Intrinsic neuronal properties represent song and error in zebra finch vocal learning

Neurons regulate their intrinsic physiological properties, which could influence network properties and contribute to behavioral plasticity. Recording from adult zebra finch brain slices we show that within each bird basal ganglia Area X-projecting (HVCX) neurons share similar spike waveform morphology and timing of spike trains, with modeling indicating similar magnitudes of five principal ion currents. These properties vary among birds in lawful relation to acoustic similarity of the birds' songs, with adult sibling pairs (same songs) sharing similar waveforms and spiking characteristics. The properties are maintained dynamically: HVCX within juveniles learning to sing show variable properties, whereas the uniformity rapidly degrades within hours in adults singing while exposed to abnormal (delayed) auditory feedback. Thus, within individual birds the population of current magnitudes covary over the arc of development, while rapidly responding to changes in feedback (in adults). This identifies network interactions with intrinsic properties that affect information storage and processing of learned vocalizations.

Morphological characterization of HVC projection neurons in the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata)

Singing behavior in the adult male zebra finch is dependent upon the activity of a cortical region known as HVC (proper name). The vast majority of HVC projection neurons send primary axons to either the downstream premotor nucleus RA (robust nucleus of the arcopallium, or primary motor cortex) or Area X (basal ganglia), which play important roles in song production or song learning, respectively. In addition to these long-range outputs, HVC neurons also send local axon collaterals throughout that nucleus. Despite their implications for a range of circuit models, these local processes have never been completely reconstructed. Here, we use in vivo single-neuron Neurobiotin fills to examine 40 projection neurons across 31 birds with somatic positions distributed across HVC. We show that HVC_(RA) and HVC_(X) neurons have categorically distinct dendritic fields. Additionally, these cell classes send axon collaterals that are either restricted to a small portion of HVC ("local neurons") or broadly distributed throughout the entire nucleus ("broadcast neurons"). Overall, these processes within HVC offer a structural basis for significant local processing underlying behaviorally relevant population activity.

Exploring sex differences in the adult zebra finch brain: In vivo diffusion tensor imaging and ex vivo super-resolution track density imaging

Zebra finches are an excellent model to study the process of vocal learning, a complex socially-learned tool of communication that forms the basis of spoken human language. So far, structural investigation of the zebra finch brain has been performed ex vivo using invasive methods such as histology. These methods are highly specific, however, they strongly interfere with performing whole-brain analyses and exclude longitudinal studies aimed at establishing causal correlations between neuroplastic events and specific behavioral performances. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to implement an in vivo Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) protocol sensitive enough to detect structural sex differences in the adult zebra finch brain. Voxel-wise comparison of male and female DTI parameter maps shows clear differences in several components of the song control system (i.e. Area X surroundings, the high vocal center (HVC) and the lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior nidopallium (LMAN)), which corroborate previous findings and are in line with the clear behavioral difference as only males sing. Furthermore, to obtain additional insights into the 3-dimensional organization of the zebra finch brain and clarify findings obtained by the in vivo study, ex vivo DTI data of the male and female brain were acquired as well, using a recently established super-resolution reconstruction (SRR) imaging strategy. Interestingly, the SRR-DTI approach led to a marked reduction in acquisition time without interfering with the (spatial and angular) resolution and SNR which enabled to acquire a data set characterized by a 78μm isotropic resolution including 90 diffusion gradient directions within 44h of scanning time. Based on the reconstructed SRR-DTI maps, whole brain probabilistic Track Density Imaging (TDI) was performed for the purpose of super resolved track density imaging, further pushing the resolution up to 40μm isotropic. The DTI and TDI maps realized atlas-quality anatomical maps that enable a clear delineation of most components of the song control and auditory systems. In conclusion, this study paves the way for longitudinal in vivo and high-resolution ex vivo experiments aimed at disentangling neuroplastic events that characterize the critical period for vocal learning in zebra finch ontogeny.

Acetylcholinesterase in central vocal control nuclei of the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata)

The distribution of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the central vocal control nuclei of the zebra finch was studied using enzyme histochemistry. AChE fibres and cells are intensely labelled in the forebrain nucleus area X, strongly labelled in high vocal centre (HVC) perikarya, and moderately to lightly labelled in the somata and neuropil of vocal control nuclei robust nucleus of arcopallium (RA), medial magnocellular nucleus of the anterior nidopallium (MMAN) and lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior nidopallium (LMAN). The identified sites of cholinergic and/or cholinoceptive neurons are similar to the cholinergic presence in vocal control regions of other songbirds such as the song sparrow, starling and another genus of the zebra finch (Poephila guttata), and to a certain extent in parallel vocal control regions in vocalizing birds such as the budgerigar. AChE presence in the vocal control system suggests innervation by either afferent projecting cholinergic systems and/or local circuit cholinergic neurons. Co-occurrence with choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) indicates efferent cholinergic projections. The cholinergic presence in parts of the zebra finch vocal control system, such as the area X, that is also intricately wired with parts of the basal ganglia, the descending fibre tracts and brain stem nuclei could underlie this circuitry's involvement in sensory processing and motor control of song

Rapid interhemispheric switching during vocal production in a songbird

To generate complex bilateral motor patterns such as those underlying birdsong, neural activity must be highly coordinated across the two cerebral hemispheres. However, it remains largely elusive how this coordination is achieved given that interhemispheric communication between song-control areas in the avian cerebrum is restricted to projections received from bilaterally connecting areas in the mid- and hindbrain. By electrically stimulating cerebral premotor areas in zebra finches, we find that behavioral effectiveness of stimulation rapidly switches between hemispheres. In time intervals in which stimulation in one hemisphere tends to distort songs, stimulation in the other hemisphere is mostly ineffective, revealing an idiosyncratic form of motor dominance that bounces back and forth between hemispheres like a virtual ping-pong ball. The intervals of lateralized effectiveness are broadly distributed and are unrelated to simple spectral and temporal song features. Such interhemispheric switching could be an important dynamical aspect of neural coordination that may have evolved from simpler pattern generator circuits.

As for all vertebrates, the songbird cerebrum has two halves (or hemispheres), each of which controls mainly the muscles in one half of the body. Many motor behaviors such as singing rely on high coordination of activity in both hemispheres, yet little is known about the neural mechanisms of this coordination. By using electrical stimuli to briefly perturb the activity of neurons in the motor pathway during song production, we study their involvement in generating the different elements of a song in zebra finches. We find mostly disjoint time intervals in which stimulation of either the right or left hemisphere is effective in distorting a song. This interhemispheric switching of stimulation effectiveness is evidence of a novel form of ping-pong–like motor coordination. Because left–right alternation is the basis of many motor patterns such as swimming and walking, we speculate that interhemispheric switching in songbirds has its evolutionary roots in older circuit principles invented for locomotion.

Motor dominance across cerebral hemispheres bounces back and forth like a virtual ping-pong ball during song production in zebra finches.

Song and brain development in canaries raised under different conditions of acoustic and social isolation over two years

Early isolation experiments indicate that male songbirds learn their songs during an early sensitive period, although later work has shown that some open-ended learners modify songs in later years. Recent isolation experiments suggest that in some species song has a stronger genetic basis than previously thought. This study raised domestic canaries under different combinations of acoustic and social isolation and followed song development into the second year. Males raised alone in acoustic isolation developed songs with normal syllables, but larger repertoires and also produced syllables with lower repetition rates when compared to controls. The smallest repertoire occurred in males raised in a peer group. Isolate males had a smaller song control nucleus HVC than controls, but there was no effect on nucleus RA or on brain weight in general. In the second year, after introduction into a large normal colony, isolate and peer group males adjusted their syllable repertoire to normal size. In particular, the isolates reduced their repertoire even though the size of HVC showed a significant increase in volume. However, songs of isolate and peer group males still differ in repetition rate and number of single syllables in the common aviary. In contrast, control males showed low syllable turnover and no significant change in repertoire size. Nor did they show any significant change in the volumes of song control nuclei. It seems that complete isolation affects only some aspects of song and brain development, and later socialization corrects some but not all of these in the second year.

Song repertoire size varies with HVC volume and is indicative of male quality in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia)

Complex birdsong is a classic example of a sexually selected ornamental trait. In many species, females prefer males with large song repertoires, possibly because repertoire size is limited by the size of song control nuclei which reflect developmental success. We investigated whether song repertoire size was indicative of brain area and male quality in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) by determining if repertoire size was related to the volume of song control nucleus HVC, as well as several morphological, immunological and genetic indices of quality. We found that males with large repertoires had larger HVCs and were in better body condition. They also had lower heterophil to lymphocyte ratios, indicating less physiological stress and a robust immune system as measured by the number of lymphocytes per red blood cell. Song repertoire size also tended to increase with neutral-locus genetic diversity, as assessed by mean d2, but was not related to internal relatedness. Our results suggest several mechanisms that might explain the finding of a recent study that song sparrows with large song repertoires have higher lifetime fitness.

LMAN lesions prevent song degradation after deafening without reducing HVC neuron addition

In some songbirds perturbing auditory feedback can promote changes in song structure well beyond the end of song learning. One factor that may drive vocal change in such deafened birds is the ongoing addition of new vocal-motor neurons into the song system. Without auditory feedback to guide their incorporation, the addition of these new neurons could disrupt the established song pattern. To assess this hypothesis, the authors determined if neuronal recruitment into the vocal motor nucleus HVC is affected by neural signals that influence vocal change in adult deafened birds. Such signals appear to be conveyed via LMAN, a nucleus in the anterior forebrain that is necessary for vocal change after deafening. Here the authors tested whether LMAN lesions might restrict song degradation after deafening by reducing the addition or survival of new HVC neurons that would otherwise corrupt the ongoing song pattern. Using [3H]thymidine autoradiography to identify neurons generated in adult zebra finches, it was shown here that LMAN lesions do not reduce the number or percent of new HVC neurons surviving for either several weeks or months after [3H]thymidine labeling. However, the authors confirmed previous reports that LMAN lesions restrict vocal change after deafening. These data suggest that neurons incorporated into the adult HVC may form behaviorally adaptive connections without requiring auditory feedback, and that any role such neurons may play in promoting vocal change after adult deafening requires anterior forebrain pathway output.

Noradrenergic projections to the song control nucleus area X of the medial striatum in male zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata)

There is considerable functional evidence implicating norepinephrine in modulating activity in the vocal control circuit of songbirds. However, our knowledge of noradrenergic inputs to the song system is incomplete. In this study, cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) injections into area X revealed projections from the noradrenergic nuclei locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus, and injections of biotinylated dextran amines into these noradrenergic nuclei labeled fibers in area X. The nonreciprocity of this connection was demonstrated by the absence of retrogradely labeled cells in area X following injections of CTB into the locus coeruleus. Additionally, we found novel inputs to area X from the nidopallium and arcopallium, the mesencephalic central gray, and the dorsolateralis anterior (DLL) and posterior (DLP) lateralis in the thalamus. Area X can be clearly distinguished from the surrounding medial striatum based on cytoarchitectural and chemical neuroanatomical criteria. We show here that neuromodulatory inputs to area X however, exhibit a considerable degree of overlap with the surrounding area. This finding suggests that regional specificity in neuromodulator action is most likely afforded by a specialization in receptor density and enzyme distribution rather than projections from the synthesizing nuclei. Our results extend current knowledge about noradrenergic projections to specialized nuclei of the song control circuit and provide neuroanatomical evidence for the functional action of norepinephrine-modulating context-dependent ZENK expression in area X. Furthermore, the novel projections to area X from telencephalic and thalamic areas could be new and interesting nodes in the striatopallidothalamic loop spanning the songbird brain.

Developmental modulation of the temporal relationship between brain and behavior

Humans and songbirds shape learned vocalizations during a sensorimotor sensitive period or "babbling" phase. The brain mechanisms that underlie the shaping of vocalizations by sensory feedback are not known. We examined song behavior and brain activity in zebra finches during singing as they actively shaped their song toward a tutor model. We now show that the temporal relationship of behavior and activity in the premotor area HVC changes with the development of song behavior. During sensorimotor learning, HVC bursting activity both preceded and followed learned vocalizations by hundreds of milliseconds. Correspondingly, the duration of bursts that occurred during ongoing song motif behavior was prolonged in juveniles, as compared with adults, and was inversely correlated with song maturation. Multielectrode single-unit recording in juveniles revealed that single fast-spiking neurons were active both before and after vocalization. These same neurons responded to auditory stimuli. Collectively, these data indicate that a key aspect of sensory critical periods--prolonged bursting--also applies to sensorimotor development. In addition, prolonged motor discharge and sensory input coincide in single neurons of the developing song system, providing the necessary cellular elements for sensorimotor shaping through activity-dependent mechanisms.

Sleep-related spike bursts in HVC are driven by the nucleus interface of the nidopallium

The function and the origin of replay of motor activity during sleep are currently unknown. Spontaneous activity patterns in the nucleus robustus of the arcopallium (RA) and in HVC (high vocal center) of the sleeping songbird resemble premotor patterns in these areas observed during singing. We test the hypothesis that the nucleus interface of the nidopallium (NIf) has an important role for initiating and shaping these sleep-related activity patterns. In head-fixed, sleeping zebra finches we find that injections of the GABA(A)-agonist muscimol into NIf lead to transient abolishment of premotor-like bursting activity in HVC neurons. Using antidromic activation of NIf neurons by electrical stimulation in HVC, we are able to distinguish a class of HVC-projecting NIf neurons from a second class of NIf neurons. Paired extracellular recordings in NIf and HVC show that NIf neurons provide a strong bursting drive to HVC. In contrast to HVC neurons, whose bursting activity waxes and wanes in burst epochs, individual NIf projection neurons are nearly continuously bursting and tend to burst only once on the timescale of song syllables. Two types of HVC projection neurons-premotor and striatal projecting-respond differently to the NIf drive, in agreement with notions of HVC relaying premotor signals to RA and an anticipatory copy thereof to areas of a basal ganglia pathway.

The distribution of substance P and met-enkephalin in vocal control nuclei among oscine species and its relation to song complexity

Substance P (SP) and methionine-enkephalin (ENK) have been reported to appear in song control nuclei of oscine species. However, it remains unknown whether or not SP and ENK location in song control nuclei is correlated with song behavior. To address this issue, the present study first measured two variables for song complexity, i.e., song repertoire sizes, and syllable repertoire sizes in 11 oscine species. Then, we examined the distribution of SP and ENK in four control nuclei, two in the motor pathway, i.e., HVC and the robust nucleus of arcopallium (RA), and the other two in the forebrain pathway, i.e., Area X and the lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior nidopallium (LMAN). Finally, we measured the relative amounts of immunoreactivity for SP and ENK in song control nuclei, and tested whether they were correlated with song complexity. Our results showed that: (1) SP and ENK were broadly distributed in the song control nuclei of studied species. However, SP immunohistochemistry was more robust in comparison with ENK, and SP is generally more abundant in the two song learning nuclei than those in the two song producing ones; (2) SP and ENK staining patterns in song control nuclei did not show any obvious phylogenetic relationship among studied oscine species; (3) there was a significant correlation between the relative amounts of immunoreactivity for SP and the song and syllable repertoire sizes. Our results suggest that SP or ENK might be involved in song behavior, such as birdsong learning or memory.