Mechanistic evaluation of a novel cyclohexenone derivative's functionality against nociception and inflammation: An in-vitro, in-vivo and in-silico approach

The synthesis of a novel cyclohexanone derivative (CHD; Ethyl 6-(4-metohxyphenyl)-2-oxo-4-phenylcyclohexe-3-enecarboxylate) was described and the subsequent aim was to perform an in vitro, in vivo and in silico pharmacological evaluation as a putative anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory agent in mice. Initial in vitro studies revealed that CHD inhibited both cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) enzymes and it also reduced mRNA expression of COX-2 and the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. It was then shown that CHD dose dependently inhibited chemically induced tonic nociception in the abdominal constriction assay and also phasic thermal nociception (i.e. anti-nociception) in the hot plate and tail immersion tests in comparison with aspirin and tramadol respectively. The thermal test outcomes indicated a possible moderate centrally mediated anti-nociception which, in the case of the hot plate test, was pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and naloxone reversible, implicating GABAergic and opioidergic mechanisms. CHD was also effective against both the neurogenic and inflammatory mediator phases induced in the formalin test and it also disclosed anti-inflammatory activity against the phlogistic agents, carrageenan, serotonin, histamine and xylene compared with standard drugs in edema volume tests. In silico studies indicated that CHD possessed preferential affinity for GABAA, opioid and COX-2 target sites and this was supported by molecular dynamic simulations where computation of free energy of binding also favored the formation of stable complexes with these sites. These findings suggest that CHD has prospective anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties, probably mediated through GABAergic and opioidergic interactions supplemented by COX-2 and 5-LOX enzyme inhibition in addition to reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. CHD may therefore possess potentially beneficial therapeutic effectiveness in the management of inflammation and pain.

A Novel Pharmacological Protective Role for Safranal in an Animal Model of Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative and inherited disease and recent years have witnessed the understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms related to HD. Safranal, an organic compound isolated from saffron, has been reported to have anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity and has studied in chronic and neurodegenerative disease. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the effect of safranal on 3-NP induced locomotor activity and biochemical alterations in rats. To this aim, 40 male Wistar rats weighting 250-300 g were divided into 5 groups (n = 8) including sham, 3-NP group (10 mg/kg) as control and treatment groups (3-NP + safranal 0.75, 1.5 and 3 mg/kg) in two weeks duration of treatment. Behavioral/movement assessments in addition to oxidant/antioxidant markers in rat cortex and striatum were evaluated in control and treatment groups. Here, we found that safranal significantly alleviated 3-NP-induced changes of body weight, rotarod activity, number of vacuous chewing movements (VCMs), and locomotor activity. In addition, brain tissue assessments in cortex and striatum revealed that safranal could prevent the elevation of nitrite and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels as well as decrease of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase activity and glutathione (GSH) induced by 3-NP. In conclusion our results showed that safranal prevented the motor dysfunction induced by 3-NP in animal model of Huntington's disease. This effect might be due to its modulating effect on oxidants-antioxidant balance.

Crocus sativus L. Extracts and Its Constituents Crocins and Safranal; Potential Candidates for Schizophrenia Treatment?

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental devastating disease. Current therapy suffers from various limitations including low efficacy and serious side effects. Thus, there is an urgent necessity to develop new antipsychotics with higher efficacy and safety. The dried stigma of the plant Crocus sativus L., (CS) commonly known as saffron, are used in traditional medicine for various purposes. It has been demonstrated that saffron and its bioactive components crocins and safranal exert a beneficial action in different pathologies of the central nervous system such as anxiety, depression, epilepsy and memory problems. Recently, their role as potential antipsychotic agents is under investigation. In the present review, I intended to critically assess advances in research of these molecules for the treatment of schizophrenia, comment on their advantages over currently used neuroleptics as well-remaining challenges. Up to our days, few preclinical studies have been conducted to this end. In spite of it, results are encouraging and strongly corroborate that additional research is mandatory aiming to definitively establish a role for saffron and its bioactive components for the treatment of schizophrenia.

2-Dodecyl-6-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione, isolated from the root of Averrhoa carambola L., protects against diabetic kidney disease by inhibiting TLR4/TGFβ signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the leading cause of death and disability of diabetes mellitus. However, there is still a lack of specific drugs for the treatment of DKD. The chief aim of this research is to investigate the role and mechanism of 2-Dodecyl-6-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione (DMDD) for DKD.

METHODS

Wild type and TLR4 knockout mice were induced to diabetes. After 4-week treatment with DMDD, blood sugar, renal function, blood lipid and pathological changes were assessed. Real-time PCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry were employed to detect the expressions of TLR4, TGFβ1 and Smad2/3 in the renal tissue.

RESULTS

DMDD improved the serum lipid and decreased fasting blood glucose levels in diabetic mice. CysC and urinary albumin levels increased markedly in the diabetic group, and they were obviously decreased after 4 weeks of DMDD treatment. Compared with the WT diabetic mice, the urinary albumin and CysC in the TLR4-/- mice were expressed at lower levels. HE and Masson's staining revealed that DMDD clearly ameliorated pathological changes and renal fibrosis. When TLR4 gene was knock out, the pathological was improved. Mechanistically, TLR4, TGF-β1 and Smad2/3 were obvious up-regulation in the renal tissues of diabetic mice. The expressions of these proteins were significantly down-regulated after DMDD treatment (p < 0.05). In the TLR4-/- mice, mRNA and protein levels of TGF-β1 and Smad2/3 were obviously lower than those in the WT mice. In addition, IHC revealed that a strong in situ expressions of TLR4, TGF-β1 and Smad2/3 were seen in the kidney tissues of diabetic mice, which were distinctly weakened in the DMDD-treated mice. In the TLR4-/- mice, however, expressions of TGF-β1 and Smad2/3 were not remarkable increase in the diabetic mice compared with normal mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These results strongly indicate that TLR4 is essential for DMDD protection against renal dysfunction in diabetic mice. Its hypoglycemic and anti-fibrosis effects were likely mediated by the TLR4/TGFβ signaling pathway.

Safranal, an active ingredient of saffron, attenuates cognitive deficits in amyloid β-induced rat model of Alzheimer's disease: underlying mechanisms

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative amyloid disorder with progressive deterioration of cognitive and memory skills. Despite many efforts, no decisive therapy yet exists for AD. Safranal is the active constituent of saffron essential oil with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. In this study, the possible beneficial effect of safranal on cognitive deficits was evaluated in a rat model of AD induced by intrahippocampal amyloid beta (Aβ_1-40). Safranal was daily given p.o. (0.025, 0.1, and 0.2 ml/kg) post-surgery for 1 week and finally learning and memory were evaluated in addition to assessment of the involvement of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Findings showed that safranal treatment of amyloid β-microinjected rats dose-dependently improved cognition in Y-maze, novel-object discrimination, passive avoidance, and 8-arm radial arm maze tasks. Besides, safranal attenuated hippocampal level of malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), protein carbonyl, interleukin 1β (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), apoptotic biomarkers including caspase 3 and DNA fragmentation, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and improved superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) with no significant effect on nitrite, catalase activity, and glutathione (GSH). Furthermore, safranal prevented CA1 neuronal loss due to amyloid β_1-40. In summary, safranal treatment of intrahippocampal amyloid beta_1-40-microinjected rats could prevent learning and memory decline via neuronal protection and at a molecular level through amelioration of apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, cholinesterase activity, neutrophil infiltration, and also by preservation of mitochondrial integrity.

Biochemical significance of limonene and its metabolites: future prospects for designing and developing highly potent anticancer drugs

Monocyclic monoterpenes have been recognized as useful pharmacological ingredients due to their ability to treat numerous diseases. Limonene and perillyl alcohol as well as their metabolites (especially perillic acid and its methyl ester) possess bioactivities such as antitumor, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial agents. These therapeutic properties have been well documented. Based on the aforementioned biological properties of limonene and its metabolites, their structural modification and development into effective drugs could be rewarding. However, utilization of these monocyclic monoterpenes as scaffolds for the design and developments of more effective chemoprotective agents has not received the needed attention by medicinal scientists. Recently, some derivatives of limonene metabolites have been synthesized. Nonetheless, there have been no thorough studies on their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties as well as their inhibition against isoprenylation enzymes. In this review, recent research progress in the biochemical significance of limonene and its metabolites was summarized with emphasis on their antitumor effects. Future prospects of these bioactive monoterpenes for drug design and development are also highlighted.

Anti-Tumorigenic and Anti-Metastatic Activity of the Sponge-Derived Marine Drugs Aeroplysinin-1 and Isofistularin-3 against Pheochromocytoma In Vitro

Over 10% of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma (PPGL) patients have malignant disease at their first presentation in the clinic. Development of malignancy and the underlying molecular pathways in PPGLs are poorly understood and efficient treatment strategies are missing. Marine sponges provide a natural source of promising anti-tumorigenic and anti-metastatic agents. We evaluate the anti-tumorigenic and anti-metastatic potential of Aeroplysinin-1 and Isofistularin-3, two secondary metabolites isolated from the marine sponge Aplysina aerophoba, on pheochromocytoma cells. Aeroplysinin-1 diminished the number of proliferating cells and reduced spheroid growth significantly. Beside these anti-tumorigenic activity, Aeroplysinin-1 decreased the migration ability of the cells significantly (p = 0.01), whereas, the invasion capacity was not affected. Aeroplysinin-1 diminished the high adhesion capacity of the MTT cells to collagen (p < 0.001) and, furthermore, reduced the ability to form spheroids significantly. Western Blot and qRT-PCR analysis showed a downregulation of integrin β1 that might explain the lower adhesion and migration capacity after Aeroplysinin-1 treatment. Isofistularin-3 showed only a negligible influence on proliferative and pro-metastatic cell properties. These in vitro investigations show promise for the application of the sponge-derived marine drug, Aeroplysinin-1 as anti-tumorigenic and anti-metastatic agent against PPGLs for the first time.

Antifibrotic effects of D-limonene (5(1-methyl-4-[1-methylethenyl]) cyclohexane) in CCl4 induced liver toxicity in Wistar rats

This study was designed to assess the potential antifibrotic effect of D-Limonene-a component of volatile oils extracted from citrus plants. D-limonene is reported to have numerous therapeutic properties. CCl₄ -intduced model of liver fibrosis in Wistar rats is most widely used model to study chemopreventive studies. CCl₄ -intoxication significantly increased serum aminotransferases and total cholesterol these effects were prevented by cotreatment with D-Limonene. Also, CCl₄ -intoxication caused depletion of glutathione and other antioxidant enzymes while D-Limonene preserved them within normal values. Hydroxyproline and malondialdehyde content was increased markedly by CCl₄ treatment while D-Limonene prevented these alterations. Levels of TNF-α, TGF-β, and α-SMA were also assessed; CCl₄ increased the expression of α-SMA, NF-κB and other downstream inflammatory cascade while D-Limonene co-treatment inhibited them. Collectively these findings indicate that D-Limonene possesses potent antifibrotic effect which may be attributed to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Anticonvulsant activity of Citrus aurantium blossom essential oil (neroli): involvment of the GABAergic system

Citrus aurantium L. blossoms are an important medicinal plant part in Iran and some other countries. It is used in traditional medicine as an antiseizure and anticonvulsant natural agent. Early in vitro research of the anticonvulsant activity of the blossom extracts were done but there has been no investigation focused on the blossom essential oil and its anticonvulsant activity. The anticonvulsant activity of the essential oil of C. aurantium blossoms (neroli) was investigated. The anticonvulsant activity of neroli was assessed in pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced convulsion by i.v. and i.p. methods and maximal electroshock (MES) in mice, with diazepam as the standard drug. While mechanistic studies were conducted using flumazenil, a GABA A-benzodiazepine receptor complex site antagonist. Neroli produced protection against clonic by i.v adminiatration of PTZ at 20 and 40 mg/kg, compared with protection with benzodiazepine. The mean onset and percentage protection against convulsion in neroli-treated mice were reduced by flumazenil. Intraperitonaeal PTZ also decreased the latency of clonic seizure in the neroli (40 mg/kg) treated group. We also showed that neroli (20 and 40 mg/kg), exhibited inhibition of the tonic convulsion induced by MES and decreased the mortality rate. Neroli was analyzed by GC and GC-MS and twenty three constituents, representing 91.0 % of the chromatographical oil were identified. The major components of neroli were characterized as linalool (28.5%), linalyl acetate (19.6%), nerolidol (9.1%) E,E-farnesol (9.1%), α-terpineol (4.9%) and limonene (4.6%) which might be responsible for the anticonvulsant activity. The results suggest that neroli possesses biologically active constituent(s) that have anticonvulsant activity which supports the ethnomedicinal claims of the use of the plant in the management of seizure.

Effects of safranal, a constituent of saffron, and vitamin E on nerve functions and histopathology following crush injury of sciatic nerve in rats

Safranal is one of the major components of saffron and has many biological effects such as antioxidant property. The present study investigated the effects of safranal on sciatic nerve function after induction of crush injury. We also used of vitamin E as a reference potent antioxidant agent. In anesthetized rats, right sciatic nerve was crushed using a small haemostatic forceps. Functional recovery was assessed using sciatic functional index (SFI). Acetone spray and von Frey filament tests were used for neuropathic pain assay. Histopathological changes including severities of Wallerian degeneration of sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle atrophy were investigated by light microscopy. Blood levels of malodialdehyde (MDA) were also measured. The SFI values were accelerated, cold and mechanical allodynia were suppressed, the severities of Wallerian degeneration and muscular atrophy were improved, and the increased MDA level was reversed with 10 consecutive days intraperitoneal injections of 0.2 and 0.8 mg/kg of safranal and 100 mg/kg of vitamin E. It is concluded that safranal and vitamin E produced same improving effects on crushed-injured sciatic nerve functions. Inhibition of oxidative stress pathway may be involved in improving effects of safranal and vitamin E on functions and histopathology of an injured peripheral nerve.

Skin repair properties of d-Limonene and perillyl alcohol in murine models

The orange-peel derived terpene d-Limonene, probably through its metabolite, perillyl alcohol (POH), has been reported to have tissue-repair properties. Two murine models of respectively 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-Acetate (TPA)-induced dermatitis and mechanical skin lesion were used here to assess the efficacy of d-Limonene or POH applied topically. Macroscopic and microscopic evaluation of skin lesions was performed as well as that of P-selectin expression, together with measurements of serum concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the first model. Healing and angiogenesis around the scar were examined in the second model. Because differences in angiogenesis were noted, the effect of both d-Limonene and POH was further tested on an in vitro model of endothelial microtubules formation. Both d-Limonene and POH reduced the severity and extension of TPA-induced skin lesions with significantly lowered macroscopic and microscopic scores (p<0.04 in both cases). Moreover, the expression of P-selectin induced by TPA was abrogated by POH and significantly lower serum concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α were observed in d-Limonene- and POH-treated mice (p<0.04 and 0.03). In the second model, tissue regeneration was improved, especially by POH, and was clearly associated with reduced neovascularization. This surprising anti-angiogenic effect was confirmed in the matrigel model of endothelial microtubules formation. These studies show that d-Limonene and POH demonstrate significant anti-inflammatory effects in murine dermal inflammation and wound-healing. The decreased systemic cytokine production as well as a consistent inhibition of endothelial P-selectin expression and neo-vascularization induced by these terpenic compounds contribute to their healing effects on the epidermal barrier.

Effect of 2-dodecyl-6-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione, isolated from Averrhoa carambola L. (Oxalidaceae) roots, on advanced glycation end-product-mediated renal injury in type 2 diabetic KKAy mice

The roots of Averrhoa carambola L. (Oxalidaceae) have a long history of medical use in traditional Chinese medicine for treating diabetes and diabetic nephropathy. 2-Dodecyl-6-methoxycyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione (DMDD) was isolated from the tuberous roots of A. carambola L. The purpose of this study was to investigate the beneficial effect of DMDD on the advanced glycation end-product-mediated renal injury in type 2 diabetic KKAy mice with regard to prove its efficacy by local traditional practitioners in the treatment of kidney frailties in diabetics. KKAy mice were orally administrated DMDD (12.5, 25, 50mg/kg body weight/d) or aminoguanidine (200mg/kg body weight/d) for 8 weeks. Hyperglycemia, renal AGE formation, and the expression of related proteins, such as the AGE receptor, nuclear factor-κB, transforming growth factor-β1, and N(ε)-(carboxymethyl)lysine, were markedly decreased by DMDD. Diabetes-dependent alterations in proteinuria, serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, and serum urea-N and glomerular mesangial matrix expansion were attenuated after treatment with DMDD for 8 weeks. The activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, which are reduced in the kidneys of KKAy mice, were enhanced by DMDD. These findings suggest that DMDD may inhibit the progression of diabetic nephropathy and may be a therapeutic agent for regulating several pharmacological targets to treat or prevent of diabetic nephropathy.

The effect of the extract of Crocus sativus and its constituent safranal, on lung pathology and lung inflammation of ovalbumin sensitized guinea-pigs

Different pharmacological effects of Crocus sativus have been demonstrated on guinea pig tracheal chains in previous studies. In the present study, the prophylactic effect of the extract of C. sativus and its constituent, safranal on lung pathology and total and differential white blood cells (WBC) of sensitized guinea pigs was examined. Guinea pigs were sensitized with injection and inhalation of ovalbumin (OA). One group of sensitized guinea pigs were given drinking water alone (group S) and three groups were given drinking water containing three concentrations of safranal (S+SA1, S+SA2 and S+SA3 groups), three groups, drinking water containing three concentrations of extract (S+CS1, S+CS2 and S+CS3 groups) and one group drinking water containing one concentration of dexamethasone (S+D group) (n=6, for all groups). The lung pathology was evaluated in control, non treated and treated sensitized groups. Total and differential WBC counts of lung lavage were also examined. All pathological indices in group S showed significant increased compared to control group (p<0.05 for lung congestion and p<0.001 for other groups). Total WBC number (p<0.001), eosinophyl percentage (p<0.001) in lung lavage and serum histamine levels (p<0.01) were also increased in sensitized animals compared to those of controls. Treatment of S animals with dexamethasone, all concentrations of the extract and safranal significantly improved lung pathological changes, most types of WBC and serum histamine levels compared to group S (p<0.05-0.001). Treatment of S group with first concentration of safranal also decreased total WBC. Treatment with safranal was more effective in improvement of most pathological changes, total and differential WBC count as well as serum histamine level (p<0.05-0.001). These results showed a preventive effect of the extract of C. sativus and its constituent safranal on lung inflammation of sensitized guinea pigs. The results also showed that the effect of the plant is perhaps due to its constituent safranal.

Polyoxygenated cyclohexene derivatives from Monanthotaxis congoensis

A phytochemical investigation of Monanthotaxis congoensis afforded eight polyoxygenated cyclohexenes as well as the known crotepoxide. Structures were determined using NMR, MS, and optical rotation analyses. One compound displayed moderate antiproliferative activity against NCI-H460 and M14 cancer cells.

[Clinical observation of mucoregulatory agents' application after chronic rhinosinusitis surgery]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effect of mucoregulatory agents during endoscopic sinus surgery.

METHOD

Ninety-seven cases with chronic rhinosinusitis were randomly divided into three groups, with 31 cases in B group treated by ambroxol, 33 cases in C group treated by eucalyptol-limonene-pinene enteric soft capsule and 33 cases in control group (A group). The follow-up visit lasted for 6 months for three groups. Then, the therapeutic effects were evaluated and compared among these three groups.

RESULT

By the end of 6 months after treatment,the effective rate was 90.3% and 97.0% for cases in the B and C groups respectively, and only 75.8% in A group. The difference between A and C was statistically significant (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Eucalyptol-limonene-pinene enteric soft capsule,as a multicomponent mucoregulatory agent, can obviously improve the secretion of mucosa and epithelial recovery, thus accelerate healing of the disease. It can also improve the success rate of functional endoscope sinus surgery, and may play a promising role in clinical application.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): a review of conventional and alternative treatments

Gastroesophageal reflux disorder (GERD), a common disorder in the Western world, can lead to complications that include esophageal stricture and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Multiple challenges are associated with GERD treatment. First, lack of symptoms does not correlate with the absence of or the healing of esophageal lesions. Second, proton pump inhibitors, the current standard of care for GERD, are ineffective for the majority of GERD patients who have non-erosive disease. This article discusses these challenges, investigates the mechanisms of damage in GERD, and explores the existing data on unconventional forms of treatment, including melatonin, acupuncture, botanicals, and dietary interventions.

Effect of toothpaste containing d-limonene on natural extrinsic smoking stain: a 4-week clinical trial

PURPOSE

To determine whether natural smoking stain could be removed/inhibited effectively by a toothpaste containing 5% d-limonene. For comparison and contrast, the effects of d-limonene on tea stain were also assessed.

METHODS

The design was a randomized controlled double-blind trial with parallel groups. Toothpastes were: A: positive control with perlite whitening formulation; B: A+5% d-limonene; C: D + 5% d-limonene; D: negative control. The extrinsic stains were measured using Lobene Stain Index. Following baseline examination, all subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four toothpaste groups and instructed to brush with the assigned products twice daily. Subjects returned to the clinic after 4-week brushing for stain removal assessment, then all extrinsic stains, plaque and supragingival calculus were removed and use of assigned products was continued for another 4 weeks, and the stain scores were repeated for inhibition assessment.

RESULTS

A total of 408 subjects, 201 with smoking stains and 207 with tea stains, participated in the trial. 5% d-limonene combined with Perlite whitening formulation significantly reduced stain scores both for smoking stain removal and inhibition (P < 0.05). Furthermore, 5% d-limonene alone (in negative formulation) exhibited an additional advantage for smoking stain inhibition (P < 0.05), but the advantage was not found for long-standing smoking stain removal (P > 0.05). The additional advantage of 5% d-limonene was shown neither for removal nor for inhibition in the tea stain study (P > 0.05). All test products were well tolerated over the study period.

The effect of dietary supplementation with limonene or myo-inositol on the induction of neoplasia and matrix metalloproteinase and plasminogen activator activities in accessory sex organs of male Lobund-Wistar rats

Prostate cancer, the most prevalent non-cutaneous cancer in men, is associated with increased age. This suggests that dietary chemopreventive measures could be effective in delaying the onset or decreasing the severity of the disease. We utilized the Lobund-Wistar rat nitrosomethylurea induced, testosterone promoted (NMU-T) model of male sex accessory gland cancer to test the potential chemopreventive effects of myo-inositol and limonene on tumor incidence and associated protease activities. Tumors were found to arise in the seminal vesicles and dorsal and anterior prostate lobes. There were also some tumors that appeared to arise in both the seminal vesicles and anterior prostate, and in some cases the tissue of origin was not clear. The distribution of tumors as to site of origin in limonene or myo-inositol treated animals did not vary from that of the starch fed control animals, and the number of animals presenting with metastases did not vary significantly between treatment groups. There was a statistically significant delay in onset of tumors in myo-inositol, but not limonene fed rats, at 10 months post-induction of carcinogenesis; however, at 12 and 15 months this was not significant. The ventral prostate and seminal vesicles expressed pro-MMP-2 and plasminogen activator (PA) activities. Based on sensitivity to amiloride, the PA activities were predominately urokinase (uPA) in the ventral prostate and a mixture of tissue-type activator (tPA) and uPA in the seminal vesicles of non-treated rats. Sex accessory gland tumors, and metastases, expressed increased levels PA and pro- and active forms of MMP-2 and -9. The PA activities of the tumors were a mixture of uPA and tPA. There was no difference in the levels of these protease activities based on the tissue of tumor origin, nor in tumor vs metastasis. These studies indicate that MMP and PA activities play a role in sex accessory gland tumor biology and that dietary supplementation with myo-inositol can delay but not ultimately prevent the development of such tumors.

The effect of saffron, Crocus sativus stigma, extract and its constituents, safranal and crocin on sexual behaviors in normal male rats

In this study, the aphrodisiac activities of Crocus sativus stigma aqueous extract and its constituents, safranal and crocin, were evaluated in male rats. The aqueous extract (80, 160 and 320mg/kg body wt.), crocin (100, 200 and 400mg/kg body wt.), safranal (0.1, 0.2 and 0.4ml/kg), sildenafil (60mg/kg body wt., as a positive control) and saline were administered intraperitoneally to male rats. Mounting frequency (MF), intromission frequency (IF), erection frequency (EF), mount latency (ML), intromission latency (IL) and ejaculation latency (EL) were the factors evaluated during the sexual behavior study. Crocin, at all doses, and the extract, especially at doses 160 and 320mg/kg body wt., increased MF, IF and EF behaviors and reduced EL, IL and ML parameters. Safranal did not show aphrodisiac effects. The present study reveals an aphrodisiac activity of saffron aqueous extract and its constituent crocin.

D-Limonene: safety and clinical applications

D-limonene is one of the most common terpenes in nature. It is a major constituent in several citrus oils (orange, lemon, mandarin, lime, and grapefruit). D-limonene is listed in the Code of Federal Regulations as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for a flavoring agent and can be found in common food items such as fruit juices, soft drinks, baked goods, ice cream, and pudding. D-limonene is considered to have fairly low toxicity. It has been tested for carcinogenicity in mice and rats. Although initial results showed d-limonene increased the incidence of renal tubular tumors in male rats, female rats and mice in both genders showed no evidence of any tumor. Subsequent studies have determined how these tumors occur and established that d-limonene does not pose a mutagenic, carcinogenic, or nephrotoxic risk to humans. In humans, d-limonene has demonstrated low toxicity after single and repeated dosing for up to one year. Being a solvent of cholesterol, d-limonene has been used clinically to dissolve cholesterol-containing gallstones. Because of its gastric acid neutralizing effect and its support of normal peristalsis, it has also been used for relief of heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux (GERD). D-limonene has well-established chemopreventive activity against many types of cancer. Evidence from a phase I clinical trial demonstrated a partial response in a patient with breast cancer and stable disease for more than six months in three patients with colorectal cancer.

Development and medical application of unsaturated carbaglycosylamine glycosidase inhibitors

This article reviews synthesis and structures of carbaglycosylamines, a group of carbocyclic sugar analogues. Some unsaturated derivatives are known to be potent glycosidase inhibitors. Among them, N-octyl-4-epi-beta-valienamine as a lysosomal beta-galactosidase inhibitor is currently undergoing a new molecular therapeutic trial (chemical chaperone therapy) for control of the human beta-galactosidase deficiency disorder, G(M1)-gangliosidosis.

Protective effect of safranal on pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in the rat: involvement of GABAergic and opioids systems

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of safranal, an active constituent of Crocus sativus L. stigmas, on seizures induced by pentylenetetrazol. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) microinjection of safranal (4.84, 9.68 and 24.2 micromol) had no effects on tonic and clonic phases as well as mortality upon seizures induced by PTZ (90mg/kg body wt., i.p.). Peripheral administration of safranal (72.75, 145.5 and 291 mg/kg body wt., i.p.), however, induced a dose-dependent decrease in the incidence of both minimal clonic seizures (MCS) (145.5 mg/kg body wt., p<0.01) and generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) (145.5 mg/kg body wt., p<0.001) following PTZ administration. Safranal also increased MCS and GTCS latency, significantly. Percent of protection against GTCS was 30%, 100% and 100% and mortality protection percent was 40%, 100% and 100% for the mentioned doses, respectively. Pretreatment with flumazenil (5 nmol, i.c.v.) and naloxone (5.5 nmol, i.c.v. and 2 mg/kg body wt., i.p.), 15 min prior to safranal administration (145.5 mg/kg body wt., i.p.), abolished the protective effect of safranal on MCS. Flumazenil also decreased the effect of safranal on incidence as well as latency of GTCS, significantly. These effects were not, however, significant for naloxone (5.5 nmol, i.c.v. and 2mg/kg body wt., i.p.). Results of this study demonstrated that safranal could exert anticonvulsant activity in the PTZ model and this effect may be mediated, at least partly, through GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor complex.