The Nuances of Hand Transplantation After Sepsis

Vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) of the upper extremity is an established restorative procedure for selected patients with acquired upper limb loss. The majority of upper limb VCAs performed worldwide have been for victims of various forms of trauma. However, in the developed world, amputation following severe sepsis seems to be an increasingly common indication for referral to hand transplant programs. Unlike trauma patients with isolated limb injuries, patients with amputations as a complication of sepsis have survived through a state of global tissue hypoperfusion and multisystem organ failure with severe, enduring effects on the entire body's physiology. This article reviews the unique considerations for VCA candidacy in postsepsis patients with upper limb amputation. These insights may also be relevant to postsepsis patients undergoing other forms of transplantation or to VCA patients requiring additional future solid organ transplants.

Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation of the Hand: A Systematic Review of Eligibility Criteria

BACKGROUND

Hand transplantation (HT) has emerged as an intervention of last resort for those who endured amputation or irreparable loss of upper extremity function. However, because of the considerable effort required for allograft management and the risks of lifelong immunosuppression, patient eligibility is critical to treatment success. Thus, the objective of this article is to investigate the reported eligibility criteria of HT centers globally.

METHODS

A systematic review of the HT literature was conducted according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses guidelines, using PubMed, Cochrane, Ovid/Medline, and Scopus. Program Web sites and clinicaltrials.gov entries were included where available.

RESULTS

A total of 354 articles were reviewed, 101 of which met inclusion criteria. Furthermore, 10 patient-facing Web sites and 11 clinical trials were included. The most reported criteria related to the capacity to manage the allograft posttransplantation, including access to follow-up, insurance coverage, psychological stability, and history of medical compliance. Other factors related to the impact of immunosuppression, such as active pregnancy and patient immune status, were less emphasized.

CONCLUSIONS

Because of the novelty of the field, eligibility criteria continue to evolve. While there is consensus on certain eligibility factors, other criteria diverge between programs, and very few factors were considered absolute contraindications. As the popularity of the field continues to grow, we encourage the development of consensus evidence-based eligibility criteria.

A Single-Center Retrospective Evaluation of Decision-Making and Factors Motivating Hand Transplant Candidates

INTRODUCTION

Advancements in vascularized composite allotransplantation have made hand transplants possible for persons living with upper limb loss. Hand transplantation is not a life-saving procedure, but rather a quality-of-life enhancing procedure; hence the risk of morbidity and mortality must be weighed against improvements in function and appearance. This study explored the decision-making process of patients evaluated for hand transplantation.

METHODS/APPROACH

A qualitative case series study using retrospective chart data of evaluations was conducted between January 1, 2011 and February 28, 2020. Notes were extracted and read by three reviewers. Each case was summarized noting similarities and differences.

FINDINGS

Nine patients underwent evaluation. Eight were no longer under evaluation and did not receive transplant; one was still undergoing evaluation. Patient motivations for evaluation were dissatisfaction with prostheses or self-image, chronic pain, performing activities of daily living, occupation, burden placed on caregivers, and concerns about overuse of non-affected limbs. Patients chose not to pursue transplantation due to rehabilitation time, immunosuppression, alternative treatments, and social and financial challenges. The clinical team discontinued evaluations due to unmet evaluation requirements, medical contraindications, or treatment alternatives. Different modes of shared decision-making were present depending on the party most heavily featured in the charts as driving decisions.

DISCUSSION

This was an examination of shared decision-making with hand transplant candidates who did not proceed to transplant. Reasons for choosing alternative strategies for management were multifactorial. Lessons learned regarding patient motivations and shared decision-making can inform future interventions to better support patients.

Hand Therapy Regimen for Functional Recovery Following Combined Face and Bilateral Hand Transplantation

Intensive postoperative rehabilitation therapy is associated with positive functional recovery in hand transplants (HTs). Our goal is to share the hand therapy protocol developed for our patient who underwent a combined face and bilateral HT. The patient is a 23-year-old right-hand-dominant male with a history of third-degree burns to 80% of his body following a motor vehicle accident. A multidisciplinary evaluation established his candidacy for a combined face and bilateral HT, and surgery took place in August 2020. Our individualized hand therapy protocol consisted of 4 phases. The pre-surgery phase focused on planning the orthotics and patient/caregivers' education on the rehabilitation process. The intensive care unit (ICU)/acute care phase involved hand allograft protection and positioning via orthotic fabrication, safe limb handling, and edema/wound management. The inpatient rehabilitation phase aimed to prepare the patient for independent living via neuromuscular and sensory re-education, improvement of upper extremities strength/flexibility, training basic activities of daily living, and providing a home exercise program (HEP). Finally, the outpatient phase aimed to maximize our patient's range of motion and independency in performing his routine activities and HEP. The patient's post-transplant functional outcomes showed a significant improvement compared to the pre-operative baseline. We hope this report sheds light on a comprehensive hand therapy program in HT.

Two Decades of Hand Transplantation: A Systematic Review of Outcomes

ABSTRACT

Hand transplantation for upper extremity amputation provides a unique treatment that restores form and function, which may not be achieved by traditional reconstruction and prosthetics. However, despite enhancing quality of life, hand transplantation remains controversial, because of immunological complications, transplant rejection, and medication effects. This systematic literature review sought to collect information on current experiences and outcomes of hand transplants to determine the efficacy and utility of hand transplants. The databases PubMed, Scopus, and Embase were analyzed with combinations of "hand" or "upper extremity" or "arm" and "transplant" or "allograft," with information collected on recipient characteristics, details of transplant, immunological outcomes, functional outcomes, and complications. Functional outcomes, as measured by Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand score, were compared between patient groups using Wilcoxon signed-rank test or 1-way analysis of variance test and post hoc Tukey test. Within the 108 articles that fulfilled inclusion and exclusion criteria, there were 96 patients with 148 hand transplants. There were 57 patients who experienced acute rejection and 5 patients with chronic rejection. Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand scores significantly decreased after hand transplantation and were significantly lower for distal transplants compared with proximal transplants. There were 3 patients with concurrent face transplantation and 2 patients with simultaneous leg transplants. Sixteen patients experienced amputation of the hand transplant, and there were 5 deaths. This study found that hand transplantation provides significant restoration of function and form, especially for proximal transplants. Reduction in complications, such as rejection and amputation, can be achieved by decreasing medication cost and patient education.

Evaluating Treatment Preferences and Perceptions of a Prosthetic Versus a Transplanted Hand: A Conjoint Analysis-Based Study

INTRODUCTION

This study used a conjoint analysis-based survey to assess which factors are most influential when considering treatment with a prosthesis or transplant after a unilateral hand amputation.

METHODS

Overall, 469 respondents were recruited using Amazon Mechanical Turk and asked to assume that they experienced a hand amputation. To determine preferences for a prosthetic, respondents chose among 11 pairs of alternatives with variations in the following attributes: appearance, function, maintenance, and learning time. Respondents were then presented with descriptions of the risks and outcomes of hand transplantation. The most compelling reasons for and against a transplant were determined and characteristics predictive of support for a transplant were identified.

RESULTS

The most important attributes for a prosthesis were "lifelike appearance" and "myolectric function." For hand transplantation, respondents were most concerned about immunosuppression side effects (n = 323, 69%) and the intense nature of surgery (n = 275, 59%), whereas the most positive benefit was the concept of the transplant being "natural" (n = 339, 72%). When faced with the choice of a hand transplant or a prosthetic, approximately 50% of respondents chose a transplantation. Younger age, previous medical experiences, a perceived "familiarity with medical issues," and the regular attendance of religious services were associated with strong support for a hand transplantation (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

When considering a hand prosthesis, respondents are motivated most by appearance and function. Meanwhile, with hand transplantation, the risks of immunosuppression and the intense nature of surgery and recovery are predominant concerns. These findings may help inform patient-physician discussions when considering treatment after unilateral hand amputation.

[The first bilateral hand transplantation in the Netherlands: results after 1 year]

BACKGROUND

Although more than 130 hand-arm transplantations have been performed worldwide, the first Dutch hand transplantation has been performed only recently. This bilateral hand-arm transplantation was performed in June 2019 in the Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen. This report describes the preparation, procedure and 1-year follow-up results.

CASE DESCRIPTION

This 44 years-old female patient had an amputation of both lower legs and hands in 2014, following a severe sepsis with peripheral tissue necrosis. The patient was mobile with her leg prostheses at the time of presentation. The loss of hand function, however, formed a continuous invalidation and could not be improved adequately with prosthesis due to the distal amputation level of her hands.

CONCLUSION

The total procedure took 24 hours and was successful. Both the aesthetical and functional results were good and are still improving. The patient considered the transplanted hands immediately as her own.

Estimation of Health Utility and Quality Adjusted Life Years in Bilateral Hand Transplantation: A Time Trade-off Study

BACKGROUND

Hand transplantation and advances in the field of prostheses have opened new frontiers in the restoration of hand function among bilateral hand amputees (BHA). There is only scarce literature evaluating the health utility (HU) and quality adjusted life years (QALY) gained by bilateral hand composite tissue allotransplantation (CTA) or prosthesis over amputation. The study was focused on BHA restored with prosthesis or CTA.

METHODS

The HU of three different health states (HS) namely, BHA, using prosthesis or with CTA and net QALYs gained by hand transplantation or prosthesis over amputation were computed by time trade-off (TTO) method among 236 study participants.

RESULTS

Among 236 study participants, medical professional (120), general public (89), BHA (23), and bilateral hand transplant recipients (4) were included. The mean HU by TTO method among the study participants (n = 232) as BHA, using prosthesis or CTA was 0.34 (±0.24), 0.50 (±0.26) and 0.69 (±0.26) respectively. Bilateral hand CTA imparted an expected gain of 12.57 (±11.43) mean QALYs over amputation among the study participants. The subgroup analysis displayed higher mean HU in hand CTA recipient HS along with maximum QALY gained by CTA over amputation.

CONCLUSIONS

Bilateral hand CTA HS stands above the other 2 HSs, namely BHA and prosthesis, in terms of the health utility. As demonstrated by QALY gain of 12.57, participants' valuation of health utility is notably higher for CTA with acceptance of lifelong immunosuppressant rather than for a state of uncompromised physical health with a bilateral hand amputation.

Intergender Hand Transplant: A Sex Congruent Hand Transformation

ABSTRACT

Hand and upper-extremity transplantation restore severely damaged limbs that cannot be repaired with conventional surgical techniques. Over the past 20 years, more than 200 vascularized composite allotransplantations have been performed worldwide, among them 7 were cases of sex unmatched hand transplants. The long term effects of recipient sex hormones and nerve regeneration on the sexually dimorphic physical features of donor upper extremity have not been described previously. We report a case of sex congruent transformation of hand morphology in an intergender hand transplant.

An Individualized Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Program for Bilateral Hand Transplantations

METHODS

This article describes a rehabilitation program and the long-term results after its application in 2 double-hand transplantation patients after 9- and 4-year follow-up periods. A personal rehabilitation program was planned to commence as early as possible after postoperative patient stabilization. Splinting, edema, positioning, passive and active joint movements, daily life activity modification and education, and occupational therapy were also emphasized.

RESULTS

Positioning, edema, and passive joint movements were started in the acute phase. Strengthening and exercises were continued for 8 weeks and later for functional gains and adaptation to daily living activities. Subjective and overall results were quite satisfactory. The Hand Transplantation Score System, Disabilities of the Arm Shoulder and Hand, Semmes Weinstein Monofilaments, sensory tests, and modified Kapandji index improvements were all within good acceptable ranges. Although rapid recovery and functional development were observed in the first 4 years, these are still continuing at the time of writing.

DISCUSSION

The most important determining factors in the success of rehabilitation are to return to daily life and the ability to acquire functional skills. Long-term follow-up of the patients in this study showed that they were able to return to their independent daily lives and that external assistance decreased to a minimum.

Long-term outcome after hand and forearm transplantation - a retrospective study

Between 2000 and 2014, five patients received bilateral hand (n = 3), bilateral forearm (n = 1), and unilateral hand (n = 1) transplants at the Innsbruck Medical University Hospital. We provide a comprehensive report of the long-term results at 20 years. During the 6-20 years follow-up, 43 rejection episodes were recorded in total. Of these, 27.9% were antibody-related with serum donor-specific alloantibodies (DSA) and skin-infiltrating B-cells. The cell phenotype in rejecting skin biopsies changed and C4d-staining increased with time post-transplantation. In the long-term, a change in hand appearance was observed. The functional outcome was highly depending on the level of amputation. The number and severity of rejections did not correlate with hand function, but negatively impacted on the patients´ well-being and quality of life. Patient satisfaction significantly correlated with upper limb function. One hand allograft eventually developed severe allograft vasculopathy and was amputated at 7 years. The patient later died due to progressive gastric cancer. The other four patients are currently rejection-free with moderate levels of immunosuppression. Hand transplantation remains a therapeutic option for carefully selected patients. A stable immunologic situation with optimized and individually adopted immunosuppression favors good compliance and patient satisfaction and may prevent development of DSA.

Grasping with a new hand: Improved performance and normalized grasp-selective brain responses despite persistent functional changes in primary motor cortex and low-level sensory and motor impairments

Hand loss can now be reversed through surgical transplantation years or decades after amputation. Remarkably, these patients come to use their new hand to skilfully grasp and manipulate objects. The brain mechanisms that make this possible are unknown. Here we test the hypothesis that the anterior intraparietal cortex (aIPC) - a multimodal region implicated in hand preshaping and error correction during grasping - plays a key role in this compensatory grasp control. Motion capture and fMRI are used to characterize hand kinematics and brain responses during visually guided grasping with a transplanted hand at 26 and 41 months post-transplant in patient DR, a former hand amputee of 13 years. Compared with matched controls, DR shows increasingly normal grasp kinematics paralleled by increasingly robust grasp-selective fMRI responses within the very same brain areas that show grasp-selectivity in controls, including the aIPC, premotor and cerebellar cortices. Paradoxically, over this same time DR exhibits significant limitations in basic sensory and motor functions, and persistent amputation-related functional reorganization of primary motor cortex. Movements of the non-transplanted hand positively activate the ipsilateral primary motor hand area - a functional marker of persistent interhemispheric amputation-related reorganization. Our data demonstrate for the first time that even after more than a decade of living as an amputee the normative functional brain organization governing the control of grasping can be restored. We propose that the aIPC and interconnected premotor and cerebellar cortices enable grasp normalization by compensating for the functional impact of reorganizational changes in primary sensorimotor cortex and targeting errors in regenerating peripheral nerves.

Concerns on Clinical Application of Composite Tissue Allotransplantation

Composite tissue allograft has become a clinical reality: hands, vascularized femoral diaphyses, abdominal walls, a larynx have all been transplanted throughout the world. Conventional immunosuppressive protocol has shown to be sufficient and effective. Rejection has been prevented in most cases and when it did occur it was successfully reversed. Skin has been confirmed as the principal target of acute and chronic rejection. There has been no mortality or early graft losses and, particularly in hand transplantation, the survival graft rate is 91% with a follow-up period ranging from 6 months to 61 months. The side effects of immunosuppression are limited and include primarily transient hyperglycemia, an increase in creatinine values and some opportunistic infections (i.e. cytomegalovirus infection). Nerve regeneration and cortical reorganization have been demonstrated in hand transplantation. Functional results have been encouraging particularly for hand and larynx transplantation. Appropriate indications and patient selection, based particularly on patient motivation and compliance, are essential requirements for composite tissue allograft success.

Retrospective study regarding objectives and results of upper limb transplant

INTRODUCTION

Upper limb amputation causes a severe permanent disability. Upper limb transplantation is subject to treatment to prevent rejection and influenced by organizational, socioeconomic, psychological, ethical factors. Analysis of the results creates the potential for continuing this work in specific conditions in our country.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed data from the literature. Upon completion of documentation (May 2011) there were 74 transplants in 53 patients worldwide. We have studied the available information on the surgical interventions and their results.

RESULTS

Upper limb allograft has a complex structure comprising tissue with variable antigenicity. Surgery is performed by a large multidisciplinary team, whose increased experience leads to a shorter length of the operation. The postoperative follow-up and rehabilitation program are standardized, and patients' compliance is essential. The greatest advances have occurred in immunosuppression protocols.

CONCLUSION

The upper limb transplantation was performed in 20 centers of 12 countries so far. The specification of the indications and contraindications, the proper selection of patients, the increasing experience and new immunosuppression protocols provide a higher success rate and quality of functional outcome. By applying these conceptual acquisitions we will be able to create conditions for the integration of our country in this globally convergent scientific effort.

Free tissue transfer in hand surgery--essential step in hand transplantation

INTRODUCTION

The development of microsurgery allowed huge advancements in the reconstructive surgery of the upper limb. The use of free digital transfer started a true revolution for the reconstruction of the mutilated, functionally compromised hand, with multiple amputations. Slowly, surgeons started using free tissue transfers in other reconstructive procedures of the hand, forearm and arm. This way they avoided amputating a limb and they realized quality reconstructions in a single surgical step in cases in which classical methods did not apply. We shouldn't neglect to mention that free tissue transfers, along with hand replantation, represent an important step for microsurgery centers in preparing the hand transplant.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

There have been 48 cases of free tissue transfers of the upper limb in the Plastic Surgery Department of the "Bagdasar-Arseni" Emergency Hospital between 2000 and 2010, of which 18 free digital transfers, 11 free tissue transfers of the hand, 15 transfers of the forearm and 4 of the arm.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Of the total 48 cases we studied, 4 have been total failures and 6 cases presented partial necrosis of the transferred tissue, all of which have been managed with ulterior corrective procedures. We used free tissue transfer in cases where there was no other surgical option and also in cases where other methods applied, but free tissue transfer provided a superior quality solution.

Notable features in composite tissue allografts: value of high-resolution ultrasonography as a first-line imaging modality

PURPOSE

Hand transplantation is challenging, especially with respect to postoperative care. Serious complications including rejection of the transplant are possible. To date, imaging has relied mainly on plain radiography, CT and MRI. High-resolution ultrasound (HRUS) has the potential to be a quick, cost-effective and dynamic alternative at least for the initial assessment of most of these complications. We report on our experience with HRUS in three patients after bilateral hand/forearm transplantation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three male patients with bilateral hand/forearm transplantation after traumatic amputation underwent periodic HRUS and color Doppler assessment. These exams focused especially on the detection of changes at the coaptation sites (nerve/muscle/tendon coaptation) and expected changes in vessels and healing bones in the compound allograft. The HRUS data were compared to available data of other radiological imaging modalities.

RESULTS

Relevant post-transplant changes such as neuromas, arteriovenous fistulas, heterotopic ossifications and scars were specified by HRUS. In addition information on muscle and tendon function was gained by dynamic ultrasound. In most cases no relevant information gain by other modalities was stated.

CONCLUSION

Based on our experience, we recommend sonography as a first-line modality for the follow-up of patients who underwent composite tissue allografting. HRUS allows the reliable and timely diagnosis of relevant complications and the monitoring of postoperative changes and sets the course for therapy or further more invasive imaging.

Immunosuppressive protocols and immunological challenges related to hand transplantation

There are many immunological challenges related to hand transplantation. Curbing the immune system's ability to effectively mount an immune response against the graft is the goal. As the various components of the immune response are defined and their mechanisms of action delineated, more specific immunosuppressive agents and protocols have been developed. Complications related to immunosuppression in hand transplant recipients are similar to incidences among solid organ recipients. With longer follow-up, the increased cardiovascular risk factors or the development of a neoplasm will likely cause mortality. Standardizing immunosuppression in hand transplantation with the long-term goal of minimization is critically needed.

Surgical and technical aspects of hand transplantation: is it just another replant?

The ultimate goal of hand allotransplantation is to achieve graft survival and useful long-term function. To achieve these goals, selection of the appropriate patient, detailed preoperative planning, and precise surgical technique are of paramount importance. Transplantation should be reserved for motivated consenting adults in good general heath, who are psychologically stable and have failed a trial of prosthetic use. While the key surgical steps of transplantation are similar to those of replantation, there are major differences. This article describes the steps in hand allotransplantation, and the importance of patient selection as well as preoperative and postoperative care.

World experience after more than a decade of clinical hand transplantation: update on the French program

The first hand transplantation was realized in Lyon and the results achieved in this case showed the feasibility of the surgical technique, the efficacy of the immunosuppressive protocol, the limited adverse effects and the importance of a patient's compliance and rehabilitation to ensure graft viability and functional recovery. Based on these findings and the positive results achieved in other single hand transplants realized around the world the authors performed also the first double hand transplantation, then followed by other four cases. The recipients received the same immunosuppressive treatment including tacrolimus, prednisone, mycophenolate mofetil and antithymocyte globulins for induction, nevertheless they showed some episodes of acute rejection episodes which reversed after a prompt treatment. All the bilateral hand grafted patients showed a relevant sensorimotor recovery particularly of sensibility and activity of intrinsic muscles. They were able to perform the majority of daily activities and to lead a normal social life. On the basis of the authors' experience the results achieved in hand allotransplantation are very encouraging as major adverse effects due to surgery and immunosuppressive regimen did not occur and patients' quality of life improved considerably.

Recipient screening and selection: who is the right candidate for hand transplantation

Hand transplantation is an elective non-life saving but quality of life-giving surgery for good candidates that is not without risk. Patient screening and selection is the most critical element to successful transplantation outcomes and cannot be overemphasized in terms of importance in the overall scheme of an active composite tissue allotransplantation (CTA) program. This article discusses the various criteria that are important in the selection of patients for CTA.

Hand transplant--a challenge in immunological management of patients

The concept of composite tissue allotransplantation (CTA) for restoration of congenital or acquired deformities is not new and the recent success of clinical composite tissue allotransplantation (CTA) attests to the fact that composite tissue allografts have tremendous potential in these life-enhancing reconstructions. A hand transplant, unlike a solid organ transplant, involves multiple tissues (skin, muscle, tendon, bone, cartilage, fat, nerves and blood vessels) and can be considered the 'gold standard' in CTA. In this regard, no other organ or tissue transplant matches the hand transplant in its immunogenicity as well as complexity. Development of assays that allow us to monitor the current state of an immune response (rejection/tolerance) is of great interest and requires an in-depth understanding of the complex and rare phenomenon of tolerance.

Hand transplantation

The first successful hand transplant was performed in 1998, opening up a new possibility for patients who have suffered mutilating hand injuries. Since then, more than 60 such procedures have been performed throughout the world. This article describes the evolution of hand transplantation, outcomes of patients listed in the International Registry of Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation, and ethical issues involved in hand transplantation. It also describes the hand transplantation program at Mayo Clinic, which was established in 2010.

[The first Belgian hand transplantation case. Nine years follow-up]

The authors report the clinical result at 9 years followup of a unilateral hand transplantation performed on the dominant side after traumatic forearm amputation. The patient is back to work and sporting activities. The allograft has been fully incorporated into his self-image. The satisfaction index is 10/10, the DASH 5/100, and the 400-points score 68.1 %. The Lanzetta HTSS score is 91 (excellent). Good function of extrinsic and intrinsic muscles is observed. The grasping strength is markedly decreased (7.4 % as compared to the normal non-dominant side). The patient has experienced several rejection episodes, controlled by the immunosuppressant drugs.

Chimerism in hand transplantation

Hand transplantation (HTx), a non-life saving reconstructive procedure, significantly improves the quality of life of upper limb amputees. However, HTx recipients need to take immunosuppressive drugs for the remainder of their lives and, despite dramatic improvements in the safety of modern immunosuppressive protocols, these patients continue to suffer from adverse effects, a fact which raises ethical doubts regarding the legitimacy of HTx given its non-life saving nature. Furthermore, the effectiveness of immunosuppressive treatment in preventing chronic rejection remains unclear. In order to circumvent these important impediments, the ultimate goal of composite tissue allografting (CTA) needs to be the induction of donor-specific tolerance. A possible way of attaining this objective may be chimerism, the coexistence in the host organism of 2 populations of cells of both donor and recipient origin. Clinical experiments of solid-organ transplant recipients and CTA research in animal models provide promising perspectives for establishing chimerism with the use of the facilitating cells and regulatory T-cells. This article reviews the available data on achieved chimerism in HTx and the relevant literature.

The International Registry on Hand and Composite Tissue allotransplantation

The International Registry on Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation includes hand and face allotransplantations: 39 patients who received 57 upper extremity transplantations (18 bilateral and 21 single transplantations--17 right and 4 left allografted hands); and 15 cases of partial or total face allotransplantation. The recipients of upper extremity allotransplantations are: 32 males and 7 females, median age 32 years. In 57.9% of cases, the level of amputation was at the wrist. The followup periods range from 6 months to 13 years. The recipients of face allotransplantations are: 12 males and 3 females, median age 34 years. In the majority of cases, the deficit included cheek, nose, chin, lips, and perioral area. The patients presented impairment of swallowing, eating, and speaking. The follow-up periods range from 8 months to 6 years. In hand and face transplantation, the imunosuppressive therapy included: tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, and steroids. Polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies were used for induction. Within the first post-transplant year, eighty-five percent of hand and face recipients experienced at least one episode of acute rejection, which was reversible when promptly treated. Side-effects included: opportunistic infections, metabolic complications, and malignancies. Hand-grafted patients developed protective sensibility: 90% of them tactile sensibility and 82.3% also a discriminative sensibility. Motor recovery enabled patients to perform most daily activities. Face-grafted patients improved their aesthetic aspects and enhanced some activities such as eating, drinking, and speaking, living a normal social life. Five upper allotransplantation losses occurred. One of these patients who underwent simultaneous face and bilateral hand transplantation died on day 65. Hand and face transplantations are successful procedures, however, careful evaluation of patients before and after transplantation, and their compliance are indispensable.

[Bone quality evaluation in allograft hand transplant]

Five bilateral forearms allograft have been performed between January 2000 and July 2009 in Lyon (France). The first four patients (three males, one female) have been the subject of an assessment of the bone quality of those allografts. The techniques selected for this study were: radioclinical analysis, bone scintigraphy, MRI, bone densitometry and High Resolution peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography (HR-PQCT). Histology has been performed only on the first patient unilaterally grafted in 1998 who did not take part in this clinical research protocol, after amputation of his rejected graft. On the clinical, radiological and scintigraphical aspects, donor bone integration in hands allograft are good on a macroscopic point of view considering the healing and the general reaction of the bone in situation of fractures, infection and growth. The scintigraphy does not show important variations compared to the ones we can observe on contact with osteosynthesis material or during bone autografts. MRI found neither focal nor periosteal anomaly on grafted bone. The bone densitometry did not show significant difference with secondary osteoporosis one can observe in other grafted patients under immunosuppressive treatment. The HR-PQCT showed for the three males patients, a higher loss in volumetric density, for grafted bone than in the recipient patient control skeleton. Due to the few patients of this series, and the discrepancies in follow-up duration, the presented data have to be confirmed with further studies.

Patient rehabilitation following hand transplantation at forearm distal third level

The results of hand transplantations in terms of both graft survival (49/52, i.e. 94.3%) and hand function recovery are very inspiring. The degree of functional recovery is similar to that achieved after hand replantation at the same level. With regard to function recovery, the most favorable level of replantation seems to be the distal third of the forearm, with 75% of hand transplantations performed at this level. The aim of this paper was to present the process of limb rehabilitation following a hand transplantation at the level of the forearm's distal third. The recipient, a 29-year-old male, lost his right dominant hand 6 years before the operation in a drum flaker accident. The donor was a 52-year-old female. The limb was transplanted in a standard manner, with an uneventful postoperative period. The multidirectional rehabilitation focused on motor and sensory function as well as the recipient's psychological status. First passive finger movements were introduced on postoperative day 2, followed by assisted active movements from day 21 post-transplant onwards, and from day 28 we implemented exercises with an outrigger extension splint. Favorable hand position positioning was ensured by changing ortheses frequently. Motor rehabilitation relied on Perfetti's visual-motor training (from d 28 p-op.) together with continuous passive motion (Artromot F device). We also used electrical stimulation of the nerve trunks and intrinsic muscles of the hand as well as discrimination exercises of tactile sensation. The rehabilitation process was very similar to the one we use in patients after limb replantation. We assessed the motor and sensory functions of the grafted limb as very good despite diminished muscle strength, which does not affect the general functional result. The recipient adapted perfectly to living with a transplanted limb. The outcomes achieved by the hand transplant recipient confirm the need of early and multidirectional rehabilitation.

Composite tissue allotransplantation in Europe. Logistics and infrastructure of a centre

BACKGROUND

Composite Tissue Allotransplantation (CTA) is a new medical field of growing importance. This paper focuses on the infrastructure and organisation of European CTA centres and discusses the differences between national health systems.

MATERIAL/METHODS

Eight European centres (Valencia, Innsbruck, Munich, Lyon, Amiens, Creteil, Wroclaw, Monza) were sent with a specially-designed, standardized, 20-item questionnaire.

RESULTS

Five of the eight centres returned our questionnaire: Munich, Innsbruck, Lyon, Amiens, Wroclaw. Since 1998, CTA has been performed at these centres. In both French centres and the Polish centre public funding is available in addition to the coverage provided by health insurers. In Munich the costs for a double upper-arm transplantation were Euro 150,000 with an additional Euro 50,000-70,000 per year. In Lyon the costs for a singular hand transplantation were Euro 70,000 per year and in Wroclaw (Poland) the costs for a hand or upper arm transplantation were Euro 20,000-30,000. As many as 17 different medical professions are involved in the CTA at the different centres.

CONCLUSIONS

CTA is an innovative promising therapeutic tool that is based on the experiences of solid organ transplantation and profound microsurgical skills. Due to the complexity of the infrastructure, sourcing and the organisation CTA can only be successfully performed at specialized centres. A European network with an international European waiting list and a central coordination for CTA should be established. In order to advance CTA as an important tool in reconstructive surgery we must turn our attention to how the costs will be met, the legal environment for procurement of adequate donors and open ethical questions.

An economic analysis of hand transplantation in the United States

BACKGROUND

Hand transplantation has received international attention in recent years; however, the economic impact of this innovative treatment is uncertain. The aim of this study was to assess the utility and estimate the costs of hand transplantation and the use of hand prostheses for forearm amputations.

METHODS

One hundred medical students completed a time trade-off survey to assess the utilities of single and double hand transplantation and the use of hand prostheses. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were calculated for each outcome to create decision trees. Cost data for medical care were estimated based on Medicare fee schedules using the Current Procedural Terminology code for forearm replantation. The cost of immunosuppressive therapy was estimated based on the wholesale price of drugs. The incremental cost-utility ratio was calculated from the differences in costs and utilities between transplantation and prosthesis. Sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of the results.

RESULTS

For unilateral hand amputation, prosthetic use was favored over hand transplantation (30.00 QALYs versus 28.81 QALYs; p = 0.03). Double hand transplantation was favored over the use of prostheses (26.73 QALYs versus 25.20 QALYs; p = 0.01). The incremental cost-utility ratio of double transplantation when compared with prostheses was $381,961/QALY, exceeding the traditionally accepted cost-effectiveness threshold of $50,000/QALY.

CONCLUSIONS

Prosthetic adaption is the dominant strategy for unilateral hand amputation. For bilateral hand amputation, double hand transplantation exceeds the societally acceptable threshold for general adoption. Improvements in immunosuppressive strategies may change the incremental cost-utility ratio for hand transplantation.

Unsuccessful attempt of forearm transplantation--case report

BACKGROUND

The technique of hand transplantation is similar to that of hand replantation. Although the rate of failure of hand replantation tantamount to 15% on average, depending mostly on mechanism of amputation, until now no data have been published concerning the failure of attempts of hand transplantation.

CASE REPORT

A 42-year-old male is presented who was the recipient of a hand transplant. The patient had an amputation of his left, dominant forearm (result of a circular-saw accident) 8 years prior to the transplantation. He was generally healthy, very dedicated to the operation. The limb was obtained in another hospital from a 49-year-old woman, victim of an accident and multi visceral donor.The donor was matched for blood group (0 positive), bone size, texture, with the recipient. There was 4 HLA antigen mismatch; the lymphocytotoxic cross-match was negative. The operation was performed in a sequence as follows: bones--muscles--nerves--veins--arteries--skin. The induction IT consisted of Simulect, Prograff, Cell-Cept, and steroids; the pharmacotherapy was standard as for a forearm replantation. The cold ischemia time was 9 hours. Soon after the transplantation the disturbances of blood circulation in the transplanted forearm were to be seen. High doses of macromolecular heparin were applied resulting in temporary improvement. During following hours despite various precautions the symptoms of ischemia of the hand up to 1/3 distal part of the forearm dramatically increased. The revision (performed 12 hrs after completing the transplantation) proved a massive thrombosis of hand arteries, and a large clot of the radial artery in locus of it's cannulation for invasive blood pressure measurement. The limb had to be re-amputated. As it came clear the arterial catheter was removed 6 hours prior to procurement.

CONCLUSIONS

The hand transplant are not free from non-immunological typical vascular complications. The arterial catheters should not be applied in limbs destined for procurement.

Hand transplant - outcome after 6 months, preliminary report

BACKGROUND

Hand transplant still remains a partly experimental procedure because of the small number of patients and short follow-up (not longer than 10 years). Most hand transplantations have been performed at the distal forearm level.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The transplant recipient was a 29-year-old man who had lost his dominant right hand 3 years before in a milling machine accident; the donor was a 52-year-old woman. The procurement and transport of the limb were performed according to standard procedures. Preparation of the donor limb and the patient's stump was performed simultaneously by two surgical teams. Anastomoses were done in the following order : bones-tendons-nerves-veins-artery. The radial artery and 3 large veins were anastomosed. The operative wound was closed without a skin graft. Ischemia time was 9 hours. Pharmacological treatment was similar to that usually administered to replantation patients; immunotherapy consisted of Simulect, Prograf, Cell-Cept, and steroids. Physiotherapy was started on the second postoperative day; it consisted of early protective active motion (EPM), continuous passive motion (CPM), splinting, and sensory stimulation. The function of internal organs was monitored; the early outcome was evaluated at 6 months after the transplantation.

RESULTS

The function of internal organs remained undisturbed, no rejection episodes were observed. Bony union was achieved after 11 weeks and progressed steadily, as did the range of motion and reinnervation. On the day of the preliminary assessment, the active range of motion was 200 degrees , 2PD exceeded 15 mm, and electromyography demonstrated temperature sensation and hypothenar muscle function. Functional assessment according to the DASH questionnaire was rated at 67 points, and a quality of life evaluation with the SF-36 questionnaire produced a score of 110 points.

CONCLUSION

The distal third of the forearm is a replantation zone promoting early functional recovery.

Early use of artificial sensibility in hand transplantation

Hands were transplanted from brain-dead donors for the treatment of two male unilateral amputees, aged 35 years and 32 years, involved in the Italian Hand Transplantation Programme. Each had lost his right dominant hand, in a farming accident and an explosion, respectively. In one case artificial sensibility was applied postoperatively using a Sensor Glove that transformed vibrotactile stimuli induced by touch, to stereophonic vibroacoustic stimuli perceived through earphones. The principle is based on the brain's capacity for multimodal plasticity, implying that deprivation of one sense (somatosensory) can be compensated for by another sense (auditory). Functional magnetic resonance images (fMRI) taken at regular intervals showed that cortical remodelling of the transplanted hand within the sensory-motor maps occurred early in the patient who used the artificial sensibility regimen compared with the one who did not. We conclude that postoperative use of a device using hearing as a substitution for sensation in hand transplantation may have considerable potential value for speeding up cortical integration of a transplanted hand.

Science of composite tissue allotransplantation

The science of composite tissue allotransplantation (CTA) is rooted in progressive thinking by surgeons, fueled by innovative solutions, and aided by understanding the immunology of tolerance and rejection. These three factors have allowed CTA to progress from science fiction to science fact. Research using preclinical animal models has allowed an understanding of the antigenicity of complex tissue transplants and mechanisms to promote graft acceptance. As a result, translation to the clinic has shown that CTA is a viable treatment option well on the way of becoming a standard of care for those who have lost extremities and suffered large tissue defects. The field of CTA has been progressing exponentially over the past decade. Transplantation of hands, larynx, vascularized knee, trachea, face, and abdominal wall has been performed. Several important observations have emerged from translation to the clinic. Although it was predicted that rejection would pose a major limitation, this has not proven true. In fact, steroid-sparing protocols for immunosuppression that have been successfully used in renal transplantation are sufficient to prevent rejection of limbs. Although skin is highly antigenic when transplanted alone in animal models, when part of a CTA, it has not proven to be. Chronic rejection has not been conclusively demonstrated in hand transplant recipients and is difficult to induce in rodent models of CTA. This review focuses on the science of CTA, provides a snapshot of where we are in the clinic, and discusses prospects for the future to make the procedures even more widely available.

[Replantation and revascularization in acute upper limb amputation--the Sheba Medical Center experience]

Replantation and revascularization in acute upper-limb amputations are well-accepted surgical techniques in hand surgery. All medical staff members treating patients in emergency settings should be familiar with the indications, timetable, setup and transportation of patients rendered suitable for such surgery. While replantation surgery is not considered a simple surgical procedure by any means, viability rates approach ninety percent. The amputated part should be wrapped with gauze soaked in saline, placed in a sterile plastic bag and then put in an ice-filled container. The patient should be transferred to a medical center with a team dedicated to performing replantation procedures, following notification in advance. Time from the initial insult to the initiation of treatment should be minimized. Combined efforts employed by the primary caregivers and the microsurgical team will lead to optimization of patient treatment and improve the final outcome. During the years 1991-2007 a total of 383 upper limb replantation or revascularization procedures were performed at the Sheba Medical Center and are presented in this article.

Composite tissue transplantation: a rapidly advancing field

Composite tissue allotransplantation (CTA) is emerging as a potential treatment for complex tissue defects. It is currently being performed with increasing frequency in the clinic. The feasibility of the procedure has been confirmed through 30 hand transplantation, 3 facial reconstructions, and vascularized knee, esophageal, and tracheal allografts. A major drawback for CTA is the requirement for lifelong immunosuppression. The toxicity of these agents has limited the widespread application of CTA. Methods to reduce or eliminate the requirement for immunosuppression and promote CTA acceptance would represent a significant step forward in the field. Multiple studies suggest that mixed chimerism established by bone marrow transplantation promotes tolerance resulting in allograft acceptance. This overview focuses on the history and the exponentially expanding applications of the new frontier in CTA transplantation: immunology associated with CTA; preclinical animal models of CTA; clinical experience with CTA; and advances in mixed chimerism-induced tolerance in CTA. Additionally, some important hurdles that must be overcome in using bone marrow chimerism to induce tolerance to CTA are also discussed.

Central adaptation following heterotopic hand replantation probed by fMRI and effective connectivity analysis

In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we examined changes--relative to healthy controls--in the cortical activation and connectivity patterns of two patients who had undergone unilateral heterotopic hand replantation. The study involved the patients and a group of control subjects performing visually paced hand movements with their left, right, or both hands. Changes of effective connectivity among a bilateral network of core motor regions comprising M1, lateral premotor cortex (PMC), and the supplementary motor area (SMA) were assessed using dynamic causal modelling. Both patients showed inhibition of ipsilateral PMC and SMA when moving the healthy hand, potentially indicating a suppression of inference with physiological motor execution by the hemisphere controlling the replanted hand. Moving the replanted hand, both patients showed increased activation of contralateral PMC, most likely reflecting the increased effort involved, and a pathological inhibition of the ipsilateral on the active contralateral M1 indicative of an unsuccessful modulation of the inhibitory M1-M1 balance. In one patient, M1 contralateral to the replanted hand experienced increased tonic (intrinsic connectivity) and phasic (replanted hand movement) facilitating input, whereas in the other, pathological suppression was present. These differences in effective connectivity correlated with decreased behavioural performance of the latter as assessed by kinematic analysis, and seemed to be related to earlier and more intense rehabilitative exercise commenced by the former. This study hence demonstrates the potential of functional neuroimaging to monitor plastic changes of cortical connectivity due to peripheral damage and recovery in individual patients, which may prove to be a valuable tool in understanding, evaluating and enhancing motor rehabilitation.

Allogreffe de main chez le nouveau-né agénésique: étude de faisabilité

Would a newborn with a single hand benefit from hand allograft? Transantebrachial aplasia is the chosen clinical form of agenesia in our interrogation. The feasibility study presents several aspects: 1) ethical and psychological aspects. Is this a desired surgery for agenesic population? Which are the functional, psychological and social situations of agenesic patient? Is the hand transplantation in newborn ethically acceptable? What is the parents' attitude toward agenesia? Can we envisage organ donation in neonatal period? 2) immunological aspects. The non-vital character of this condition and its' good functional tolerance cannot make accepting the risk of adverse effects of hand allotransplantation. Hence, one may consider this surgery only without immunosuppression. Can the peculiarities of the neonate "immature" immune system represent an opportunity of easier tolerance obtaining, avoiding immunosuppression? 3) anatomical and technical aspects. The proximal tissues at the level of amputation are all hypoplastic in agenesic patients. Can we efficaciously suture those structures with donor eutrophic tissues? 4) cognitive aspects. Is a neonate born with only one hand is able to use two? A feasibility study on such a subject needs to take into account all these aspects. This research is useful because, even if hand allograft in agenesic newborn will never be done, the provided information will allow to progress in the vaster domain of composite tissue allotransplantation in perinatology.

Allogreffe de mains: expérience lyonnaise

Hand allograft is a method in the stage of clinical experimentation, which is reserved in France for the treatment of bilateral traumatic amputees. This study reports the Lyon team experience, which is pioneer in this domain. Four patients (3 males and 1 female) underwent seven (one unilateral and three bilateral) hand transplantations from September 1998 to February 2007. The level of amputation was at the wrist or at the mid-forearm. Delay since hand loss ranged from 2.5 to 9 years. The surgical protocol was elaborated and planned case by case. All recipients received the same immunosuppressive treatment. Episodes of acute rejection were observed in the first 3 months after transplantation, which were easily managed after a few days increasing oral prednisone doses and applying topical immunosuppressants. Currently the patients receive the doses of immunosuppressants comparable to those in kidney-grafted patients. We have not registered any severe complication of immunosuppressive treatment up till now (7 years follow-up for the earliest graft). We performed analytical and functional clinical, as well as questionnaire evaluation of patients. The first case (unilateral graft) resulted in graft failure at 2 years due to non-compliance of the patient. The three bilateral graftees demonstrate a favorable evolution despite some immunological (hyperglycemia, serum sickness) and surgical (thrombosis, osteomyelitis, skin loss) complications, which could be managed. The middle and long-term follow-up evaluation revealed good to excellent sensorimotor recovery of 4 hands in both male recipients (4 and 7 years) with satisfactory social adaptation, higher or equal to those expected after post-traumatic replantations at the equivalent level and higher to those obtained with currently available myoelectric prosthesis. The last patient, a young female who has been grafted in February 2007, receives ongoing reeducation course and shows normal progress of functional restoration of both hands. The encouraging results of this clinical experimentation make us currently consider hand allografting as reasonable and useful both for the patients and for evolution of research in composite tissues allotransplantation (CTA). Further long-term careful research and worldwide monitoring of all patients with hand allografts is required to, on the one part, state on the authorization of this surgery, and, on the other part, to better elucidate the mechanisms of successful CTA.

[Why think about tendons allotransplantation in hand surgery in 1989?]

Two cases of a human vascularized allotransplant of a complete digital flexion system are reported with detailed descriptions of the dissection technique and postoperative treatment. Satisfactory functional results open new prospects for this type of transplantation surgery.

Absence of C4d Deposition in Human Composite Tissue (Hands and Face) Allograft Biopsies: An Immunoperoxidase Study

Deposition of the C4d complement degradation product has been shown to be a marker of antibody-mediated rejection of solid organ allografts, including kidney, heart, liver, and lung. We investigated whether C4d deposition also would be useful in monitoring rejection in human composite tissue allografts. A total of 60 mucocutaneous formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded and four frozen biopsy specimens from four patients with composite tissue allografts (three hands, one face) taken during a period of 7 days to 7 years after graft were immunostained for C4d by an immunoperoxidase and an immunofluorescence technique, respectively. C4d deposition was not found in any of the specimens studied, even though several of them showed pathological signs of rejection. No human leukocyte antigen alloantibodies were detected in any of the patients during the study period. These results suggest that humoral rejection occurs rarely, if at all, in the setting of human composite tissue allografts.

Transplantation of the hand, face, and composite structures: evolution and current status

This article reviews the world experience in the newly emerging field of composite tissue allotransplantation. These allografts contain multiple tissues that are usually musculoskeletal structures with a skin or epithelial surface, such as hand, facial structures, larynx, tongue, ear, knee/femur, abdominal wall, and penis. They represent a new transplantation field, with only a 10-year experience and just over 50 clinical cases. This review of the 10-year world experience found uniform technical success, immunologic biology, and immunosuppression regimens very similar to solid organ transplants, and success strongly correlated with adherence to guidelines for psychiatric screening, thorough preparation of patient and families, intense postoperative monitoring, and assurance of medication access. All failures reported have been caused by lapses in these parameters. This early experience shows a great potential for application of these new procedures to the most challenging reconstructive needs.

[Observation of healing process of operative wound in the first Polish upper limb transplant]

The goal of this paper was to present the healing process of the operative wound of the hand transplant. The recipient was a man, 32 years of age who lost his right dominant hand 14 years ago, as a result of an accident. The transplant was made at the level of the halves of a forearm. The total ischemia time was 10.5 hrs. The recipient was qualified by a tedious process of preparation, he was thoroughly informed about all of the risks involved. The wound was primarily closed with loose sutures, without a skin graft. The healing process was complicated by creation of a large hematoma, wound dispersal and candida infection. The granulation process was very slow. Only traditional dressings were applied. The secondary wound closure was performed with a skin graft, the healing was ended after 64 days. Within this period neither general infection nor rejection symptoms were observed.