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Trahair LG, Nauck MA, Wu T, Stevens JE, Buttfield MD, Hatzinikolas S, Pham H, Meier JJ, Rayner CK, Horowitz M, Jones KL. Measurement of Gastric Emptying Using a 13C-octanoic Acid Breath Test with Wagner-Nelson Analysis and Scintigraphy in Type 2 Diabetes. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2022; 130:751-757. [PMID: 35231948 DOI: 10.1055/a-1784-6185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Breath tests utilising 13C-labelled substrates for the assessment of gastric emptying have been applied widely. Wagner-Nelson analysis is a pharmacokinetic model that can be utilised to generate a gastric emptying curve from the % 13CO2 measured in breath samples. We compared Wagner-Nelson analysis with (i) scintigraphy and (ii) conventional breath test modelling to quantify gastric emptying in type 2 diabetes. METHODS Thirteen patients (age 68.1±1.5 years, body mass index 31.0±0.9 kg/m2, HbA1c 6.3±0.2%) consumed a mashed potato meal comprising 65 g powdered potato, 20 g glucose, 250 ml water, an egg yolk labelled with 100 μL 13C-octanoic acid and 20MBq 99mTc-calcium phytate. Scintigraphic data were acquired and breath samples collected for 4 hours after the meal. Gastric emptying curves were derived based on each technique; the 50% emptying time and intragastric retention at 60 min were also calculated. RESULTS With Wagner-Nelson analysis, a Kel=0.60 (the elimination constant) best approximated the scintigraphic gastric emptying curve. There was a relationship between the T50 calculated with scintigraphy and by both Wagner-Nelson Kel=0.60 (r2=0.45, P<0.05) and conventional analysis (r2=0.44, P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the 50% gastric emptying time for scintigraphy (68.5±4.8 min) and Wagner-Nelson Kel=0.60 (71.3±4.5 min), however, the 50% gastric emptying time calculated by conventional analysis was much greater at 164.7±6.0 min (P<0.001). CONCLUSION In type 2 diabetes, gastric emptying of a mashed potato meal measured using a 13C-octanoic acid breath test analysed with Wagner-Nelson Kel=0.60 closely reflects measurements obtained with scintigraphy, whereas, in absolute terms, the conventional breath test analysis does not.
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Stevens JE, Jalleh RJ, Trahair LG, Marathe CS, Horowitz M, Jones KL. Comparative effects of low-carbohydrate, full-strength and low-alcohol beer on gastric emptying, alcohol absorption, glycaemia and insulinaemia in health. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2022; 88:3421-3427. [PMID: 35246999 PMCID: PMC9314679 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.15297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS The aim of this study was to evaluate the comparative effects of low-carbohydrate (LC), full-strength (FS), and low-alcohol (LA) beer on gastric emptying (GE), ethanol absorption, glycaemia and insulinaemia in health. METHODS Eight subjects (four male, four female; age: 20.4 ± 0.4 years; BMI 22.7 ± 0.4 kg/m2 ) had concurrent measurements of GE, plasma ethanol, blood glucose and plasma insulin for 180 min on three separate occasions after ingesting 600 mL of (i) FS beer (5.0% w/v, 246 kcal, 19.2 g carbohydrate), (ii) LC beer (4.6% w/v, 180 kcal, 5.4 g carbohydrate) and (iii) LA beer (2.6% w/v, 162 kcal, 17.4 g carbohydrate) labelled with 20 MBq 99mTc-calcium phytate, in random order. RESULTS There was no difference in the gastric 50% emptying time (T50) (FS: 89.0 ± 13.5 min vs LC: 79.5 ± 12.9 min vs LA: 74.6 ± 12.4 min; P = .39). Plasma ethanol was less after LA than LC (P < .001) and FS (P < .001), with no difference between LC and FS (P = 1.0). There was an inverse relationship between plasma ethanol at 15 min and GE after LA (r = -0.87, P < .01) and a trend for inverse relationships after LC (r = -0.67, P = .07) and FS (r = -0.69, P = .06). The AUC 0-180 min for blood glucose was greater for LA than LC (P < .001), with no difference between LA and FS (P = .40) or LC and FS (P = 1.0). CONCLUSION In healthy young subjects, GE of FS, LC and LA beer is comparable and a determinant of the plasma ethanol response.
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Oberoi A, Giezenaar C, Lange K, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Chapman I, Soenen S. Blood Pressure and Heart Rate Responses following Dietary Protein Intake in Older Men. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14091913. [PMID: 35565880 PMCID: PMC9101499 DOI: 10.3390/nu14091913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Postprandial hypotension (PPH) occurs frequently in older people >65 years old. Protein-rich supplements, particularly whey protein (WP), are increasingly used by older people for various health benefits. We have reported that 70 g WP drinks cause significant, and in some cases marked, falls in blood pressure (BP) in older men. The effects of lower, more widely used, doses (~30 g) on systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure and heart rate (HR) are not known. In a randomized order, eight older men (age: 72 ± 1 years; body mass index (BMI): 25 ± 1 kg/m2) after overnight fast ingested a drink containing (i) a non-caloric control (~2 kcal), (ii) 30 g of whey protein (120 kcal; ‘WP30’), or (iii) 70 g of whey protein (280 kcal; ‘WP70’). The BP and HR were measured in this pilot study with an automated device before and at 3-min intervals for 180 min following drink ingestion. Drink condition effects were determined by repeated-measures ANOVA. The SBP decreased after both WP drinks compared to the control (p = 0.016), particularly between 120 and 180 min, with no difference in the effects of WP30 and WP70. The SBP decreased by ≥20 mmHg in more than 50% of people after both WP drinks (WP30: 63%; WP70: 75%) compared to 38% after the control. The maximum fall in the SBP occurred during the third hour, with the nadir occurring latest after WP70. The DBP decreased non-significantly by several mmHg more after the WP drinks than after the control. The maximum HR increases occurred during the third hour, with the greatest increase after WP70. The SBP decreased after both WP drinks compared to the control, with the effects most evident between 120 and 180 min. Accordingly, ingestion of even relatively modest protein loads in older men has the potential to cause PPH.
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Kovoor JG, Stretton B, Kerr LD, Jacobsen JHW, Hewitt JN, Ovenden CD, Gupta AK, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Maddern GJ. Sleep and postoperative recovery: waking up to the evidence. ANZ J Surg 2022; 92:953-954. [PMID: 35535001 DOI: 10.1111/ans.17422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Xie C, Huang W, Watson LE, Soenen S, Young RL, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Rayner CK, Wu T. Plasma GLP-1 Response to Oral and Intraduodenal Nutrients in Health and Type 2 Diabetes-Impact on Gastric Emptying. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022; 107:e1643-e1652. [PMID: 34791325 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgab828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Both gastric emptying and the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) are major determinants of postprandial glycemia in health and type 2 diabetes (T2D). GLP-1 secretion after a meal is dependent on the entry of nutrients into the small intestine, which, in turn, slows gastric emptying. OBJECTIVE To define the relationship between gastric emptying and the GLP-1 response to both oral and small intestinal nutrients in subjects with and without T2D. METHODS We evaluated: (i) the relationship between gastric emptying (breath test) and postprandial GLP-1 levels after a mashed potato meal in 73 individuals with T2D; (ii) inter-individual variations in GLP-1 response to (a) intraduodenal glucose (4 kcal/min) during euglycemia and hyperglycemia in 11 healthy and 12 T2D, subjects, (b) intraduodenal fat (2 kcal/min) in 15 T2D subjects, and (c) intraduodenal protein (3 kcal/min) in 10 healthy subjects; and (iii) the relationship between gastric emptying (breath test) of 75 g oral glucose and the GLP-1 response to intraduodenal glucose (4 kcal/min) in 21 subjects (9 healthy, 12 T2D). RESULTS The GLP-1 response to the mashed potato meal was unrelated to the gastric half-emptying time (T50). The GLP-1 responses to intraduodenal glucose, fat, and protein varied substantially between individuals, but intra-individual variation to glucose was modest. The T50 of oral glucose was related directly to the GLP-1 response to intraduodenal glucose (r = 0.65, P = 0.002). CONCLUSION In a given individual, gastric emptying is not a determinant of the postprandial GLP-1 response. However, the intrinsic gastric emptying rate is determined in part by the responsiveness of GLP-1 to intestinal nutrients.
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Beale EO, Horowitz M. Hypothesis: Bolus jejunal feeding via an enteral feeding tube simulates key features of gastric bypass to initiate similar clinical benefits. Nutrition 2022; 94:111537. [PMID: 34920411 DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2021.111537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Therapy for obesity and related comorbidities should be clinically effective, widely available and acceptable, and used in conjunction with an optimized lifestyle. Dieting is widely available and acceptable but has poorly sustained clinical efficacy. By contrast, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (GB) is highly effective but cost and safety concerns limit widespread use. In this article this we discuss the hypothesis that bolus jejunal feeding (BJ) via an enteral feeding tube simulates key features of GB with the potential for similar clinical benefits. We further hypothesize that a practical manner of providing BJ therapeutically is via an externally inapparent orojejunal feeding tube. RATIONALE The first hypothesis is underpinned by the outcomes of research in three fields: 1) investigations into the mechanisms underlying the benefit of GB, 2) studies investigating gastrointestinal physiology and pathophysiology using enteral feeding tubes, and3) investigations into the mechanism underlying involuntary anorexia and weight loss in clinical situations that entail rapid nutrient delivery to the jejunum. There is compelling evidence that a supraphysiologic rate of delivery of nutrient to the jejunum suppresses appetite and energy intake and improves glucose homeostasis, and that these effects can be achieved non-surgically using an enteral feeding tube. The second hypothesis is supported by clinical demonstration of the feasibility of administering intermittent cycles of bolus feeds via an intraorally anchored feeding tube in ambulatory obese adults. CONCLUSION The hypotheses are testable in clinical studies. If validated, BJ could be used to induce the clinical benefits of GB, but without its costs or safety concerns.
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Marathe CS, Jones KL, Rayner CK, Wu T, Horowitz M. Comment on Rosenstock et al. Impact of a Weekly Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonist, Albiglutide, on Glycemic Control and on Reducing Prandial Insulin Use in Type 2 Diabetes Inadequately Controlled on Multiple Insulin Therapy: A Randomized Trial. Diabetes Care 2020;43:2509-2518. Diabetes Care 2021; 44:e194-e195. [PMID: 34670789 DOI: 10.2337/dc20-2987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Feinle-Bisset C, Horowitz M. Appetite and Satiety Control-Contribution of Gut Mechanisms. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13103635. [PMID: 34684635 PMCID: PMC8539844 DOI: 10.3390/nu13103635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of obesity, and its comorbidities, particularly type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular and hepatic disease and certain cancers, continues to rise at an alarming rate worldwide [...].
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Kovoor JG, Stretton B, Jacobsen JHW, Gupta AK, Ovenden CD, Hewitt JN, Glynatsis JM, Edwards S, Campbell K, Asokan GP, Tivey DR, Babidge WJ, Rayner CK, Anthony AA, Trochsler MI, Horowitz M, Hewett PJ, Jones KL, Maddern GJ. Gastrointestinal recovery after surgery: protocol for a systematic review. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e054704. [PMID: 34645666 PMCID: PMC8515468 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-054704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Gastrointestinal recovery after surgery is of worldwide significance. Postoperative gastrointestinal dysfunction is multifaceted and known to represent a major source of postoperative morbidity, however, its significance to postoperative care across all surgical procedures is unknown. The complexity of postoperative gastrointestinal recovery is poorly defined within gastrointestinal surgery, and even less so outside this field. To inform the clinical care of surgical patients worldwide, this systematic review and meta-analysis will aim to characterise the duration of postoperative gastrointestinal recovery that can be expected across all surgical procedures and determine the associations between factors that may affect this. METHODS AND ANALYSIS MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library and CINAHL will be searched for studies reporting the time to first postoperative passage of stool after any surgical procedure. We will screen records, extract data and assess risk of bias in duplicate. Forest plots will be constructed for time to postoperative gastrointestinal recovery, as assessed by various outcome measures. Because of potential heterogeneity, a random-effects model will be used throughout the meta-analysis. Funnel plots will be used to test for publication bias. Meta-regressions will be undertaken where the outcome is the mean time to first postoperative passage of stool, with potential predictors and confounders being patient characteristics, postoperative outcomes and surgical factors. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION This study will not involve human or animal subjects and, thus, does not require ethics approval. The outcomes will be disseminated via publication in peer-reviewed scientific journal(s) and presentations at scientific conferences. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER CRD42021256210.
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Horowitz M, Rayner CK, Marathe CS, Wu T, Umapathysivam M, Jones KL. Response to Dahl et al.: Oral semaglutide improves postprandial glucose and lipid metabolism, and delays gastric emptying, in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2021; 23:2411-2413. [PMID: 34169640 DOI: 10.1111/dom.14473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Hajishafiee M, Ullrich SS, Fitzgerald PC, Horowitz M, Lange K, Poppitt SD, Feinle-Bisset C. Suppression of Energy Intake by Intragastric l-Tryptophan in Lean and Obese Men: Relations with Appetite Perceptions and Circulating Cholecystokinin and Tryptophan. J Nutr 2021; 151:2932-2941. [PMID: 34255069 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND l-Tryptophan reduces energy intake in healthy men. The underlying mechanisms, including appetite, plasma cholecystokinin (CCK), tryptophan (Trp), and the ratio of Trp to large neutral amino acids (Trp:LNAAs ratio), and whether responses differ in lean and obese individuals, are uncertain. OBJECTIVES We evaluated the effects of intragastric Trp on energy intake (primary outcome) and their potential mechanisms, pre- and postmeal, in lean men and those with obesity. METHODS Twelve lean men [mean ± SD age: 30 ± 3 y; BMI (in kg/m2): 23 ± 1] and 13 men with obesity (mean ± SD age: 31 ± 3 y; BMI: 33 ± 1) received, on 3 separate occasions, in double-blind, randomized order, 3 g ("Trp-3") or 1.5 g ("Trp-1.5") Trp, or control ("C"), intragastrically, 30 min before a buffet-meal. Energy intake from the buffet-meal, hunger, fullness, and plasma CCK and amino acid concentrations were measured in response to Trp alone and for 2 h postmeal. Data were analyzed using maximum likelihood mixed-effects models, with treatment, group, and treatment-by-group interaction as fixed effects. RESULTS Trp alone increased plasma CCK, Trp, and the Trp:LNAAs ratio (all P < 0.001), with no difference between groups. Trp suppressed energy intake (P < 0.001), with no difference between groups (lean, C: 1085 ± 102 kcal, Trp-1.5: 1009 ± 92 kcal, Trp-3: 868 ± 104 kcal; obese, C: 1249 ± 98 kcal, Trp-1.5: 1217 ± 90 kcal, Trp-3: 1012 ± 100 kcal). Postmeal, fullness was greater after Trp-3 than after C and Trp-1.5 (all P < 0.05), and in men with obesity than in lean men (P < 0.05). Plasma Trp and the Trp:LNAAs ratio were greater after Trp-3 and Trp-1.5 than after C (all P < 0.001), and tended to be less in men with obesity than in the lean (P = 0.07) (Trp:LNAAs ratio: lean, C: 1.5 ± 0.2, Trp-1.5: 6.9 ± 0.7, Trp-3: 10.7 ± 1.4; obese, C: 1.4 ± 0.1, Trp-1.5: 4.6 ± 0.7, Trp-3: 7.8 ± 1.3). There were inverse correlations of energy intake with plasma Trp and the Trp:LNAAs ratio in both groups (lean, both r = -0.50, P < 0.01; obese, both r = -0.40, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Intragastric Trp has potent energy intake-suppressant effects, in both lean men and those with obesity, apparently related to the Trp:LNAAs ratio.
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Borg MJ, Xie C, Rayner CK, Horowitz M, Jones KL, Wu T. Potential for Gut Peptide-Based Therapy in Postprandial Hypotension. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13082826. [PMID: 34444986 PMCID: PMC8399874 DOI: 10.3390/nu13082826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Postprandial hypotension (PPH) is an important and under-recognised disorder resulting from inadequate compensatory cardiovascular responses to meal-induced splanchnic blood pooling. Current approaches to management are suboptimal. Recent studies have established that the cardiovascular response to a meal is modulated profoundly by gastrointestinal factors, including the type and caloric content of ingested meals, rate of gastric emptying, and small intestinal transit and absorption of nutrients. The small intestine represents the major site of nutrient-gut interactions and associated neurohormonal responses, including secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide and somatostatin, which exert pleotropic actions relevant to the postprandial haemodynamic profile. This review summarises knowledge relating to the role of these gut peptides in the cardiovascular response to a meal and their potential application to the management of PPH.
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Rayner CK, Horowitz M. Twincretin therapy for type 2 diabetes: how do two do? Lancet 2021; 398:560-561. [PMID: 34370968 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(21)01597-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Rose BD, Bitarafan V, Rezaie P, Fitzgerald PCE, Horowitz M, Feinle-Bisset C. Comparative Effects of Intragastric and Intraduodenal Administration of Quinine on the Plasma Glucose Response to a Mixed-Nutrient Drink in Healthy Men: Relations with Glucoregulatory Hormones and Gastric Emptying. J Nutr 2021; 151:1453-1461. [PMID: 33704459 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In preclinical studies, bitter compounds, including quinine, stimulate secretion of glucoregulatory hormones [e.g., glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)] and slow gastric emptying, both key determinants of postprandial glycemia. A greater density of bitter-taste receptors has been reported in the duodenum than the stomach. Thus, intraduodenal (ID) delivery may be more effective in stimulating GI functions to lower postprandial glucose. OBJECTIVE We compared effects of intragastric (IG) and ID quinine [as quinine hydrochloride (QHCl)] administration on the plasma glucose response to a mixed-nutrient drink and relations with gastric emptying, plasma C-peptide (reflecting insulin secretion), and GLP-1. METHODS Fourteen healthy men [mean ± SD age: 25 ± 3 y; BMI (in kg/m2): 22.5 ± 0.5] received, on 4 separate occasions, in double-blind, randomly assigned order, 600 mg QHCl or control, IG or ID, 60 min (IG conditions) or 30 min (IG conditions) before a mixed-nutrient drink. Plasma glucose (primary outcome) and hormones were measured before, and for 2 h following, the drink. Gastric emptying of the drink was measured using a 13C-acetate breath test. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures 2-way ANOVAs (factors: treatment and route of administration) to evaluate effects of QHCl alone and 3-way ANOVAs (factors: treatment, route-of-administration, and time) for responses to the drink. RESULTS After QHCl alone, there were effects of treatment, but not route of administration, on C-peptide, GLP-1, and glucose (P < 0.05); QHCl stimulated C-peptide and GLP-1 and lowered glucose concentrations (IG control: 4.5 ± 0.1; IG-QHCl: 3.9 ± 0.1; ID-control: 4.6 ± 0.1; ID-QHCl: 4.2 ± 0.1 mmol/L) compared with control. Postdrink, there were treatment × time interactions for glucose, C-peptide, and gastric emptying, and a treatment effect for GLP-1 (all P < 0.05), but no route-of-administration effects. QHCl stimulated C-peptide and GLP-1, slowed gastric emptying, and reduced glucose (IG control: 7.2 ± 0.3; IG-QHCl: 6.2 ± 0.3; ID-control: 7.2 ± 0.3; ID-QHCl: 6.4 ± 0.4 mmol/L) compared with control. CONCLUSIONS In healthy men, IG and ID quinine administration similarly lowered plasma glucose, increased plasma insulin and GLP-1, and slowed gastric emptying. These findings have potential implications for lowering blood glucose in type 2 diabetes. This study was registered as a clinical trial with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials at www.anzctr.org.au as ACTRN12619001269123.
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Chapple LAS, Summers MJ, Weinel LM, Abdelhamid YA, Kar P, Hatzinikolas S, Calnan D, Bills M, Lange K, Poole A, O'Connor SN, Horowitz M, Jones KL, Deane AM, Chapman MJ. Effects of Standard vs Energy-Dense Formulae on Gastric Retention, Energy Delivery, and Glycemia in Critically Ill Patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2021; 45:710-719. [PMID: 33543797 DOI: 10.1002/jpen.2065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Energy-dense formulae are often provided to critically ill patients with enteral feed intolerance with the aim of increasing energy delivery, yet the effect on gastric emptying is unknown. The rate of gastric emptying of a standard compared with an energy-dense formula was quantified in critically ill patients. METHODS Mechanically ventilated adults were randomized to receive radiolabeled intragastric infusions of 200 mL standard (1 kcal/mL) or 100 mL energy-dense (2 kcal/mL) enteral formulae on consecutive days in this noninferiority, blinded, crossover trial. The primary outcome was scintigraphic measurement of gastric retention (percentage at 120 minutes). Other measures included area under the curve (AUC) for gastric retention and intestinal energy delivery (calculated from gastric retention of formulae over time), blood glucose (peak and AUC), and intestinal glucose absorption (using 3-O-methyl-D-gluco-pyranose [3-OMG] concentrations). Comparisons were undertaken using paired mixed-effects models. Data presented are mean ± SE. RESULTS Eighteen patients were studied (male/female, 14:4; age, 55.2 ± 5.3 years). Gastric retention at 120 minutes was greater with the energy-dense formula (standard, 17.0 ± 5.9 vs energy-dense, 32.5 ± 7.1; difference, 12.7% [90% confidence interval, 0.8%-30.1%]). Energy delivery (AUC120 , 13,038 ± 1119 vs 9763 ± 1346 kcal/120 minutes; P = 0.057), glucose control (peak glucose, 10.1 ± 0.3 vs 9.7 ± 0.3 mmol/L, P = 0.362; and glucose AUC120 8.7 ± 0.3 vs 8.5 ± 0.3 mmol/L.120 minutes, P = 0.661), and absorption (3-OMG AUC120 , 38.5 ± 4.0 vs 35.7 ± 4.0 mmol/L.120 minutes; P = .508) were not improved with the energy-dense formula. CONCLUSION In critical illness, administration of an energy-dense formula does not reduce gastric retention, increase energy delivery to the small intestine, or improve glucose absorption or glucose control; instead, there is a signal for delayed gastric emptying.
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Giezenaar C, Oberoi A, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Chapman I, Soenen S. Effects of age on blood pressure and heart rate responses to whey protein in younger and older men. J Am Geriatr Soc 2021; 69:1291-1299. [PMID: 33675081 DOI: 10.1111/jgs.17083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Postprandial falls in blood pressure (BP) are more common in older compared to younger individuals. The effects of protein compared to carbohydrates and fat on postprandial BP, and the relation to gastric emptying rates, are poorly studied. OBJECTIVES To determine the effects of a whey protein compared to a control drink on systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), and heart rate (HR) in healthy younger and older men, and to relate these effects to gastric emptying. DESIGN A pooled analyses of two randomized, double-blind, cross-over studies. SETTING Two acute clinical intervention studies with identical study design. PARTICIPANTS Nineteen older (age: 74 ± 1 years, body mass index: 26 ± 1 kg/m2 ) and 13 younger (23 ± 1 years, 24 ± 1 kg/m2 ) healthy men. INTERVENTION A 70 g/280 kcal whey-protein or control (water with diet cordial, ~2 kcal) drink (450 ml). MEASUREMENTS BP and HR were assessed with an automated device immediately before and at 3-min intervals after drink ingestion (0-180 min). Gastric emptying of the drinks was measured using 3D ultrasonography (0-180 min). RESULTS Older versus younger men exhibited a greater fall in SBP (-23 ± 2 vs -15 ± 2 mmHg, p = 0.001) after whey-protein versus control, as BP did not change after the two drinks in younger men (p > 0.05). The nadir in SBP occurred later in the older than younger men (114 ± 11 vs 62 ± 14 min; p < 0.001), with SBP still apparently declining 180 min after whey-protein ingestion in the older men. The magnitude of the rise in HR was greater (p < 0.05) in the younger than older men. CONCLUSION Following ingestion of 70 g whey protein, healthy older men exhibited a sustained fall in BP, despite an increase in HR, whereas in younger men there was no change in BP. BP may need to be monitored after high protein meals in older people at risk of postprandial hypotension.
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Ali Abdelhamid Y, Bernjak A, Phillips LK, Summers MJ, Weinel LM, Lange K, Chow E, Kar P, Horowitz M, Heller S, Deane AM. Nocturnal Hypoglycemia in Patients With Diabetes Discharged From ICUs: A Prospective Two-Center Cohort Study. Crit Care Med 2021; 49:636-649. [PMID: 33591015 DOI: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000004810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There is very limited information about glycemic control after discharge from the ICU. The aims of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of hypoglycemia in ICU survivors with type-2 diabetes and determine whether hypoglycemia is associated with cardiac arrhythmias. DESIGN Prospective, observational, two-center study. Participants underwent up to 5 days of simultaneous blinded continuous interstitial glucose monitoring and ambulatory 12-lead electrocardiogram monitoring immediately after ICU discharge during ward-based care. Frequency of arrhythmias, heart rate variability, and cardiac repolarization markers were compared between hypoglycemia (interstitial glucose ≤ 3.5 mmol/L) and euglycemia (5-10 mmol/L) matched for time of day. SETTING Mixed medical-surgical ICUs in two geographically distinct university-affiliated hospitals. PATIENTS Patients with type-2 diabetes who were discharged from ICU after greater than or equal to 24 hours with greater than or equal to one organ failure and were prescribed subcutaneous insulin were eligible. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Thirty-one participants (mean ± sd, age 65 ± 13 yr, glycated hemoglobin 64 ± 22 mmol/mol) were monitored for 101 ± 32 hours post-ICU (total 3,117 hr). Hypoglycemia occurred in 12 participants (39%; 95% CI, 22-56%) and was predominantly nocturnal (40/51 hr) and asymptomatic (25/29 episodes). Participants experiencing hypoglycemia had 2.4 ± 0.7 discrete episodes lasting 45 minutes (interquartile range, 25-140 min). Glucose nadir was less than or equal to 2.2 mmol/L in 34% of episodes. The longest episode of nocturnal hypoglycemia was 585 minutes with glucose nadir less than 2.2 mmol/L. Simultaneous electrocardiogram and continuous interstitial glucose monitoring recordings were obtained during 44 hours of hypoglycemia and 991 hours of euglycemia. Hypoglycemia was associated with greater risk of bradycardia but did not affect atrial or ventricular ectopics, heart rate variability, or cardiac repolarization. CONCLUSIONS In ICU survivors with insulin-treated type-2 diabetes, hypoglycemia occurs frequently and is predominantly nocturnal, asymptomatic, and prolonged.
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Xie C, Huang W, Young RL, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Rayner CK, Wu T. Role of Bile Acids in the Regulation of Food Intake, and Their Dysregulation in Metabolic Disease. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041104. [PMID: 33800566 PMCID: PMC8066182 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bile acids are cholesterol-derived metabolites with a well-established role in the digestion and absorption of dietary fat. More recently, the discovery of bile acids as natural ligands for the nuclear farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and membrane Takeda G-protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5), and the recognition of the effects of FXR and TGR5 signaling have led to a paradigm shift in knowledge regarding bile acid physiology and metabolic health. Bile acids are now recognized as signaling molecules that orchestrate blood glucose, lipid and energy metabolism. Changes in FXR and/or TGR5 signaling modulates the secretion of gastrointestinal hormones including glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY), hepatic gluconeogenesis, glycogen synthesis, energy expenditure, and the composition of the gut microbiome. These effects may contribute to the metabolic benefits of bile acid sequestrants, metformin, and bariatric surgery. This review focuses on the role of bile acids in energy intake and body weight, particularly their effects on gastrointestinal hormone secretion, the changes in obesity and T2D, and their potential relevance to the management of metabolic disorders.
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Horowitz M, Wu T, Rayner CK, Marathe CS, Jones KL. Spontaneous or Deliberate: Effects of Acute Variations in Glycemia on Gastric Emptying in Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2021; 44:316-318. [PMID: 33472966 DOI: 10.2337/dci20-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Murthy TA, Grivell J, Hatzinikolas S, Chapple LAS, Chapman MJ, Stevens JE, Malbert CH, Rayner CK, Horowitz M, Jones KL, Marathe CS. Acceleration of Gastric Emptying by Insulin-Induced Hypoglycemia is Dependent on the Degree of Hypoglycemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021; 106:364-371. [PMID: 33230553 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Hypoglycemia is a major barrier to optimal glycemic control in insulin-treated diabetes. Recent guidelines from the American Diabetes Association have subcategorized "non-severe" hypoglycemia into level 1 (<3.9 mmol/L) and 2 (<3 mmol/L) hypoglycemia. Gastric emptying of carbohydrate is a major determinant of postprandial glycemia but its role in hypoglycemia counter-regulation remains underappreciated. "Marked" hypoglycemia (~2.6 mmol/L) accelerates gastric emptying and increases carbohydrate absorption in health and type 1 diabetes, but the impact of "mild" hypoglycemia (3.0-3.9 mmol/L) is unknown. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2 levels of hypoglycemia, 2.6 mmol/L ("marked") and 3.6 mmol/L ("mild"), on gastric emptying in health. DESIGN, SETTING, AND SUBJECTS Fourteen healthy male participants (mean age: 32.9 ± 8.3 years; body mass index: 24.5 ± 3.4 kg/m2) from the general community underwent measurement of gastric emptying of a radiolabeled solid meal (100 g beef) by scintigraphy over 120 minutes on 3 separate occasions, while blood glucose was maintained at either ~2.6 mmol/L, ~3.6 mmol/L, or ~6 mmol/L in random order from 15 minutes before until 60 minutes after meal ingestion using glucose-insulin clamp. Blood glucose was then maintained at 6 mmol/L from 60 to 120 minutes on all days. RESULTS Gastric emptying was accelerated during both mild (P = 0.011) and marked (P = 0.001) hypoglycemia when compared to euglycemia, and was more rapid during marked compared with mild hypoglycemia (P = 0.008). Hypoglycemia-induced gastric emptying acceleration during mild (r = 0.57, P = 0.030) and marked (r = 0.76, P = 0.0014) hypoglycemia was related to gastric emptying during euglycemia. CONCLUSION In health, acceleration of gastric emptying by insulin-induced hypoglycemia is dependent on the degree of hypoglycemia and baseline rate of emptying.
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Hajishafiee M, Elovaris RA, Jones KL, Heilbronn LK, Horowitz M, Poppitt SD, Feinle-Bisset C. Effects of intragastric administration of L-tryptophan on the glycaemic response to a nutrient drink in men with type 2 diabetes - impacts on gastric emptying, glucoregulatory hormones and glucose absorption. Nutr Diabetes 2021; 11:3. [PMID: 33414406 PMCID: PMC7791097 DOI: 10.1038/s41387-020-00146-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rate of gastric emptying and glucoregulatory hormones are key determinants of postprandial glycaemia. Intragastric administration of L-tryptophan slows gastric emptying and reduces the glycaemic response to a nutrient drink in lean individuals and those with obesity. We investigated whether tryptophan decreases postprandial glycaemia and slows gastric emptying in type 2 diabetes (T2D). METHODS Twelve men with T2D (age: 63 ± 2 years, HbA1c: 49.7 ± 2.5 mmol/mol, BMI: 30 ± 1 kg/m2) received, on three separate occasions, 3 g ('Trp-3') or 1.5 g ('Trp-1.5') tryptophan, or control (0.9% saline), intragastrically, in randomised, double-blind fashion, 30 min before a mixed-nutrient drink (500 kcal, 74 g carbohydrates), containing 3 g 3-O-methyl-D-glucose (3-OMG) to assess glucose absorption. Venous blood samples were obtained at baseline, after tryptophan, and for 2 h post-drink for measurements of plasma glucose, C-peptide, glucagon and 3-OMG. Gastric emptying of the drink was quantified using two-dimensional ultrasound. RESULTS Tryptophan alone stimulated C-peptide (P = 0.002) and glucagon (P = 0.04), but did not affect fasting glucose. In response to the drink, Trp-3 lowered plasma glucose from t = 15-30 min and from t = 30-45 min compared with control and Trp-1.5, respectively (both P < 0.05), with no differences in peak glucose between treatments. Gastric emptying tended to be slower after Trp-3, but not Trp-1.5, than control (P = 0.06). Plasma C-peptide, glucagon and 3-OMG increased on all days, with no major differences between treatments. CONCLUSIONS In people with T2D, intragastric administration of 3 g tryptophan modestly slows gastric emptying, associated with a delayed rise, but not an overall lowering of, postprandial glucose.
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Elovaris RA, Hajishafiee M, Ullrich SS, Fitzgerald PCE, Lange K, Horowitz M, Feinle-Bisset C. Intragastric administration of leucine and isoleucine does not reduce the glycaemic response to, or slow gastric emptying of, a carbohydrate-containing drink in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2021; 171:108618. [PMID: 33310174 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
AIMS In healthy individuals, intragastric administration of the branched-chain amino acids, leucine and isoleucine, diminishes the glycaemic response to a mixed-nutrient drink, apparently by stimulating insulin and slowing gastric emptying, respectively. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of leucine and isoleucine on postprandial glycaemia and gastric emptying in type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). METHODS 14 males with T2D received, on 3 separate occasions, in double-blind, randomised fashion, either 10 g leucine, 10 g isoleucine or control, intragastrically 30 min before a mixed-nutrient drink (500 kcal; 74 g carbohydrates, 18 g protein, 15 g fat). Plasma glucose, insulin and glucagon were measured from 30 min pre- until 120 min post-drink. Gastric emptying of the drink was also measured. RESULTS Leucine and isoleucine stimulated insulin, both before and after the drink (all P < 0.05; peak (mU/L): control: 70 ± 15; leucine: 88 ± 17; isoleucine: 74 ± 15). Isoleucine stimulated (P < 0.05), and leucine tended to stimulate (P = 0.078), glucagon before the drink, and isoleucine stimulated glucagon post-drink (P = 0.031; peak (pg/mL): control: 62 ± 5; leucine: 70 ± 9; isoleucine: 69 ± 6). Neither amino acid affected gastric emptying or plasma glucose (peak (mmol/L): control: 12.0 ± 0.5; leucine: 12.5 ± 0.7; isoleucine: 12.0 ± 0.6). CONCLUSIONS In contrast to health, in T2D, leucine and isoleucine, administered intragastrically in a dose of 10 g, do not lower the glycaemic response to a mixed-nutrient drink. This finding argues against a role for 'preloads' of either leucine or isoleucine in the management of T2D.
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Ali Abdelhamid Y, Phillips LK, White MG, Presneill J, Horowitz M, Deane AM. Survivors of Intensive Care With Type 2 Diabetes and the Effect of Shared-Care Follow-Up Clinics: The SWEET-AS Randomized Controlled Pilot Study. Chest 2021; 159:174-185. [PMID: 32800818 DOI: 10.1016/j.chest.2020.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Follow-up clinics after ICU admission have demonstrated limited benefit. However, existing trials have evaluated heterogeneous cohorts and used physicians who had limited training in outpatient care. RESEARCH QUESTION What are the effects of a "shared-care" intensivist-endocrinologist clinic for ICU survivors with type 2 diabetes on process measures and clinical outcomes 6 months after hospital discharge, and is it feasible to conduct a larger trial? STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS This was a prospective, randomized, single-center pilot study with blinded outcome assessment. Patients with type 2 diabetes, who required ≥ 5 days of ICU care (mixed medical-surgical ICU) and survived to ICU discharge, were eligible. Participants were randomized to attendance at the shared-care clinic 1 month after hospital discharge or usual care. Six months after hospital discharge, participants were assessed for outcomes including glycated hemoglobin, neuropathy, nephropathy, quality of life, return to employment, frailty, and health-care use. The primary outcome was participant recruitment and retention. RESULTS During an 18-month period, 42 of 82 eligible patients (51%) were recruited. Four participants (10%) withdrew before assessment at 6 months and 11 (26%) died. At 6 months, only 18 of 38 participants who did not withdraw (47%) were living independently without support, and 24 (63%) required at least one subsequent hospital admission. In the intervention group (n = 21), 16 (76%) attended the clinic. Point estimates did not indicate that the intervention improved glycated hemoglobin (+5.6 mmol/mol; 95% CI, -6.3 to 17; P = .36) or quality of life (36-Item Short Form Survey physical summary score, 32 [9] vs. 32 [7]; P = 1.0). INTERPRETATION Outcomes for ICU survivors with type 2 diabetes are poor. Because of low participation and high mortality, a larger trial of a shared-care follow-up clinic in this cohort, using the present design, does not appear feasible. TRIAL REGISTRY Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR); No.: ACTRN12616000206426; URL: www.anzctr.org.au.
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Xie C, Huang W, Wang X, Trahair LG, Pham HT, Marathe CS, Young RL, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Rayner CK, Wu T. Gastric emptying in health and type 2 diabetes: An evaluation using a 75 g oral glucose drink. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2021; 171:108610. [PMID: 33301790 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
AIM Gastric emptying is a major determinant of the glycaemic response to carbohydrate and is frequently abnormal in type 2 diabetes (T2DM). There is little information about how chronic glycaemic control affects gastric emptying in T2DM. We evaluated gastric emptying of a 75 g glucose drink in community-based patients with T2DM of short duration with good or poor glycaemic control, and compared this to young and older controls. METHODS T2DM patients managed by diet and/or metformin, either well-controlled or poorly-controlled, together with young and age-matched older controls without diabetes, consumed a 75 g oral glucose drink containing 150 mg 13C-acetate for evaluation of gastric emptying (breath test) and blood glucose over 180 min. RESULTS The gastric half-emptying time (T50) was longer in the older than the young non-diabetic subjects (P = 0.041), but shorter in well-controlled T2DM patients than age-matched older controls (P = 0.043). The T50 in poorly-controlled T2DM patients was shorter than in older controls (P = 0.006), but similar to young non-diabetic subjects. CONCLUSIONS Gastric emptying of a glucose drink is delayed with ageing, but more rapid in patients with T2DM of relatively short duration, regardless of their glycaemic status. These observations support interventions that slow gastric emptying to improve postprandial glycaemia in these patients with T2DM.
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Kamruzzaman M, Horowitz M, Jones KL, Marathe CS. Gut-Based Strategies to Reduce Postprandial Glycaemia in Type 2 Diabetes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:661877. [PMID: 33897622 PMCID: PMC8062751 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.661877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Postprandial glycemic control is an important target for optimal type 2 diabetes management, but is often difficult to achieve. The gastrointestinal tract plays a major role in modulating postprandial glycaemia in both health and diabetes. The various strategies that have been proposed to modulate gastrointestinal function, particularly by slowing gastric emptying and/or stimulating incretin hormone GLP-1, are summarized in this review.
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