The future of therapeutic agents in aquaculture

The implementation and monitoring of fish health regulations vary extensively in aquaculture throughout the world. In the main salmon-producing countries, there is strict regulatory oversight of the use of pharmaceutical drugs. Such controls have supported the sustainable growth of the aquaculture industry and, in Norway, aquaculture has been able to reduce its total consumption of antibiotics by more than 99% between 1995 and today, yet there has been a 20-fold rise in production volume. Other countries on other continents may have less control, with no mandatory prescription regulations and variable quality of the pharmaceutical products available. A good regulatory framework, with control and monitoring systems, should be established in all countries where aquaculture is practised and veterinary medicinal products should only be available under veterinary prescription and supervision. Many drug resistance genes have been identified, and molecular methods should be applied to control drug resistance in the microbial and parasitic populations of all major aquaculture-producing regions.

Sharing responsibility between public and private sectors for the management of aquatic emergency animal diseases

Aquatic animal disease outbreaks affect both the public (represented by the government) and the private sector (represented by the aquaculture and fisheries industry). However, all too often, the responsibilities and costs of responding to an outbreak may not be shared. Without a mechanism for public and private sectors to work together, the outcomes of an emergency response may not be ideal, or of common benefit to all potentially affected parties. In Australia, a mechanism is being developed for public and private sectors to share the responsibilities and costs of responding to aquatic animal disease outbreaks, through an industry- government aquatic emergency animal disease response agreement. The agreement provides an approach for both public and private sectors to share the responsibilities and costs of responding to a disease outbreak and to coordinate disease prevention activities to reduce their shared risk. The key elements of the agreement include provisions to incentivise faster notification of disease outbreaks, facilitate a faster response, share decision-making and costs (including compensation for affected businesses), clarify the responsibilities of all parties and, most importantly, strengthen risk mitigation activities. This paper describes how the draft agreement has been developed among 18 industry and government parties, how key elements of the agreement may contribute to improved aquatic animal health outcomes, and the principles which could be applied by other OIE Member Countries.

Measuring the impacts of aquatic animal diseases: the role of economic analysis

Aquaculture is an important industry both economically and socially. The majority of this industry is focused on the production of aquatic animals, which may be substantially adversely affected by disease. Economic analyses may be used to inform decision-makers on the aquatic animal disease control choices that are economically optimal. Examples of such analyses are presented in this paper, ranging from basic cost estimates of disease impact to complex, spatial- temporal, bio-economic models. Regardless of the complexity of the analysis, there is a consistent need to collect and analyse good quality data measuring both the production and health of aquatic animals. This would require a variety of individuals and groups, including farmers, scientists and the government, to collaboratively contribute to this end. Given the necessary data, more sophisticated models may be better used to inform decision-making from the farm to the national level. Finally, economic analyses should not be limited to simple aggregated cost and benefit results but rather should include the social and gender impacts of financial decisions, as well as the potential externalities both within and among the various impacted sectors in order to optimise investment at both the farm and national levels.

Response of developing countries to biological threats: the case of the Republic of Haiti

In spite of scientific progress, the world is still facing major biological threats. Not only are there epidemics caused by wildlife pathogens under natural conditions, there are also those caused accidently when researchers handle highly hazardous organisms stored in research laboratories, and those caused when countries use these organisms as biological weapons of war or when criminal groups use them for bioterrorism. Developing countries tend to be more vulnerable to such threats than developed countries owing to the poor resilience of their animal health systems, their advanced state of environmental degradation, their socio-economic fragility and their political instability. The occurrence of emerging and re-emerging diseases (avian influenza, Ebola virus disease) has caused deep concern around the world in recent years and has shown how important it is for countries to strengthen the organisation of their Veterinary Services. The Republic of Haiti is one of the developing countries with the most acute biophysical vulnerability. Over the years, it has experienced a large number of earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, droughts and epidemics that have further weakened a country with already scarce financial resources. However, Haiti is endeavouring to address biological threats by modernising its Veterinary Services and by implementing the animal health standards and guidelines of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) for establishing resilient animal health systems.

Technologies for capturing and analysing animal health data in near real time

Information technologies are rapidly advancing the way in which animal health data and information are collected, analysed and shared in order to support animal health management, disease surveillance and response, and decision-making. However, the full potential of these technologies for early detection and response to natural or intentional disease events has not been fully realised in animal health at the global level. This paper discusses advances made in these technologies and examples of how they have been applied in animal health for near real-time data collection and analysis. The technologies reviewed include: i) mobile health (mHealth) technologies, wireless sensors and biosensors for remote data collection; ii) crowdsourced and Internet-based data collection; and iii) electronic health (eHealth) technologies for data integration and analysis. Experiences of implementing these technologies, and challenges with their use, are also discussed so as to provide recommendations on their future application in animal health. The world is ripe with opportunities to develop and enhance mHealth and eHealth technologies that are cost effective and capable of near real-time data collection and analysis. Such technologies have been shown to be valuable and capable of being implemented in both developing and developed countries, and ultimately will strengthen disease surveillance and reporting across the globe. International mechanisms and data standards are needed to facilitate the sharing and analysis of animal and human health data between countries. Identifying ways in which animal and human health data collection and analysis can be better integrated within a 'One Health' approach will enhance the coordination and capability of disease detection and response at the human-animal interface.

Linking animal diseases and social instability

Social instability occurs as a consequence of war, civil strife or natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and droughts. Animal diseases, including zoonoses, can be both a precursor to social instability and a result of social instability. Coping mechanisms, such as sound policies, trust in government, and robust infrastructure break down at times of civil instability. Such breakdowns often lead to a decline in both public health and the food and agricultural livestock base, thus creating a vicious cycle that involves inadequate nutrition, threatened livelihoods, and fewer opportunities for safe trade. This article is principally a discussion of a theoretical nature on the dynamics between animal diseases and social instability. Based on their experience of working for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the authors provide numerous examples of the connection between the two, mostly in countries that have fragile environments and are experiencing protracted crises. Disease has a direct and immediate effect on a community, but, in addition, if the community is not able to recover from the impact of a disease on their health and livelihoods, the consequences of an outbreak can persist even after the disease is no longer present. Stability, therefore, depends on a variety of factors, including the ability of a community to overcome the effects of a disease outbreak or other destabilising event. The FAO approach to helping families and communities to cope with the destabilizing effects of animal diseases is to build resilience, particularly amongst the most vulnerable households. This requires individuals and governments to gain a better understanding of what drives disease at the interface between human and animal health. In addition, it requires governments to invest in social protection programmes, establish a long-term risk reduction strategy that decreases vulnerability, and improve the sustainability of safe agricultural and marketing practices.