (≈18%). For elite triathletes, sex difference in running performance is greater for Olympic triathlon (≈14%) than it is for Ironman distance triathlon (≈7%). Elite Ironman female triathletes have reduced the gap to their male counterparts to less than 10% for the marathon. The sex difference in triathlon performance is likely to be due to physiological (e.g., VO2max) and morphological (e.g., % body fat) factors but hormonal, psychological and societal (e.g., lower participation rate) differences should also be considered. Future studies should address the limited evidence relating sex difference in physiological characteristics such as lactate threshold, exercise economy or peak fat oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romuald Lepers
- CAPS UMR1093, UFR STAPS, Faculté des Sciences du Sport, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
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Rothschild J, Crocker GH. Effects of a 2-km Swim on Markers of Cycling Performance in Elite Age-Group Triathletes. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7040082. [PMID: 30959840 PMCID: PMC6524355 DOI: 10.3390/sports7040082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 2-km swim on markers of subsequent cycling performance in well-trained, age-group triathletes. Fifteen participants (10 males, five females, 38.3 ± 8.4 years) performed two progressive cycling tests between two and ten days apart, one of which was immediately following a 2-km swim (33.7 ± 4.1 min). Cycling power at 4-mM blood lactate concentration decreased after swimming by an average of 3.8% (p = 0.03, 95% CI −7.7, 0.2%), while heart rate during submaximal cycling (220 W for males, 150 W for females) increased by an average of 4.0% (p = 0.02, 95% CI 1.7, 9.7%), compared to cycling without prior swimming. Maximal oxygen consumption decreased by an average of 4.0% (p = 0.01, 95% CI −6.5, −1.4%), and peak power decreased by an average of 4.5% (p < 0.01, 95% CI −7.3, −2.3%) after swimming, compared to cycling without prior swimming. Results from this study suggest that markers of submaximal and maximal cycling are impaired following a 2-km swim.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Rothschild
- TriFit Performance Center, Santa Monica, CA 90404, USA.
- Nutrition and Functional Medicine Program, University of Western States, Portland, OR 97230, USA.
- School of Kinesiology and Nutritional Science, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA.
| | - George H Crocker
- School of Kinesiology and Nutritional Science, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA.
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Bianchini E, Bruno RM, Di Lascio N, Vezzoli A, Mrakic-Sposta S, Corciu AI, Comassi M, Pratali L. Acute Cardiovascular Adaptation to Strenuous Exercise: An Integrative Ultrasound Study. J Ultrasound Med 2019; 38:463-470. [PMID: 30058080 DOI: 10.1002/jum.14719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute effects of participation in an Ironman distance triathlon competition on arterial function by ultrasound, in relation to cardiac function and body water content. METHODS Twenty-eight male triathletes participating in an Ironman distance competition underwent carotid, femoral, and cardiac ultrasound examinations. Moreover, the presence of extravascular lung water was identified by lung echo B-lines (echogenic coherent wedge-shaped signal with a narrow origin from the hyperechoic pleural line) at rest and within 20 minutes of arrival. RESULTS At the end of the competition, athletes showed an increased heart rate (mean ± SD, from 60.2 ± 13.1 to 82.8 ± 15.6 beats/min; P < .0001) and unchanged mean blood pressure (from 93 ± 14 to 91 ± 10 mm Hg; P > .05) in the presence of negligible dehydration (total body water from 48.0 ± 4.0 to 46.5 ± 3.9 kg; P > .05). Cardiac output increased (from 5.5 ± 1.2 to 6.7 ± 2.4 L/min; P < .05) in the presence of an unchanged stroke volume (from 64 ± 14 to 59 ± 16 mL; P > .05) and unchanged left ventricular elastance (from 1.52 ± 0.48 to 1.39 ± 0.48 mm Hg/mL/m2 ; P > .05). The mean carotid diameter increased (from 7.19 ± 0.65 to 7.61 ± 0.76 mm; P < .05), whereas the mean femoral diameter was unchanged at the end of the competition (from 10.41 ± 0.83 to 10.49 ± 0.82 mm; P > .05). Carotid intima-media thickness was significantly reduced (from 537 ± 70 to 495 ± 70 μm; P < .05), whereas B-lines increased significantly after the competition (from 1 [0-4] to 12 [5-23]; P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS These data suggest different acute functional adaptation in central arteries with respect to peripheral leg vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Bianchini
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Nicole Di Lascio
- Institute of Life Science, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alessandra Vezzoli
- Institute of Bioimaging and Molecular Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Milan, Italy
| | - Simona Mrakic-Sposta
- Institute of Bioimaging and Molecular Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Milan, Italy
| | - Anca Irina Corciu
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Pisa, Italy
- Department of Cardiology, Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Policlinico S. Donato, Milan, Italy
| | - Mario Comassi
- Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Pisana, Unità Operativa Medicina di Urgenza e Pronto Soccorso Servizio Sanitario Nazionale, Pisa, Italy
| | - Lorenza Pratali
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, Pisa, Italy
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Ulsamer S, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Swimming performances in long distance open-water events with and without wetsuit. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2014; 6:20. [PMID: 24891942 PMCID: PMC4041346 DOI: 10.1186/2052-1847-6-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Existing literature showed improved swimming performances for swimmers wearing wetsuits competing under standardized conditions in races held in pools on short to middle distances. Data about the influence of wetsuits on swimming performances in long and ultra-long open-water swimming races are missing. It is unknown whether the benefit of wearing wetsuits is comparable in men and women. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of wearing a wetsuit on open-water swimming performances at the 26.4 km ‘Marathon Swim in Lake Zurich’ in Lake Zurich, Switzerland, and the 3.8 km Lake Ontario Swim Team-Race (LOST-Race) in Lake Ontario, Canada. Methods Race times of the fastest female and male swimmers competing with and without wetsuit were compared using multi-level regression analyses and analysis of variance. Results In the ‘Marathon Swim’ in Lake Zurich, wearing a wetsuit had no effect on race time regarding the gender where athletes wearing a wetsuit were not faster than athletes without wetsuit. However, the ten fastest men wearing a wetsuit (410.6 ± 26.7 min) were faster (32.7%, p < 0.01) than the ten fastest women without wetsuit (544.9 ± 81.3 min). In the ‘LOST-Race’, the top ten men wearing a wetsuit (51.7 ± 2.5 min) were faster (13.2%, p < 0.01) than the top ten women wearing a wetsuit (58.5 ± 3.2 min). Additionally, the top ten men without wetsuit (52.1 ± 2.4 min) were faster (19.6%, p < 0.01) than the top ten women without wetsuit (62.3 ± 2.5 min). The top ten women wearing a wetsuit (58.5 ± 3.2 min) were faster (6.5%, p < 0.01) than top ten women without a wetsuit (62.3 ± 25 min). Conclusions These results suggest that wearing a wetsuit had a positive influence on swimming speed for both women and men but the benefit of the use of wetsuits seemed to depend on additional factors (i.e. race distance). Women seemed to benefit more from wearing wetsuits than men in longer open-water ultra-distance swimming races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ulsamer
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Vadianstrasse 26, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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