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Nie JH, Yang T, Li H, Ye HS, Zhong GQ, Li TT, Zhang C, Huang WH, Xiao J, Li Z, He JL, Du BL, Zhang Y, Liu J. Identification of GPC3 mutation and upregulation in a multidrug resistant osteosarcoma and its spheroids as therapeutic target. J Bone Oncol 2021; 30:100391. [PMID: 34611509 PMCID: PMC8476350 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbo.2021.100391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
GPC3 mutation in primary osteosarcoma becomes abundant in its metastasis. Mutant GPC3 is over-produced in metastatic spheroids with multidrug resistance. Anti-GPC3 antibody effectively commits metastatic spheroids to apoptosis. GPC3 would be a promising therapeutic target of osteosarcomas.
Background Drug resistance and the lack of molecular therapeutic target are the main challenges in the management of osteosarcomas (OSs). Identification of novel genetic alteration(s) related with OS recurrence and chemotherapeutic resistance would be of scientific and clinical significance. Methods To identify potential genetic alterations related with OS recurrence and chemotherapeutic resistance, the biopsies of a 20-year-old male osteosarcoma patient were collected at primary site (p-OS) and from its metastatic tumor (m-OS) formed after 5 months of adjuvant chemotherapy. Both OS specimens were subjected to cancer-targeted next generation sequencing (NGS) and their cell suspensions were cultured under three-dimensional condition to establish spheroid therapeutic model. Transcript-oriented Sanger sequencing for GPC3, the detected mutated gene, was performed on RNA samples of p-OS and m-OS tissues and spheroids. The effects of anti-GPC3 antibody and its combination with cisplatin on m-OS spheroids were elucidated. Results NGS revealed 4 mutations (GPC3, SOX10, MDM4 and MAPK8) and 6 amplifications (MDM2, CDK4, CCND3, RUNX2, GLI1 and FRS2) in p-OS, and 3 mutations (GPC3, SOX10 and EGF) and 10 amplifications (CDK4, CCND3, MDM2, RUNX2, GLI1, FRS2, CARD11, RAC1, SLC16A7 and PMS2) in m-OS. Among those alterations, the mutation abundance of GPC3 was the highest (56.49%) in p-OS and showed 1.54 times increase in m-OS. GPC3 transcript-oriented Sanger sequencing confirmed the mutation at 1046 in Exon 4, and immunohistochemical staining showed increased GPC3 production in m-OS tissues and its spheroids. EdU cell proliferation and Calcein/PI cell viability assays revealed that of the anti-OS first line drugs (doxorubicin, cisplatin, methotrexate, ifosfamide and carboplatin), 10 μM carboplatin exerted the best inhibitory effects on the p-OS but not the m-OS spheroids. 2 μg/mL anti-GPC3 antibody effectively committed m-OS spheroids to death by itself (76.43%) or in combination with cisplatin (92.93%). Conclusion This study demonstrates increased abundance and up-regulated expression of mutant GPC3 in metastatic osteosarcoma and its spheroids with multidrug resistance. As GPC3-targeting therapy has been used to treat hepatocellular carcinomas and it is also effective to OS PDSs, GPC3 would be a novel prognostic parameter and therapeutic target of osteosarcomas.
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Key Words
- Anti-GPC3 targeted therapy
- CBP, carboplatin
- CDDP, cisplatin
- DOX, doxorubicin
- FFPE, formalin-fixed, paraffin- embedded
- GPC3 mutation
- GPC3-Ab, anti-GPC3 antibody
- Gene upregulation
- H/E, hematoxylin and eosin
- IHC, immunohistochemistry
- MA, mutation abundance
- MSS, microsatellite stable
- MTX, methotrexate
- Multidrug resistance
- NAC, neoadjuvant chemotherapy
- NGS, next generation sequencing
- Next generation sequencing
- OS, osteosarcoma
- Osteosarcoma
- PDS, patient-derived spheroids
- Patient-derived spheroids
- SNV, single-nucleotide variant
- m-OS, metastatic osteosarcoma
- p-OS, primary osteosarcoma
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Hua Nie
- School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Tao Yang
- Department of Orthopedic Oncology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Hong Li
- Jingkeson BioMed Laboratory, Guangzhou Jingke Institute of Life Sciences, Guangzhou 510005, China
| | - Hai-Shan Ye
- School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Guo-Qing Zhong
- Department of Orthopedic Oncology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- Jingkeson BioMed Laboratory, Guangzhou Jingke Institute of Life Sciences, Guangzhou 510005, China
| | - Chi Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Oncology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Wen-Han Huang
- Department of Orthopedic Oncology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Jin Xiao
- Department of Orthopedic Oncology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Zhi Li
- Department of Pathology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Jian-Li He
- Jingkeson BioMed Laboratory, Guangzhou Jingke Institute of Life Sciences, Guangzhou 510005, China
| | - Bo-Le Du
- Jingkeson BioMed Laboratory, Guangzhou Jingke Institute of Life Sciences, Guangzhou 510005, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Oncology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to South China University of Technology School of Medicine, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Jia Liu
- School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Zhang H, Luo YB, Wu W, Zhang L, Wang Z, Dai Z, Feng S, Cao H, Cheng Q, Liu Z. The molecular feature of macrophages in tumor immune microenvironment of glioma patients. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2021; 19:4603-18. [PMID: 34471502 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2021.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gliomas are one of the most common types of primary tumors in central nervous system. Previous studies have found that macrophages actively participate in tumor growth. Methods Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was used to identify meaningful macrophage-related gene genes for clustering. Pamr, SVM, and neural network were applied for validating clustering results. Somatic mutation and methylation were used for defining the features of identified clusters. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the stratified groups after performing elastic regression and principal component analyses were used for the construction of MScores. The expression of macrophage-specific genes were evaluated in tumor microenvironment based on single cell sequencing analysis. A total of 2365 samples from 15 glioma datasets and 5842 pan-cancer samples were used for external validation of MScore. Results Macrophages were identified to be negatively associated with the survival of glioma patients. Twenty-six macrophage-specific DEGs obtained by elastic regression and PCA were highly expressed in macrophages at single-cell level. The prognostic value of MScores in glioma was validated by the active proinflammatory and metabolic profile of infiltrating microenvironment and response to immunotherapies of samples with this signature. MScores managed to stratify patient survival probabilities in 15 external glioma datasets and pan-cancer datasets, which predicted worse survival outcome. Sequencing data and immunohistochemistry of Xiangya glioma cohort confirmed the prognostic value of MScores. A prognostic model based on MScores demonstrated high accuracy rate. Conclusion Our findings strongly support a modulatory role of macrophages, especially M2 macrophages in glioma progression and warrants further experimental studies.
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Key Words
- ACC, Adrenocortical carcinoma
- BBB, brain blood barrier
- BLCA, Bladder Urothelial Carcinoma
- BRCA, Breast invasive carcinoma
- CDF, cumulative distribution function
- CESC, Cervical squamous cell carcinoma and endocervical adenocarcinoma
- CGGA, Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas
- CHOL, Cholangiocarcinoma
- CNA, copy number alternations
- CNV, copy number variation
- COAD, Colon adenocarcinoma
- CSF-1, colony-stimulating factor-1
- DLBC, Lymphoid Neoplasm Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma
- DMP, differentially methylated position
- ESCA, Esophageal carcinoma
- GBM, glioblastoma
- GEO, Gene Expression Omnibus
- GO, gene ontology
- GSEA, gene set enrichment analysis
- GSVA, gene set variation analysis
- Glioma microenvironment
- HNSC, Head and Neck squamous cell carcinoma
- IGR, intergenic region
- IHC, immunohistochemistry
- IL, interleukin
- Immunotherapy
- KEGG, Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes
- KICH, Kidney Chromophobe
- KIRC, Kidney renal clear cell carcinoma
- KIRP, Kidney renal papillary cell carcinoma
- LGG, low grade glioma
- LIHC, Liver hepatocellular carcinoma
- LUAD, Lung adenocarcinoma
- LUSC, Lung squamous cell carcinoma
- MMP-2, matrix metalloproteinase-2
- MT1, MMP membrane type 1 matrix metalloprotease
- Machine learning
- Macrophage
- OV, Ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma
- PAAD, Pancreatic adenocarcinoma
- PAM, partition around medoids
- PCA, principal component analysis
- PCPG, Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma
- PRAD, Prostate adenocarcinoma
- Prognostic model
- READ, Rectum adenocarcinoma
- SARC, Sarcoma
- SKCM, Skin Cutaneous Melanoma
- SNP, single-nucleotide polymorphism
- SNV, single-nucleotide variant
- STAD, Stomach adenocarcinoma
- SVM, Support Vector Machines
- TAM, tumor associated macrophage
- TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas
- TGF-β, tumor growth factor-β
- THCA, Thyroid carcinoma
- THYM, Thymoma
- TIMP-2, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2
- TLR2, toll-like receptor 2
- TME, tumor microenvironment
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α
- TSS, transcription start site
- UCEC, Uterine Corpus Endometrial Carcinoma
- UCS, Uterine Carcinosarcoma
- WGCNA, weighted gene co-expression network analysis
- pamr, prediction analysis for microarrays
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Chaix MA, Parmar N, Kinnear C, Lafreniere-Roula M, Akinrinade O, Yao R, Miron A, Lam E, Meng G, Christie A, Manickaraj AK, Marjerrison S, Dillenburg R, Bassal M, Lougheed J, Zelcer S, Rosenberg H, Hodgson D, Sender L, Kantor P, Manlhiot C, Ellis J, Mertens L, Nathan PC, Mital S. Machine Learning Identifies Clinical and Genetic Factors Associated With Anthracycline Cardiotoxicity in Pediatric Cancer Survivors. JACC CardioOncol 2020; 2:690-706. [PMID: 34396283 PMCID: PMC8352204 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaccao.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Despite known clinical risk factors, predicting anthracycline cardiotoxicity remains challenging. Objectives This study sought to develop a clinical and genetic risk prediction model for anthracycline cardiotoxicity in childhood cancer survivors. Methods We performed exome sequencing in 289 childhood cancer survivors at least 3 years from anthracycline exposure. In a nested case-control design, 183 case patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction despite low-dose doxorubicin (≤250 mg/m2), and 106 control patients with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction despite doxorubicin >250 mg/m2 were selected as extreme phenotypes. Rare/low-frequency variants were collapsed to identify genes differentially enriched for variants between case patients and control patients. The expression levels of 5 top-ranked genes were evaluated in human induced pluripotent stem cell–derived cardiomyocytes, and variant enrichment was confirmed in a replication cohort. Using random forest, a risk prediction model that included genetic and clinical predictors was developed. Results Thirty-one genes were differentially enriched for variants between case patients and control patients (p < 0.001). Only 42.6% case patients harbored a variant in these genes compared to 89.6% control patients (odds ratio: 0.09; 95% confidence interval: 0.04 to 0.17; p = 3.98 × 10–15). A risk prediction model for cardiotoxicity that included clinical and genetic factors had a higher prediction accuracy and lower misclassification rate compared to the clinical-only model. In vitro inhibition of gene-associated pathways (PI3KR2, ZNF827) provided protection from cardiotoxicity in cardiomyocytes. Conclusions Our study identified variants in cardiac injury pathway genes that protect against cardiotoxicity and informed the development of a prediction model for delayed anthracycline cardiotoxicity, and it also provided new targets in autophagy genes for the development of cardio-protective drugs. (Preventing Cardiac Sequelae in Pediatric Cancer Survivors [PCS2]; NCT01805778)
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Key Words
- AUC, area under the curve
- CI, confidence interval
- DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide
- DOX, doxorubicin
- GSEA, gene set enrichment analysis
- H2AX, H2A family member X
- IC50, half-maximal inhibitory concentration
- LV, left ventricular
- LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction
- MAF, minor allele frequency
- OR, odds ratio
- PGP, Personal Genome Project
- RF, random forest
- SKAT, sequence kernel association test
- SNV, single-nucleotide variant
- anthracycline
- cancer survivorship
- cardiomyopathy
- echocardiography
- genomics
- hiPSC-CM, human induced pluripotent stem cell–derived cardiomyocyte
- mRNA, messenger RNA
- machine learning
- risk prediction
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-A Chaix
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Adult Congenital Centre, Montréal Heart Institute, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Neha Parmar
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Caroline Kinnear
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Myriam Lafreniere-Roula
- Ted Rogers Computational Medicine Program, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Oyediran Akinrinade
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Roderick Yao
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anastasia Miron
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Emily Lam
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Guoliang Meng
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anne Christie
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ashok Kumar Manickaraj
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stacey Marjerrison
- Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University Children's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rejane Dillenburg
- Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University Children's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mylène Bassal
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jane Lougheed
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shayna Zelcer
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, London Health Sciences Centre, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Herschel Rosenberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, London Health Sciences Centre, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - David Hodgson
- Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Leonard Sender
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Orange County, Orange, California, USA
| | - Paul Kantor
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Cedric Manlhiot
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins Medical Center, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - James Ellis
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Luc Mertens
- Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul C Nathan
- Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Seema Mital
- Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Lade JM, To EE, Hendrix CW, Bumpus NN. Discovery of Genetic Variants of the Kinases That Activate Tenofovir in a Compartment-specific Manner. EBioMedicine 2015; 2:1145-52. [PMID: 26501112 PMCID: PMC4588390 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tenofovir (TFV) is used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment and prevention. TFV requires two phosphorylation steps to become pharmacologically active; however, the kinases that activate TFV in cells and tissues susceptible to HIV infection have yet to be identified. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), vaginal, and colorectal tissues were transfected with siRNA targeting nucleotide kinases, incubated with TFV, and TFV-monophosphate (TFV-MP) and TFV-diphosphate (TFV-DP) were measured using mass spectrometry–liquid chromatography. Adenylate kinase 2 (AK2) performed the first TFV phosphorylation step in PBMC, vaginal, and colorectal tissues. Interestingly, both pyruvate kinase isozymes, muscle (PKM) or liver and red blood cell (PKLR), were able to phosphorylate TFV-MP to TFV-DP in PBMC and vaginal tissue, while creatine kinase, muscle (CKM) catalyzed this conversion in colorectal tissue. In addition, next-generation sequencing of the Microbicide Trials Network MTN-001 clinical samples detected 71 previously unreported genetic variants in the genes encoding these kinases. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that TFV is activated in a compartment-specific manner. Further, genetic variants have been identified that could negatively impact TFV activation, thereby compromising TFV efficacy in HIV treatment and prevention. The anti-HIV drug tenofovir is activated in a tissue-specific manner. AK2 phosphorylates tenofovir to tenofovir-monophosphate in PBMC, vagina, and colon. PKM, PKLR phosphorylate tenofovir-monophosphate to diphosphate in PBMC and vagina. CKM phosphorylates tenofovir-monophosphate to diphosphate in colon. Because these enzymes are polymorphic and may be dysfunctional in some individuals, these findings suggest that tenofovir-based HIV PrEP may not be protective for all individuals.
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Key Words
- AK2, adenylate kinase 2
- CKM, creatine kinase, muscle
- GUK1, guanylate kinase 1
- HIV
- HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis
- HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
- MTN-001, Microbicide Trials Network Study MTN-001
- Microbicide Trials Network study MTN-001
- NME1, NME/NM23 nucleoside diphosphate kinase 1
- Nucleotide kinases
- PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cells
- PKLR, pyruvate kinase, liver and red blood cell
- PKM, pyruvate kinase, muscle
- PrEP, pre-exposure prophylaxis
- SNV, single-nucleotide variant
- TFV, tenofovir
- TFV-DP, tenofovir-diphosphate
- TFV-MP, tenofovir-monophosphate
- Targeted next-generation sequencing
- Tenofovir activation
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie M Lade
- Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Biophysics 307, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA ; Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Biophysics 307, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Elaine E To
- Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Biophysics 307, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA ; Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Biophysics 307, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Craig W Hendrix
- Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Blalock 569, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA ; Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Blalock 569, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Namandjé N Bumpus
- Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Biophysics 307, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA ; Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Biophysics 307, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Kidd M, Modlin IM, Bodei L, Drozdov I. Decoding the Molecular and Mutational Ambiguities of Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasm Pathobiology. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 1:131-153. [PMID: 28210673 PMCID: PMC5301133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (GEP-NEN), considered a heterogeneous neoplasia, exhibit ill-defined pathobiology and protean symptomatology and are ubiquitous in location. They are difficult to diagnose, challenging to manage, and outcome depends on cell type, secretory product, histopathologic grading, and organ of origin. A morphologic and molecular genomic review of these lesions highlights tumor characteristics that can be used clinically, such as somatostatin-receptor expression, and confirms features that set them outside the standard neoplasia paradigm. Their unique pathobiology is useful for developing diagnostics using somatostatin-receptor targeted imaging or uptake of radiolabeled amino acids specific to secretory products or metabolism. Therapy has evolved via targeting of protein kinase B signaling or somatostatin receptors with drugs or isotopes (peptide-receptor radiotherapy). With DNA sequencing, rarely identified activating mutations confirm that tumor suppressor genes are relevant. Genomic approaches focusing on cancer-associated genes and signaling pathways likely will remain uninformative. Their uniquely dissimilar molecular profiles mean individual tumors are unlikely to be easily or uniformly targeted by therapeutics currently linked to standard cancer genetic paradigms. The prevalence of menin mutations in pancreatic NEN and P27KIP1 mutations in small intestinal NEN represents initial steps to identifying a regulatory commonality in GEP-NEN. Transcriptional profiling and network-based analyses may define the cellular toolkit. Multianalyte diagnostic tools facilitate more accurate molecular pathologic delineations of NEN for assessing prognosis and identifying strategies for individualized patient treatment. GEP-NEN remain unique, poorly understood entities, and insight into their pathobiology and molecular mechanisms of growth and metastasis will help identify the diagnostic and therapeutic weaknesses of this neoplasia.
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Key Words
- 5-HT, serotonin, 5-hydroxytryptamine
- Akt, protein kinase B
- BRAF, gene encoding serine/threonine-protein kinase B-Raf
- Blood
- CGH, comparative genomic hybridization
- CREB, cAMP response element-binding protein
- Carcinoid
- CgA, chromogranin A
- D cell, somatostatin
- DAG, diacylglycerol
- EC, enterochromaffin
- ECL, enterochromaffin-like
- EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor
- ERK, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase
- G cell, gastrin
- GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid
- GEP-NEN, gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms
- GPCR, G-protein coupled receptor
- Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms
- IGF-I, insulin-like growth factor-I
- ISG, immature secretory vesicles
- Ki-67
- LOH, loss of heterozygosity
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MEN-1/MEN1, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
- MSI, microsatellite instability
- MTA, metastasis associated-1
- NEN, neuroendocrine neoplasms
- NFκB, nuclear factor κB
- PET, positron emission tomography
- PI3, phosphoinositide-3
- PI3K, phosphoinositide-3 kinase
- PKA, protein kinase A
- PKC, protein kinase C
- PTEN, phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10
- Proliferation
- SD-208, 2-(5-chloro-2-fluorophenyl)-4-[(4-pyridyl)amino]p-teridine
- SNV, single-nucleotide variant
- SSA, somatostatin analog
- SST, somatostatin
- Somatostatin
- TGF, transforming growth factor
- TGN, trans-Golgi network
- TSC2, tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (tuberin)
- Transcriptome
- VMAT, vesicular monoamine transporters
- X/A-like cells, ghrelin
- cAMP, adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate
- mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin
- miR/miRNA, micro-RNA
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Irvin M. Modlin
- Correspondence Address correspondence to: Irvin M. Modlin, MD, PhD, The Gnostic Consortium, Wren Laboratories, 35 NE Industrial Road, Branford, Connecticut, 06405.
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