Comparative transcriptomics of the Djungarian hamster hypothalamus during short photoperiod acclimation and spontaneous torpor

The energy-saving strategy of Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus, Cricetidae) to overcome harsh environmental conditions comprises of behavioral, morphological, and physiological adjustments, including spontaneous daily torpor, a metabolic downstate. These acclimatizations are triggered by short photoperiod and orchestrated by the hypothalamus. Key mechanisms of long-term photoperiodic acclimatizations have partly been described, but specific mechanisms that acutely control torpor remain incomplete. Here, we performed comparative transcriptome analysis on hypothalamus of normometabolic hamsters in their summer- and winter-like state to enable us to identify changes in gene expression during photoperiodic acclimations. Comparing nontorpid and torpid hamsters may also be able to pin down mechanisms relevant for torpor control. A de novo assembled transcriptome of the hypothalamus was generated from hamsters acclimated to long photoperiod or to short photoperiod. The hamsters were sampled either during long photoperiod normothermia, short photoperiod normothermia, or short photoperiod-induced spontaneous torpor with a body temperature of 24.6 ± 1.0 °C, or. The mRNA-seq analysis revealed that 32 and 759 genes were differentially expressed during photoperiod or torpor, respectively. Biological processes were not enriched during photoperiodic acclimatization but were during torpor, where transcriptional and metabolic processes were reinforced. Most extremely regulated genes (those genes with |log2(FC)| > 2.0 and padj < 0.05 of a pairwise group comparison) underpinned the role of known key players in photoperiodic comparison, but these genes exhibit adaptive and protective adjustments during torpor. Targeted analyses of genes from potentially involved hypothalamic systems identified gene regulation of previously described torpor-relevant systems and a potential involvement of glucose transport.

Photoperiodic and ovarian steroid regulation of histone deacetylase 1, 2, and 3 in Siberian hamster (Phodopus sungorus) reproductive tissues

Epigenetic modifications in reproductive tissues have predominantly focused on pathological conditions, such as ovarian and uterine cancers. The contribution of DNA methylation and histone acetylation to the timing and control of fertility is not well described. Siberian hamsters provide an important model to investigate the relatively short-term regulation of fertility (e.g. estrous) as well as long-term timing of breeding (e.g. seasonal). Recent work has shown that DNA methyltransferase 3a (dnmt3a) expression is associated with reproductive involution. Here, the objectives were to identify the impact of photoperiod on hdac1-3 expression in hamster testicular, ovarian and uterine tissue. Then, we assessed the effect of E₂P₄ and estrous cycling on hdac1-3 expression in uterine tissue. Testicular expression of hdac1 was significantly reduced, whereas hdac3 increased in reproductively photoregressed male hamsters; hdac2 expression did not significantly change across photoperiod conditions. There was no significant photoperiodic effect on ovarian expression of hdac1-3. Uterine expression of hdac3 expression was greater in long day hamsters; exposure to short days significantly reduced uterine hdac2 expression. Ovariectomized hamsters administered a single bolus injection of oil were found to have elevated uterine hdac2 compared to E₂P₄ treated females 12h and 24h post injection. Uterine hdac1-3 expression was relatively constant across the estrous cycle. Altogether these data indicate tissue-dependent photoperiodic regulation of hdac1-3 expression and that E₂P₄ may inhibit uterine hdac2 over long-term breeding cycles.

Genomic imprinting, disrupted placental expression, and speciation

The importance of regulatory incompatibilities to the early stages of speciation remains unclear. Hybrid mammals often show extreme parent-of-origin growth effects that are thought to be a consequence of disrupted genetic imprinting (parent-specific epigenetic gene silencing) during early development. Here, we test the long-standing hypothesis that abnormal hybrid growth reflects disrupted gene expression due to loss of imprinting (LOI) in hybrid placentas, resulting in dosage imbalances between paternal growth factors and maternal growth repressors. We analyzed placental gene expression in reciprocal dwarf hamster hybrids that show extreme parent-of-origin growth effects relative to their parental species. In massively enlarged hybrid placentas, we observed both extensive transgressive expression of growth-related genes and biallelic expression of many genes that were paternally silenced in normal sized hybrids. However, the apparent widespread disruption of paternal silencing was coupled with reduced gene expression levels overall. These patterns are contrary to the predictions of the LOI model and indicate that hybrid misexpression of dosage-sensitive genes is caused by other regulatory mechanisms in this system. Collectively, our results support a central role for disrupted gene expression and imprinting in the evolution of mammalian hybrid inviability, but call into question the generality of the widely invoked LOI model.

Continental Refugium in the Mongolian Plateau during Quaternary Glacial Oscillations: Phylogeography and Niche Modelling of the Endemic Desert Hamster, Phodopus roborovskii

The Mongolian Plateau (MP), which is situated in the interior of Asia and possesses a typical continental climate, experienced harsh climatic conditions during the Quaternary glacial fluctuations. Although these events likely had huge impacts on the local animal populations, the current effects have hardly been explored. To investigate whether the MP supported a refugium along an oceanic-continental gradient (ROCG), and whether this refugium was glacial or interglacial, we investigated the demographic and phylogeographic history of an endemic mammal species, the desert hamster Phodopus roborovskii. We reconstructed the demographic variation, the phylogeographic diffusion, and modelled the potential habitat during historical periods. The genetic diversity in the MP was the highest among all the localities, and the MP was a suitable habitat throughout the modelled historical periods. A phylogeographic diffusion analysis emphasized the importance of the MP as the centre of origin, preservation and spread for P. roborovskii. The homogeneous landscape provided the opportunity for a wide gene flow, which resulted in low resolution of the phylogenetic relationships. Moreover, P. roborovskii was favoured by the interglacial condition, with both its demographical and geographical ranges expanded within the interglacial periods. The range variation from the Last Glacial Maximum to the current condition reflects a distinct longitudinal shift, while both ranges largely contracted from that of the Last Interglacial. Our results support that the MP served as a refugium and spread centre for P. roborovskii during the Quaternary climate fluctuations. The interglacial expansion and the longitudinal shifts highlighted the important effects of precipitations on the distribution range of species adapted to arid and semi-arid during glacial oscillations.

Thyroid hormone status affects expression of daily torpor and gene transcription in Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

Thyroid hormones (TH) play a key role in regulation of seasonal as well as acute changes in metabolism. Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) adapt to winter by multiple changes in behaviour and physiology including spontaneous daily torpor, a state of hypometabolism and hypothermia. We investigated effects of systemic TH administration and ablation on the torpor behaviour in Djungarian hamsters adapted to short photoperiod. Hyperthyroidism was induced by giving T4 or T3 and hypothyroidism by giving methimazole (MMI) and sodium perchlorate via drinking water. T3 treatment increased water, food intake and body mass, whereas MMI had the opposite effect. Continuous recording of body temperature revealed that low T3 serum concentrations increased torpor incidence, lowered Tb and duration, whereas high T3 serum concentrations inhibited torpor expression. Gene expression of deiodinases (dio) and uncoupling proteins (ucp) were analysed by qPCR in hypothalamus, brown adipose tissue (BAT) and skeletal muscle. Expression of dio2, the enzyme generating T3 by deiodination of T4, and ucps, involved in thermoregulation, indicated a tissue specific response to treatment. Torpor per se decreased dio2 expression irrespective of treatment or tissue, suggesting low intracellular T3 concentrations during torpor. Down regulation of ucp1 and ucp3 during torpor might be a factor for the inhibition of BAT thermogenesis. Hypothalamic gene expression of neuropeptide Y, propopiomelanocortin and somatostatin, involved in feeding behaviour and energy balance, were not affected by treatment. Taken together our data indicate a strong effect of thyroid hormones on torpor, suggesting that lowered intracellular T3 concentrations in peripheral tissues promote torpor.

Evolutionary story of a satellite DNA from Phodopus sungorus (Rodentia, Cricetidae)

With the goal to contribute for the understanding of satellite DNA evolution and its genomic involvement, in this work it was isolated and characterized the first satellite DNA (PSUcentSat) from Phodopus sungorus (Cricetidae). Physical mapping of this sequence in P. sungorus showed large PSUcentSat arrays located at the heterochromatic (peri)centromeric region of five autosomal pairs and Y-chromosome. The presence of orthologous PSUcentSat sequences in the genomes of other Cricetidae and Muridae rodents was also verified, presenting however, an interspersed chromosomal distribution. This distribution pattern suggests a PSUcentSat-scattered location in an ancestor of Muridae/Cricetidae families, that assumed afterwards, in the descendant genome of P. sungorus a restricted localization to few chromosomes in the (peri)centromeric region. We believe that after the divergence of the studied species, PSUcentSat was most probably highly amplified in the (peri)centromeric region of some chromosome pairs of this hamster by recombinational mechanisms. The bouquet chromosome configuration (prophase I) possibly displays an important role in this selective amplification, providing physical proximity of centromeric regions between chromosomes with similar size and/or morphology. This seems particularly evident for the acrocentric chromosomes of P. sungorus (including the Y-chromosome), all presenting large PSUcentSat arrays at the (peri)centromeric region. The conservation of this sequence in the studied genomes and its (peri)centromeric amplification in P. sungorus strongly suggests functional significance, possibly displaying this satellite family different functions in the different genomes. The verification of PSUcentSat transcriptional activity in normal proliferative cells suggests that its transcription is not stage-limited, as described for some other satellites.

Dim light at night disrupts the short-day response in Siberian hamsters

Photoperiodic regulation of physiology, morphology, and behavior is crucial for many animals to survive seasonally variable conditions unfavorable for reproduction and survival. The photoperiodic response in mammals is mediated by nocturnal secretion of melatonin under the control of a circadian clock. However, artificial light at night caused by recent urbanization may disrupt the circadian clock, as well as the photoperiodic response by blunting melatonin secretion. Here we examined the effect of dim light at night (dLAN) (5lux of light during the dark phase) on locomotor activity rhythms and short-day regulation of reproduction, body mass, pelage properties, and immune responses of male Siberian hamsters. Short-day animals reduced gonadal and body mass, decreased spermatid nuclei and sperm numbers, molted to a whiter pelage, and increased pelage density compared to long-day animals. However, animals that experienced short days with dLAN did not show these short-day responses. Moreover, short-day specific immune responses were altered in dLAN conditions. The nocturnal activity pattern was blunted in dLAN hamsters, consistent with the observation that dLAN changed expression of the circadian clock gene, Period1. In addition, we demonstrated that expression levels of genes implicated in the photoperiodic response, Mel-1a melatonin receptor, Eyes absent 3, thyroid stimulating hormone receptor, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, and gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone, were higher in dLAN animals than those in short-day animals. These results suggest that dLAN disturbs the circadian clock function and affects the molecular mechanisms of the photoperiodic response.

Hypothalamic gene expression rapidly changes in response to photoperiod in juvenile Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

Siberian hamsters are seasonal mammals that survive a winter climate by making adaptations in physiology and behaviour. This includes gonadal atrophy, reduced food intake and body weight. The underlying central mechanisms responsible for the physiological adaptations are not fully established but involve reducing hypothalamic tri-iodthyronine (T3) levels. Juvenile Siberian hamsters born or raised in short days (SD) respond in a similar manner, although with an inhibition of gonadal development and growth instead of reversing an established long day (LD) phenotype. Using juvenile male hamsters, the present study aimed to investigate whether the central mechanisms are similar before the establishment of the mature LD phenotype. By in situ hybridisation, we examined the response of genes involved in thyroid hormone (Dio2 and Dio3, which determine hypothalamic T3 levels) and glucose/glutamate metabolism in the ependymal layer, histamine H3 receptor and VGF as representatives of the highly responsive dorsomedial posterior arcuate nucleus (dmpARC), and somatostatin, a hypothalamic neuropeptide involved in regulating the growth axis. Differential gene expression of type 2 and type 3 deiodinase in the ependymal layer, histamine H3 receptor in the dmpARC and somatostatin in the ARC was established by the eighth day in SD. These changes are followed by alterations in glucose metabolism related genes in the ependymal layer by day 16 and increased secretogranin expression in the dmpARC by day 32. In conclusion, our data demonstrate similar but rapid and highly responsive changes in gene expression in the brain of juvenile Siberian hamsters in response to a switch from LD to SD. The data also provide a temporal definition of gene expression changes relative to physiological adaptations of body weight and testicular development and highlight the likely importance of thyroid hormone availability as an early event in the adaptation of physiology to a winter climate in juvenile Siberian hamsters.

Identification, expression, and physiological functions of Siberian hamster gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone

Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) is a hypothalamic neuropeptide that inhibits gonadotropin secretion in birds and mammals. To further understand its physiological roles in mammalian reproduction, we identified its precursor cDNA and endogenous mature peptides in the Siberian hamster brain. The Siberian hamster GnIH precursor cDNA encoded two RFamide-related peptide (RFRP) sequences. SPAPANKVPHSAANLPLRF-NH(2) (Siberian hamster RFRP-1) and TLSRVPSLPQRF-NH(2) (Siberian hamster RFRP-3) were confirmed as mature endogenous peptides by mass spectrometry from brain samples purified by immunoaffinity chromatography. GnIH mRNA expression was higher in long days (LD) compared with short days (SD). GnIH mRNA was also highly expressed in SD plus pinealectomized animals, whereas expression was suppressed by melatonin, a nocturnal pineal hormone, administration. GnIH-immunoreactive (-ir) neurons were localized to the dorsomedial region of the hypothalamus, and GnIH-ir fibers projected to hypothalamic and limbic structures. The density of GnIH-ir perikarya and fibers were higher in LD and SD plus pinealectomized hamsters than in LD plus melatonin or SD animals. The percentage of GnRH neurons receiving close appositions from GnIH-ir fiber terminals was also higher in LD than SD, and GnIH receptor was expressed in GnRH-ir neurons. Finally, central administration of hamster RFRP-1 or RFRP-3 inhibited LH release 5 and 30 min after administration in LD. In sharp contrast, both peptides stimulated LH release 30 min after administration in SD. These results suggest that GnIH peptides fine tune LH levels via its receptor expressed in GnRH-ir neurons in an opposing fashion across the seasons in Siberian hamsters.

[Analysis of genetic diversity of the Roborovski hamster (Phodopus roborovskii) in the northern part of its habitat]

An analysis of sequences of the cytochrome b gene and control region of mitochondrial DNA of 30 Roborovski hamsters (Phodopus roborovskii; Rodentia: Cricetinae) captured at ten geographical points from Zaisanskaya Depression (Kazakhstan) in the northwest to the Shilin-Gol area (China) in the southeast was conducted. The absence of a connection between the similarity of the discovered haplotypes and their geographical distribution allows us to assume that the modern genetic diversity of the species on the studied territory formed owing to migration waves from more southern areas.

Ovarian matrix metalloproteinases are differentially regulated during the estrous cycle but not during short photoperiod induced regression in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are implicated as mediators for ovarian remodeling events, and are involved with ovarian recrudescence during seasonal breeding cycles in Siberian hamsters. However, involvement of these proteases as the photoinhibited ovary undergoes atrophy and regression had not been assessed. We hypothesized that 1) MMPs and their tissue inhibitors, the TIMPs would be present and differentially regulated during the normal estrous cycle in Siberian hamsters, and that 2) MMP/TIMP mRNA and protein levels would increase as inhibitory photoperiod induced ovarian degeneration.

METHODS

MMP-2, -9, -14 and TIMP-1 and -2 mRNA and protein were examined in the stages of estrous (proestrus [P], estrus [E], diestrus I [DI], and diestrus II [DII]) in Siberian hamsters, as well as after exposure to 3, 6, 9, and 12 weeks of inhibitory short photoperiod (SD).

RESULTS

MMP-9 exhibited a 1.6-1.8 fold decrease in mRNA expression in DII (p<0.05), while all other MMPs and TIMPs tested showed no significant difference in mRNA expression in the estrous cycle. Extent of immunostaining for MMP-2 and -9 peaked in P and E then significantly declined in DI and DII (p<0.05). Extent of immunostaining for MMP-14, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 was significantly more abundant in P, E, and DI than in DII (p<0.05). Localization of the MMPs and TIMPs had subtle differences, but immunostaining was predominant in granulosa and theca cells, with significant differences noted in staining intensity between preantral follicles, antral follicles, corpora lutea, and stroma classifications. No significant changes were observed in MMP and TIMP mRNA or extent of protein immunostaining with exposure to 3, 6, 9, or 12 weeks of SD, however protein was present and was localized to follicular and luteal steroidogenic cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Although MMPs appear to be involved in the normal ovarian estrus cycle at the protein level in hamsters, those examined in the present study are unlikely to be key players in the slow atrophy of tissue as seen in Siberian hamster ovarian regression.

The thyrotropin-releasing hormone secretory system in the hypothalamus of the Siberian hamster in long and short photoperiods

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is not only essential for the regulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis, but also exerts complementary effects on energy metabolism within the brain. We hypothesised that increased activity of the TRH secretory system may contribute to seasonal adaptations in the Siberian hamster whereby food intake is decreased in winter, and catabolism of fat stores is increased to support thermogenesis. We determined the distribution of TRH producing neurones and TRH-R1 receptor expressing cells in the hypothalamus, and investigated whether photoperiod regulated this system. TRH-immunoreactive (ir) cell somata and preproTRH mRNA expression were found to be widely distributed throughout the medial hypothalamus, with particular clusters in the paraventricular nucleus, the medial preoptic area and periventricular nucleus, and in the dorsomedial hypothalamus extending into the lateral hypothalamic area. A partial sequence encoding TRH-R1 was cloned from hamster hypothalamic cDNA and used to generate a riboprobe for in situ hybridisation studies. TRH-R1 mRNA expressing cells were abundant throughout the hypothalamus, corresponding to the widespread presence of TRH-ir fibres. Photoperiod did not affect the expression of preproTRH mRNA in any region, and the only significant change in TRH-R1 expression was in the dorsomedial posterior arcuate region. This wide distribution of TRH-producing and receptive cells in the hypothalamus is consistent with its hypothesised neuromodulatory roles in the short-term homeostatic control of appetite, thermoregulation and energy expenditure, but the lack of photoperiodic change in TRH mRNA expression does not support the hypothesis that changes in this system underlie long-term seasonal changes in body weight.

Differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases during stimulated ovarian recrudescence in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of extracellular matrix-cleaving enzymes involved in ovarian remodeling. In many non-tropical species, including Siberian hamsters, ovarian remodeling is necessary for the functional changes associated with seasonal reproduction. We evaluated MMPs and their endogenous inhibitors (TIMPs), during photoperiod-induced ovarian recrudescence in Siberian hamsters. Hamsters were transferred from long day (LD; 16:8) to short day (SD; 8:16) photoperiods for 14weeks, and then returned to LD for 0, 1, 2, 4, or 8weeks for collection of ovaries and plasma. Post-transfer (PT) LD exposure increased body and ovarian mass. Number of corpora lutea and antral, but not preantral follicles increased in PT groups. Plasma estradiol concentrations were lower in PT weeks 0-4, and returned to LD levels at PT week 8. No change was observed in relative MMP/TIMP mRNA levels at PT week 0 (SD week 14) as compared to LD. Photostimulation increased MMP-2 mRNA at PT week 8 as compared to PT weeks 0-1. MMP-14 mRNA expression peaked at PT weeks 1-2 as compared to LD levels, while MMP-13 expression was low during this time. TIMP-1 mRNA peaked at PT week 8 as compared to PT weeks 0-4. No changes were noted in MMP-9 and TIMP-2 mRNA expression. In general, MMP/TIMP protein immunodetection followed the same patterns with most staining occurring in granulosa cells of follicles and corpora lutea. Our data suggest that mRNA and protein for several members of the MMP/TIMP families are expressed in Siberian hamster ovaries during recrudescence. Because of the variation observed in expression patterns, MMPs and TIMPs may be differentially involved with photostimulated return to ovarian function.

Brown adipose tissue specific lack of uncoupling protein 3 is associated with impaired cold tolerance and reduced transcript levels of metabolic genes

Uncoupling protein 3 (Ucp3) is located within the mitochondrial inner membrane of brown adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. It is thought to be implicated in lipid metabolism and defense against reactive oxygen species. We previously reported on a mutation in our breeding colony of Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) that leads to brown adipose tissue specific lack of Ucp3 expression. In this study we compared wildtype with mutant hamsters on a broad genetic background. Hamsters lacking Ucp3 in brown adipose tissue displayed a reduced cold tolerance due to impaired nonshivering thermogenesis. This phenotype is associated with a global decrease in expression of metabolic genes but not of uncoupling protein 1. These data implicate that Ucp3 is necessary to sustain high metabolic rates in brown adipose tissue.

Chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor II regulates uncoupling protein 3 gene transcription in Phodopus sungorus

BACKGROUND

Ucp3 is an integral protein of the inner mitochondrial membrane with a role in lipid metabolism preventing deleterious effects of fatty acids in states of high lipid oxidation. Ucp3 is expressed in brown adipose tissue and skeletal muscle and controlled by a transcription factor complex including PPARalpha, MyoD and the histone acetyltransferase p300. Several studies have demonstrated interaction of these factors with chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor II (Coup-TFII). This nuclear receptor is involved in organogenesis and other developmental processes including skeletal muscle development, but also co-regulates a number of metabolic genes. In this study we in silico analyzed the upstream region of Ucp3 of the Djungarian hamster Phodopus sungorus and identified several putative response elements for Coup-TFII. We therefore investigated whether Coup-TFII is a further player in the transcriptional control of the Ucp3 gene in rodents.

RESULTS

By quantitative PCR we demonstrated a positive correlation of Coup-TFII and Ucp3 mRNA expression in skeletal muscle and brown adipose tissue in response to food deprivation and cold exposure, respectively. In reporter gene assays Coup-TFII enhanced transactivation of the Ucp3 promoter conveyed by MyoD, PPARalpha, RXRalpha and/or p300. Using deletions and mutated constructs, we identified a Coup-TFII enhancer element 816-840 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site. Binding of Coup-TFII to this upstream enhancer was confirmed in electrophoretic mobility shift and supershift assays.

CONCLUSION

Transcriptional regulation of the Coup-TFII gene in response to starvation and cold exposure seems to be the regulatory mechanism of Ucp3 mRNA expression in brown adipose and skeletal muscle tissue determining the final appropriate rate of transcript synthesis. These findings add a crucial component to the complex transcriptional machinery controlling expression of Ucp3. Given the substantial evidence for a function of Ucp3 in lipid metabolism, Coup-TFII may not only be a negative regulator of glucose responsive genes but also transactivate genes involved in lipid metabolism.

In uniparentalPhodopus sungorus, new mothers, and fathers present during the birth of their offspring, are the only hamsters that readily consume fresh placenta

Placentophagia is common among parturient female mammals but non-parturient females generally refuse placenta. Biparental male dwarf hamsters (Phodopus campbelli) readily consume placenta. The present study quantified placentophagia and liver acceptance in the closely related Siberian hamster P. sungorus in which males do not participate in the birth and are not responsive to a displaced pup. Sexually naïve P. sungorus males and females refused both placenta and liver (all groups <10%). Reproductive females specifically consumed placenta on the day before (G17), and the day of, parturition (G18) (>80%). Males rejected both tissues on G17 and accepted placenta soon after the birth (G18) (80%) only if they were present during the birth. Palatability of the placenta was not responsible for the species difference as P. campbelli accepted P. sungorus placenta. Results are consistent with a neophobic reaction to both placenta (conspecific or heterospecific) and liver as P. sungorus also rejected P. campbelli placenta.

Molecular clonings and sequences of Djungarian (Phodopus sungorus) and Chinese (Cricetulus griseus) hamster interferon-gammas

Djungarian (Phodopus sungorus) and Chinese (Cricetulus griseus) hamster IFN-gamma genes were cloned and sequenced. The Djungarian and Chinese hamster genes were both 525bp nucleotides, resulting in 174 amino acids in full length with a predicted molecular weight (MW) of 19,560 dal and 19,775 dal, respectively. The first 23 amino terminal amino acids consisted of a hydrophobic signal sequence when cleavaged, which would result in a mature 151 amino acid polypeptide with a predicted MW of 17,115 dal in the Djungarian hamster IFN-gamma and 17,255 dal in the Chinese hamster one.

Early photoperiod history and short-day responsiveness in Siberian hamsters

Siberian hamsters exhibit seasonal, photoperiod influenced cycles of reproductive activity, body size, pelage characteristics, and thermoregulatory behavior. Laboratory populations generally exhibit inter-individual variability in expression of photoperiod responsiveness, with a subset of individuals that fail to show the species typical responses to short photoperiod. This variability is partly explained by a genetic component, as it has been possible to increase the number of short-day nonresponders by artificial selection. Responsiveness to short photoperiod is also substantially influenced by photoperiod history in this species; hamsters that have been raised under long (16L) or very long (18L) day lengths are less likely to exhibit winter-type responses to short days as compared to hamsters raised under an intermediate (14L) day length. In the present experiment, we examined effects of age and early photoperiod history in a strain of Siberian hamsters that had been selected for short-day nonresponsiveness. Hamsters transferred into short photoperiod on the day of birth were uniform in exhibiting winter-type responses. However, hamsters raised until 25 days of age in either continuous illumination or in 16L exhibited variation in responsiveness when subsequently moved into short photoperiod. We conclude that virtually all hamsters of the short-day nonresponsive strain are born responsive to short days. Subsequent development of resistance to potential short day effects is dependent on age and/or photoperiod history.

Hypothalamic gene expression in reproductively photoresponsive and photorefractory Siberian hamsters

An interval timing mechanism in the brain governs reproduction in seasonally breeding mammals by triggering refractoriness to inhibitory short photoperiods during midwinter. The neural mechanisms responsible for the timing and induction of photorefractoriness by this seasonal clock are unknown. Using cDNA microarrays and RT-PCR, we identified a class of genes encoding thyroxine (T4)-binding proteins (transthyretin, T4-binding globulin, albumin) whose expression is associated with reproductive refractoriness to short day lengths. Down-regulation of these genes was associated with reduced hypothalamic T4 uptake, which was reversed by long-day photoperiod treatments that restored responsiveness to short days. Circulating T4 concentrations did not vary with states of photoresponsiveness in euthyroid hamsters, but blockade of thyroid function accelerated the onset of photorefractoriness to short days. These data link changes in gene expression in the hypothalamus to the functional output of a seasonal clock. Reproductive inhibition in short days depends on T4 only late in the nonbreeding season. Down-regulation of genes encoding T4-binding proteins in the hypothalamus during this interval may restrict access of a static T4 signal to hypothalamic target tissues that regulate reproduction, thereby timing annual transitions in reproductive function. Hypothalamic autoregulation of T4 influx may constitute a critical cellular process involved in the generation and expression of seasonal reproductive rhythms and suggests a previously undescribed mechanism by which neural targets gain access to peripheral hormones.

Differential gene expression in white and brown preadipocytes

White (WAT) and brown (BAT) adipose tissue are tissues of energy storage and energy dissipation, respectively. Experimental evidence suggests that brown and white preadipocytes are differentially determined, but so far not much is known about the genetic control of this determination process. The aim of this study was to identify differentially expressed genes involved in brown and white preadipocyte development. Using representational difference analysis (cDNA RDA) and DNA microarray screening, we identified four genes with higher expression in white preadipocytes (three different complement factors and delta-6 fatty acid desaturase) and seven genes with higher expression levels in brown preadipocytes, of which three are structural genes implicated in cell adhesion and cytoskeleton organization (fibronectin, alpha-actinin-4, metargidin) and four that might function in gene transcription and protein synthesis (vigilin, necdin, snRNP polypeptide A, and a homolog to human hepatocellular carcinoma-associated protein). The expression profile of these genes was analyzed during preadipocyte differentiation, upon beta-adrenergic stimulation, and in WAT and BAT tissue in vivo compared with references genes such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), cytochrome c oxidase.

Tissue-specific expression and cold-induced mRNA levels of uncoupling proteins in the Djungarian hamster

The uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a mitochondrial transmembrane protein, is responsible for adaptive thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT). Two UCP1 homologues, UCP2 and UCP3, were recently discovered, but it is controversial whether they also play a role in energy homeostasis. Djungarian hamster UCPs were found to exhibit high similarity with homologues known in other species. UCP1 mRNA was restricted to BAT, UCP2 mRNA was expressed in multiple tissues, and UCP3 mRNA was detected mainly in BAT and skeletal muscles. We examined the cold-induced regulation of hamster UCP mRNA levels and tested their correlation with serum free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations. In BAT UCP1, UCP2, and UCP3 expression was upregulated in the cold, but the increase and time course of increase differed. In skeletal muscle, UCP2 and UCP3 mRNA levels were not altered. Cold-induced changes of serum FFA levels correlated with the stimulation of UCP1 mRNA in BAT but not with UCP2 and UCP3.

Genetic and environmental influences on short-day responsiveness in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

Siberian hamsters are photoperiodic rodents that typically exhibit several physiological changes when exposed to a short-day photoperiod. However, development of the winter phenotype in short days is largely conditional on prior photoperiod history: Hamsters that have been reared in an exceptionally long day length (18 L) do not usually exhibit the winter phenotype after transfer to short days, whereas animals reared under "moderately" long days (16 L) are more variable in responsiveness to subsequent short-day exposure, with 20% to 30% generally failing to exhibit winter-type responses. Hamsters reared exclusively in an "intermediate" day length (14 L) are almost uniformly responsive to short photoperiod. In the present study, the authors examine the influence of photoperiod history on short-day responsiveness in a breeding line of hamsters that has been subjected to artificial selection for resistance to the effects of short days. The results demonstrate that photoperiod history is an important determinant of short-day responsiveness in both random-bred (UNS) hamsters and animals artificially selected and bred for nonresponsiveness to short photoperiod (PNR). The PNR hamsters have a reduced requirement for long-day exposure to evoke a state of unresponsiveness to short days. The results are discussed in relation to possible significance for the origin of population and species differences in photoperiod responsiveness.

Differential regulation of c-fos expression in estrogen-induced hamster renal tumors compared with kidney not due to creation of an estrogen-response element by point mutation in the gene's flanking sequence

The conversion of a palindromic sequence, GGTCTnnnAGACC, in the 5'-flanking region of the murine c-fos proto-oncogene into a functional estrogen-response element by a single base change into GGTC(A/G)nnnAGACC has previously been postulated [Nawaz et al., 1993] as a possible mechanism of the induction of tumors by estrogens. This attractive hypothesis has been investigated in estradiol-induced Syrian hamster kidneytumors, in H-301 kidney tumor cells (a cell line derived from the Syrian hamster tumor), and in normal kidney tissue. The c-fos gene is differentially regulated by a classical estrogen receptor-mediated process in tumors, whereas in the acutely treated kidney, estradiol induces c-fos expression independent of estrogen-receptor function. In this study, we identified in the 5'-flanking region of the hamster kidney c-fos gene the sequence AGTCCnnnAGACC, which closely resembled but did not appear to function as an estrogen-response element. No mutations were detected in this sequence or in the 5'-flanking region of c-fos genes from three different primary tumors and from H-301 tumor cells. To rule out the possibility of a low copy number of mutant alleles in a tumor sample, polymerase chain reaction-based single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis was performed on 372 base pairs of the 5'-flank of the c-fos gene (-367 to +5 base pairs relative to the transcription start point). Nine different kidney tumor DNA samples and five normal kidney tissue samples (controls) produced an identical pattern of DNA bands, suggesting a lack of natural polymorphisms and mutations in this region of the c-fos gene. Acute treatment of hamsters with 17beta-estradiol for 6 h significantly induced renal c-fos mRNA expression, whereas control levels of c-fos were restored by co-treatment with estradiol and either N-acetyl-L-cysteine or alpha-naphthoflavone. We concluded that the previously observed change in regulatory control of c-fos expression in kidney versus estradiol-induced tumors does not involve the creation of a functional estrogen-response element by single point mutation in the 5'-flanking region of the gene. Additionally, c-fos expression in estradiol-treated hamster kidneys appears to be mediated by free radicals generated by the catechol metabolites of estradiol and not by the activation of any estrogen receptor.

Microphthalmia: a morphogenetic lethal mutation of the campbelli hamster (Phodopus campbelli)

Microphthalmia is a new mutation of the campbelli hamster (Phodopus campbelli) that is controlled by an incomplete dominant autosomal gene Mi. The dorsal coat of the heterozygote had dark markings on a white background. The dark markings appear on the head, back, and rump. Their color is very similar to that of the wild type, but slightly lighter. The pupil and iris of the heterozygote are black with reddish tinge. The homozygote has pure white fur all over the body and shows a smaller body size than the wild type and heterozygote. Moreover, the homozygote is characterized by small eyes with unopened eyelids and loss of the incisors. The pupil and iris are colorless and transparent or show a faint reddish tinge when the eyelid is artificially opened. In addition to these abnormalities, individual bones of the homozygote show dwarfism. The parietal and frontal region of the skull are thin and their symphysis is incomplete. The distal regions of the vertebral ribs show swelling. The homozygote is basically lethal within 3 weeks of age. A very few survivors are sterile.

Nature's knockout: the Mel1b receptor is not necessary for reproductive and circadian responses to melatonin in Siberian hamsters

The pineal hormone melatonin regulates seasonal reproduction and influences the timing of circadian rhythms. The Mel1a and Mel1b receptors are the high-affinity melatonin receptors present in mammals. Unexpectedly, the Mel1b receptor gene of the Siberian hamster, Phodopus sungorus, cannot encode a functional receptor; two nonsense mutations are present within the coding region. Southern blot analysis indicates that this is a single copy gene. The Mel1b receptor gene is nonfunctional in outbred populations of P. sungorus and Phodopus campbelli. Siberian hamsters lacking a functional Mel1b receptor nevertheless show seasonal reproductive and circadian responses to melatonin, indicating that the Mel1b receptor is not necessary for these responses. These data support the hypothesis that the Mel1a receptor, which does encode a functional receptor in this species, mediates reproductive and circadian responses to melatonin.

Albino and pink-eyed dilution mutants in the Russian dwarf hamster Phodopus campbelli

The coat color mutant genes albino (c) and pink eyed dilution (p) are described in the dwarf hamster species Phodopus campbelli. Both genes are inherited as redessive to normal. Tests for linkage between the two genes gave negative results. The apparent absence of linkage is contrasted with linkage between homologous alleles c and p in other species of rodents.

Photoperiodic time measurement in Djungarian hamsters evaluated from T-cycle studies

We investigated the photoperiodic response to T-cycles (0.5 h of light at intervals ranging from 23.0 h to 25.3 h) of two phenotypes of Djungarian hamsters that either exhibit or lack physiological short-day adjustments under a photoperiod of 9 h light:15 h darkness. Illumination of the same circadian time caused a similar photoperiodic response in both phenotypes. Thus hamsters found to be insensitive under a full short-day photoperiod can exhibit short-day adjustments after exposure to certain T-cycles. Given these results we conclude that the absence of photoperiodic adjustments normally found in short-day-insensitive hamsters results from their atypical entrainment under a full short-day photoperiod. We further suggest that the photoperiodic phenomena seen in Djungarian hamsters cannot be adequately explained by an external coincidence model of photoperiodic time measurement. As a more suitable model, we propose one form of internal coincidence where duration of daily motor activity reflects the phasing of multiple, endogenous oscillators. This conclusion is supported by the close relationship between duration of activity and the photoperiodic response as well as by the observation that a light pulse modulates duration of activity in a phase-dependent manner.