Application of artificial intelligence in the prediction of immunotherapy efficacy in hepatocellular carcinoma: Current status and prospects

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has increased as a potent tool in medicine, with promising oncology applications. The emergence of immunotherapy has transformed the treatment terrain for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), offering new hope to patients with this challenging malignancy. This article examines the role and future of AI in forecasting the effectiveness of immunotherapy in HCC. We highlight the potential of AI to revolutionize the prediction of therapy response, thus improving patient selection and clinical outcomes. The article further outlines the challenges and future research directions in this emerging field.

Evaluating the accuracy and reproducibility of ChatGPT-4 in answering patient questions related to small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

BACKGROUND

Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) poses diagnostic and treatment challenges due to its complex management and evolving guidelines. Patients often seek online information related to their health, prompting interest in large language models, like GPT-4, as potential sources of patient education.

AIM

To investigate ChatGPT-4's accuracy and reproducibility in responding to patient questions related to SIBO.

METHODS

A total of 27 patient questions related to SIBO were curated from professional societies, Facebook groups, and Reddit threads. Each question was entered into GPT-4 twice on separate days to examine reproducibility of accuracy on separate occasions. GPT-4 generated responses were independently evaluated for accuracy and reproducibility by two motility fellowship-trained gastroenterologists. A third senior fellowship-trained gastroenterologist resolved disagreements. Accuracy of responses were graded using the scale: (1) Comprehensive; (2) Correct but inadequate; (3) Some correct and some incorrect; or (4) Completely incorrect. Two responses were generated for every question to evaluate reproducibility in accuracy.

RESULTS

In evaluating GPT-4's effectiveness at answering SIBO-related questions, it provided responses with correct information to 18/27 (66.7%) of questions, with 16/27 (59.3%) of responses graded as comprehensive and 2/27 (7.4%) responses graded as correct but inadequate. The model provided responses with incorrect information to 9/27 (33.3%) of questions, with 4/27 (14.8%) of responses graded as completely incorrect and 5/27 (18.5%) of responses graded as mixed correct and incorrect data. Accuracy varied by question category, with questions related to “basic knowledge” achieving the highest proportion of comprehensive responses (90%) and no incorrect responses. On the other hand, the “treatment” related questions yielded the lowest proportion of comprehensive responses (33.3%) and highest percent of completely incorrect responses (33.3%). A total of 77.8% of questions yielded reproducible responses.

CONCLUSION

Though GPT-4 shows promise as a supplementary tool for SIBO-related patient education, the model requires further refinement and validation in subsequent iterations prior to its integration into patient care.

Scope and caveats: Artificial intelligence in gastroenterology

The use of Artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved from its mid-20^th century origins to playing a pivotal tool in modern medicine. It leverages digital data and computational hardware for diverse applications, including diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment responses in gastrointestinal and hepatic conditions. AI has had an impact in diagnostic techniques, particularly endoscopy, ultrasound, and histopathology. AI encompasses machine learning, natural language processing, and robotics, with machine learning being central. This involves sophisticated algorithms capable of managing complex datasets, far surpassing traditional statistical methods. These algorithms, both supervised and unsupervised, are integral for interpreting large datasets. In liver diseases, AI's non-invasive diagnostic applications, particularly in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and its role in characterizing hepatic lesions is promising. AI aids in distinguishing between normal and cirrhotic livers and improves the accuracy of lesion characterization and prognostication of hepatocellular carcinoma. AI enhances lesion identification during endoscopy, showing potential in the diagnosis and management of early-stage esophageal carcinoma. In peptic ulcer disease, AI technologies influence patient management strategies. AI is useful in colonoscopy, particularly in detecting smaller colonic polyps. However, its applicability in non-academic settings requires further validation. Addressing these issues is vital for harnessing the potential of AI. In conclusion, while AI offers transformative possibilities in gastroenterology, careful integration and balancing of technical possibilities with ethical and practical application, is essential for optimal use.

Role of artificial intelligence in the characterization of indeterminate pancreatic head mass and its usefulness in preoperative diagnosis

Artificial intelligence (AI) has been used in various fields of day-to-day life and its role in medicine is immense. Understanding of oncology has been improved with the introduction of AI which helps in diagnosis, treatment planning, management, prognosis, and follow-up. It also helps to identify high-risk groups who can be subjected to timely screening for early detection of malignant conditions. It is more important in pancreatic cancer as it is one of the major causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide and there are no specific early features (clinical and radiological) for diagnosis. With improvement in imaging modalities (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, endoscopic ultrasound), most often clinicians were being challenged with lesions that were difficult to diagnose with human competence. AI has been used in various other branches of medicine to differentiate such indeterminate lesions including the thyroid gland, breast, lungs, liver, adrenal gland, kidney, etc. In the case of pancreatic cancer, the role of AI has been explored and is still ongoing. This review article will focus on how AI can be used to diagnose pancreatic cancer early or differentiate it from benign pancreatic lesions, therefore, management can be planned at an earlier stage.

Use of artificial intelligence in total mesorectal excision in rectal cancer surgery: State of the art and perspectives

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer is a major public health problem, with 1.9 million new cases and 953000 deaths worldwide in 2020. Total mesorectal excision (TME) is the standard of care for the treatment of rectal cancer and is crucial to prevent local recurrence, but it is a technically challenging surgery. The use of artificial intelligence (AI) could help improve the performance and safety of TME surgery.

AIM

To review the literature on the use of AI and machine learning in rectal surgery and potential future developments.

METHODS

Online scientific databases were searched for articles on the use of AI in rectal cancer surgery between 2020 and 2023.

RESULTS

The literature search yielded 876 results, and only 13 studies were selected for review. The use of AI in rectal cancer surgery and specifically in TME is a rapidly evolving field. There are a number of different AI algorithms that have been developed for use in TME, including algorithms for instrument detection, anatomical structure identification, and image-guided navigation systems.

CONCLUSION

AI has the potential to revolutionize TME surgery by providing real-time surgical guidance, preventing complications, and improving training. However, further research is needed to fully understand the benefits and risks of AI in TME surgery.

Role of artificial intelligence in Barrett’s esophagus

The application of artificial intelligence (AI) in gastrointestinal endoscopy has gained significant traction over the last decade. One of the more recent applications of AI in this field includes the detection of dysplasia and cancer in Barrett’s esophagus (BE). AI using deep learning methods has shown promise as an adjunct to the endoscopist in detecting dysplasia and cancer. Apart from visual detection and diagnosis, AI may also aid in reducing the considerable interobserver variability in identifying and distinguishing dysplasia on whole slide images from digitized BE histology slides. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the key studies thus far as well as providing an insight into the future role of AI in Barrett’s esophagus.

Drug-induced liver injury and COVID-19: Use of artificial intelligence and the updated Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method in clinical practice

BACKGROUND

Liver injury is a relevant condition in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) inpatients. Pathophysiology varies from direct infection by virus, systemic inflammation or drug-induced adverse reaction (DILI). DILI detection and monitoring is clinically relevant, as it may contribute to poor prognosis, prolonged hospitalization and increase indirect healthcare costs. Artificial Intelligence (AI) applied in data mining of electronic medical records combining abnormal liver tests, keyword searching tools, and risk factors analysis is a relevant opportunity for early DILI detection by automated algorithms.

AIM

To describe DILI cases in COVID-19 inpatients detected from data mining in electronic medical records (EMR) using AI and the updated Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM).

METHODS

The study was conducted in March 2021 in a hospital in southern Brazil. The NoHarm^© system uses AI to support decision making in clinical pharmacy. Hospital admissions were 100523 during this period, of which 478 met the inclusion criteria. From these, 290 inpatients were excluded due to alternative causes of liver injury and/or due to not having COVID-19. We manually reviewed the EMR of 188 patients for DILI investigation. Absence of clinical information excluded most eligible patients. The DILI assessment causality was possible via the updated RUCAM in 17 patients.

RESULTS

Mean patient age was 53 years (SD ± 18.37; range 22-83), most were male (70%), and admitted to the non-intensive care unit sector (65%). Liver injury pattern was mainly mixed, mean time to normalization of liver markers was 10 d, and mean length of hospitalization was 20.5 d (SD ± 16; range 7-70). Almost all patients recovered from DILI and one patient died of multiple organ failure. There were 31 suspected drugs with the following RUCAM score: Possible (n = 24), probable (n = 5), and unlikely (n = 2). DILI agents in our study were ivermectin, bicalutamide, linezolid, azithromycin, ceftriaxone, amoxicillin-clavulanate, tocilizumab, piperacillin-tazobactam, and albendazole. Lack of essential clinical information excluded most patients. Although rare, DILI is a relevant clinical condition in COVID-19 patients and may contribute to poor prognostics.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of DILI in COVID-19 inpatients is rare and the absence of relevant clinical information on EMR may underestimate DILI rates. Prospects involve creation and validation of alerts for risk factors in all DILI patients based on RUCAM assessment causality, alterations of liver biomarkers and AI and machine learning.

Big data and variceal rebleeding prediction in cirrhosis patients

Big data has convincing merits in developing risk stratification strategies for diseases. The 6 “V”s of big data, namely, volume, velocity, variety, veracity, value, and variability, have shown promise for real-world scenarios. Big data can be applied to analyze health data and advance research in preclinical biology, medicine, and especially disease initiation, development, and control. A study design comprises data selection, inclusion and exclusion criteria, standard confirmation and cohort establishment, follow-up strategy, and events of interest. The development and efficiency verification of a prognosis model consists of deciding the data source, taking previous models as references while selecting candidate predictors, assessing model performance, choosing appropriate statistical methods, and model optimization. The model should be able to inform disease development and outcomes, such as predicting variceal rebleeding in patients with cirrhosis. Our work has merits beyond those of other colleagues with respect to cirrhosis patient screening and data source regarding variceal bleeding.

Risk factor profiles for gastric cancer prediction with respect to Helicobacter pylori: A study of a tertiary care hospital in Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Diagnosis relies on histopathology and the number of endoscopies is increasing. Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is a major risk factor.

AIM

To develop an in-silico GC prediction model to reduce the number of diagnostic surgical procedures. The meta-data of patients with gastroduodenal symptoms, risk factors associated with GC, and H. pylori infection status from Holy Family Hospital Rawalpindi, Pakistan, were used with machine learning.

METHODS

A cohort of 341 patients was divided into three groups [normal gastric mucosa (NGM), gastroduodenal diseases (GDD), and GC]. Information associated with socioeconomic and demographic conditions and GC risk factors was collected using a questionnaire. H. pylori infection status was determined based on urea breath test. The association of these factors and histopathological grades was assessed statistically. K-Nearest Neighbors and Random Forest (RF) machine learning models were tested.

RESULTS

This study reported an overall frequency of 64.2% (219/341) of H. pylori infection among enrolled subjects. It was higher in GC (74.2%, 23/31) as compared to NGM and GDD and higher in males (54.3%, 119/219) as compared to females. More abdominal pain (72.4%, 247/341) was observed than other clinical symptoms including vomiting, bloating, acid reflux and heartburn. The majority of the GC patients experienced symptoms of vomiting (91%, 20/22) with abdominal pain (100%, 22/22). The multinomial logistic regression model was statistically significant and correctly classified 80% of the GDD/GC cases. Age, income level, vomiting, bloating and medication had significant association with GDD and GC. A dynamic RF GC-predictive model was developed, which achieved > 80% test accuracy.

CONCLUSION

GC risk factors were incorporated into a computer model to predict the likelihood of developing GC with high sensitivity and specificity. The model is dynamic and will be further improved and validated by including new data in future research studies. Its use may reduce unnecessary endoscopic procedures. It is freely available.

Artificial intelligence applications in predicting the behavior of gastrointestinal cancers in pathology

Recent research has provided a wealth of data supporting the application of artificial intelligence (AI)-based applications in routine pathology practice. Indeed, it is clear that these methods can significantly support an accurate and rapid diagnosis by eliminating errors, increasing reliability, and improving workflow. In addition, the effectiveness of AI in the pathological evaluation of prognostic parameters associated with behavior, course, and treatment in many types of tumors has also been noted. Regarding gastrointestinal system (GIS) cancers, the contribution of AI methods to pathological diagnosis has been investigated in many studies. On the other hand, studies focusing on AI applications in evaluating parameters to determine tumor behavior are relatively few. For this purpose, the potential of AI models has been studied over a broad spectrum, from tumor subtyping to the identification of new digital biomarkers. The capacity of AI to infer genetic alterations of cancer tissues from digital slides has been demonstrated. Although current data suggest the merit of AI-based approaches in assessing tumor behavior in GIS cancers, a wide range of challenges still need to be solved, from laboratory infrastructure to improving the robustness of algorithms, before incorporating AI applications into real-life GIS pathology practice. This review aims to present data from AI applications in evaluating pathological parameters related to the behavior of GIS cancer with an overview of the opportunities and challenges encountered in implementing AI in pathology.

Artificial intelligence in gastroenterology: A narrative review

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a complex concept, broadly defined in medicine as the development of computer systems to perform tasks that require human intelligence. It has the capacity to revolutionize medicine by increasing efficiency, expediting data and image analysis and identifying patterns, trends and associations in large datasets. Within gastroenterology, recent research efforts have focused on using AI in esophagogastroduodenoscopy, wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) and colonoscopy to assist in diagnosis, disease monitoring, lesion detection and therapeutic intervention. The main objective of this narrative review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the research being performed within gastroenterology on AI in esophagogastroduodenoscopy, WCE and colonoscopy.

Dietary counseling based on artificial intelligence for patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

BACKGROUND

About 25% of the general population in Japan are reported to have nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis carry a risk of progressing further to hepatocellular carcinoma. The primary treatment for NAFLD is dietary therapy. Dietary counseling plays an essential role in dietary therapy. Although artificial intelligence (AI)-based nutrition management software applications have been developed and put into practical use in recent years, the majority focus on weight loss or muscle strengthening, and no software has been developed for patient use in clinical practice.

AIM

To examine whether effective dietary counseling is possible using AI-based nutrition management software.

METHODS

NAFLD patients who had been assessed using an AI-based nutrition management software application (Calomeal) that automatically analyzed images of meals photographed by patients and agreed to receive dietary counseling were given dietary counseling. Blood biochemistry tests were performed before (baseline) and 6 mo after (6M follow-up) dietary counseling. After the dietary counseling, the patients were asked to complete a questionnaire survey.

RESULTS

A total of 29 patients diagnosed with NAFLD between August 2020 and March 2022 were included. There were significant decreases in liver enzyme and triglyceride levels at the 6M follow-up compared to baseline. The food analysis capability of the AI used by Calomeal in this study was 75.1%. Patient satisfaction with the AI-based dietary counselling was high.

CONCLUSION

AI-based nutrition management appeared to raise awareness of dietary habits among NAFLD patients. However, it did not directly alleviate the burden of registered dietitians, and improvements are much anticipated.

Role of artificial intelligence in the diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Artificial intelligence (AI) evolved many years ago, but it gained much advancement in recent years for its use in the medical domain. AI with its different subsidiaries, i.e. deep learning and machine learning, examine a large amount of data and performs an essential part in decision-making in addition to conquering the limitations related to human evaluation. Deep learning tries to imitate the functioning of the human brain. It utilizes much more data and intricate algorithms. Machine learning is AI based on automated learning. It utilizes earlier given data and uses algorithms to arrange and identify models. Globally, hepatocellular carcinoma is a major cause of illness and fatality. Although with substantial progress in the whole treatment strategy for hepatocellular carcinoma, managing it is still a major issue. AI in the area of gastroenterology, especially in hepatology, is particularly useful for various investigations of hepatocellular carcinoma because it is a commonly found tumor, and has specific radiological features that enable diagnostic procedures without the requirement of the histological study. However, interpreting and analyzing the resulting images is not always easy due to change of images throughout the disease process. Further, the prognostic process and response to the treatment process could be influenced by numerous components. Currently, AI is utilized in order to diagnose, curative and prediction goals. Future investigations are essential to prevent likely bias, which might subsequently influence the analysis of images and therefore restrict the consent and utilization of such models in medical practices. Moreover, experts are required to realize the real utility of such approaches, along with their associated potencies and constraints.

Artificial intelligence using advanced imaging techniques and cholangiocarcinoma: Recent advances and future direction

While cholangiocarcinoma represents only about 3% of all gastrointestinal tumors, it has a dismal survival rate, usually because it is diagnosed at a late stage. The utilization of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in medicine in general, and in gastroenterology has made gigantic steps. However, the application of AI for biliary disease, in particular for cholangiocarcinoma, has been sub-optimal. The use of AI in combination with clinical data, cross-sectional imaging (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging) and endoscopy (endoscopic ultrasound and cholangioscopy) has the potential to significantly improve early diagnosis and the choice of optimal therapeutic options, leading to a transformation in the prognosis of this feared disease. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on the use of AI for the diagnosis and management of cholangiocarcinoma and point to future directions in the field.

Machine learning approaches using blood biomarkers in non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases

The prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is an important public health concern. Early diagnosis of NAFLD and potential progression to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), could reduce the further advance of the disease, and improve patient outcomes. Aiming to support patient diagnostic and predict specific outcomes, the interest in artificial intelligence (AI) methods in hepatology has dramatically increased, especially with the application of less-invasive biomarkers. In this review, our objective was twofold: Firstly, we presented the most frequent blood biomarkers in NAFLD and NASH and secondly, we reviewed recent literature regarding the use of machine learning (ML) methods to predict NAFLD and NASH in large cohorts. Strikingly, these studies provide insights into ML application in NAFLD patients' prognostics and ranked blood biomarkers are able to provide a recognizable signature allowing cost-effective NAFLD prediction and also differentiating NASH patients. Future studies should consider the limitations in the current literature and expand the application of these algorithms in different populations, fortifying an already promising tool in medical science.

Application of artificial intelligence in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and viral hepatitis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and chronic viral hepatitis are among the most significant causes of liver-related mortality worldwide. It is critical to develop reliable methods of predicting progression to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and decompensated liver disease. Current screening methods such as biopsy and transient elastography are limited by invasiveness and observer variation in analysis of data. Artificial intelligence (AI) provides a unique opportunity to more accurately diagnose NAFLD and viral hepatitis, and to identify patients at high risk for disease progression. We conducted a literature review of existing evidence for AI in NAFLD and viral hepatitis. Thirteen articles on AI in NAFLD and 14 on viral hepatitis were included in our analysis. We found that machine learning algorithms were comparable in accuracy to current methods for diagnosis and fibrosis prediction (MELD-Na score, liver biopsy, FIB-4 score, and biomarkers). They also reliably predicted hepatitis C treatment failure and hepatic encephalopathy, for which there are currently no established prediction tools. These studies show that AI could be a helpful adjunct to existing techniques for diagnosing, monitoring, and treating both NAFLD and viral hepatitis.

Colorectal cancer: Artificial intelligence and its role in surgical decision making

Despite several advances in the oncological management of colorectal cancer (CRC), there still remains a lacuna in the treatment strategy, which differs from center to center and on the philosophy of the treating clinician that is not without bias. Personalized treatment is essential for the treatment of CRC to achieve better long-term outcomes and to reduce morbidity. Surgery has an important role to play in the treatment. Surgical treatment of CRC is decided based on clinical parameters and investigations and hence likely to have judgmental errors. Artificial intelligence has been reported to be useful in the surveillance, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up with accuracy in several malignancies. However, it is still evolving and yet to be established in surgical decision making in CRC. It is not only useful preoperatively but also intraoperatively. Artificial intelligence helps to rectify the human surgical decision when clinical data and radiological and laboratory parameters are fed into the computer and may guide correct surgical treatment.

Artificial intelligence in critically ill diabetic patients: current status and future prospects

Recent years have witnessed increasing numbers of artificial intelligence (AI) based applications and devices being tested and approved for medical care. Diabetes is arguably the most common chronic disorder worldwide and AI is now being used for making an early diagnosis, to predict and diagnose early complications, increase adherence to therapy, and even motivate patients to manage diabetes and maintain glycemic control. However, these AI applications have largely been tested in non-critically ill patients and aid in managing chronic problems. Intensive care units (ICUs) have a dynamic environment generating huge data, which AI can extract and organize simultaneously, thus analysing many variables for diagnostic and/or therapeutic purposes in order to predict outcomes of interest. Even non-diabetic ICU patients are at risk of developing hypo or hyperglycemia, complicating their ICU course and affecting outcomes. In addition, to maintain glycemic control frequent blood sampling and insulin dose adjustments are required, increasing nursing workload and chances of error. AI has the potential to improve glycemic control while reducing the nursing workload and errors. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) devices, which are Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for use in non-critically ill patients, are now being recommended for use in specific ICU populations with increased accuracy. AI based devices including artificial pancreas and CGM regulated insulin infusion system have shown promise as comprehensive glycemic control solutions in critically ill patients. Even though many of these AI applications have shown potential, these devices need to be tested in larger number of ICU patients, have wider availability, show favorable cost-benefit ratio and be amenable for easy integration into the existing healthcare systems, before they become acceptable to ICU physicians for routine use.

Liver surgery for colorectal metastasis: New paths and new goals with the help of artificial intelligence

Colorectal cancer is one of the most common neoplasia with an high risk to metastatic spread. Improving medical and surgical treatment is moving along with improving the precision of diagnosis and patient's assessment, the latter two aided more and more with the use of artificial intelligence (AI). The management of colorectal liver metastasis is multidisciplinary, and surgery is the main option. After the diagnosis, a surgical assessment of the patient is fundamental. Reaching a R0 resection with a proper remnant liver volume can be done using new techniques involving also artificial intelligence. Considering the recent application of artificial intelligence as a valid substitute for liver biopsy in chronic liver diseases, several authors tried to apply similar techniques to pre-operative imaging of liver metastasis. Radiomics showed good results in identifying structural changes in a unhealthy liver and in evaluating the prognosis after a liver resection. Recently deep learning has been successfully applied in estimating the remnant liver volume before surgery. Moreover AI techniques can help surgeons to perform an early diagnosis of neoplastic relapse or a better differentiation between a colorectal metastasis and a benign lesion. AI could be applied also in the histopathological diagnostic tool. Although AI implementation is still partially automatized, it appears faster and more precise than the usual diagnostic tools and, in the short future, could become the new gold standard in liver surgery.

Machine learning in endoscopic ultrasonography and the pancreas: The new frontier?

Pancreatic diseases have a substantial burden on society which is predicted to increase further over the next decades. Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) remains the best available diagnostic method to assess the pancreas, however, there remains room for improvement. Artificial intelligence (AI) approaches have been adopted to assess pancreatic diseases for over a decade, but this methodology has recently reached a new era with the innovative machine learning algorithms which can process, recognize, and label endosonographic images. Our review provides a targeted summary of AI in EUS for pancreatic diseases. Included studies cover a wide spectrum of pancreatic diseases from pancreatic cystic lesions to pancreatic masses and diagnosis of pancreatic cancer, chronic pancreatitis, and autoimmune pancreatitis. For these, AI models seemed highly successful, although the results should be evaluated carefully as the tasks, datasets and models were greatly heterogenous. In addition to use in diagnostics, AI was also tested as a procedural real-time assistant for EUS-guided biopsy as well as recognition of standard pancreatic stations and labeling anatomical landmarks during routine examination. Studies thus far have suggested that the adoption of AI in pancreatic EUS is highly promising and further opportunities should be explored in the field.

Current advancements in application of artificial intelligence in clinical decision-making by gastroenterologists in gastrointestinal bleeding

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a type of intelligence that comes from machines or computer systems that mimics human cognitive function. Recently, AI has been utilized in medicine and helped clinicians make clinical decisions. In gastroenterology, AI has assisted colon polyp detection, optical biopsy, and diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection. AI also has a broad role in the clinical prediction and management of gastrointestinal bleeding. Machine learning can determine the clinical risk of upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding. AI can assist the management of gastrointestinal bleeding by identifying high-risk patients who might need urgent endoscopic treatment or blood transfusion, determining bleeding stigmata during endoscopy, and predicting recurrence of gastrointestinal bleeding. The present review will discuss the role of AI in the clinical prediction and management of gastrointestinal bleeding, primarily on how it could assist gastroenterologists in their clinical decision-making compared to conventional methods. This review will also discuss challenges in implementing AI in routine practice.

Gastrointestinal disorders in children with autism: Could artificial intelligence help?

Autism is one of the pervasive neurodevelopmental disorders usually associated with many medical comorbidities. Gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are pervasive in children, with a 46%-84% prevalence rate. Children with Autism have an increased frequency of diarrhea, nausea and/or vomiting, gastroesophageal reflux and/or disease, abdominal pain, chronic flatulence due to various factors as food allergies, gastrointestinal dysmotility, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). These GI disorders have a significant negative impact on both the child and his/her family. Artificial intelligence (AI) could help diagnose and manage Autism by improving children's communication, social, and emotional skills for a long time. AI is an effective method to enhance early detection of GI disorders, including GI bleeding, gastroesophageal reflux disease, Coeliac disease, food allergies, IBS, IBD, and rectal polyps. AI can also help personalize the diet for children with Autism by microbiome modification. It can help to provide modified gluten without initiating an immune response. However, AI has many obstacles in treating digestive diseases, especially in children with Autism. We need to do more studies and adopt specific algorithms for children with Autism. In this article, we will highlight the role of AI in helping children with gastrointestinal disorders, with particular emphasis on children with Autism.

Artificial intelligence and human liver allocation: Potential benefits and ethical implications

Since its implementation almost two decades ago, the urgency allocation policy has improved the survival of patients on the waiting list for liver transplantation worldwide. The Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score is widely used to predict waiting list mortality. Due to some limitations related to its use, there is an active investigation to develop other prognostic scores. Liver allocation (LA) entails complex decision-making, and grafts are occasionally not directed to the recipients who are more likely to survive. Prognostic scores have, thus far, failed to predict post-operatory survival. Furthermore, the increasing use of marginal donors is associated with worse outcomes. Adequate donor-recipient pairing could help avoid retransplantation or futile procedures and reduce postoperative complications, mortality, hospitalization time, and costs. Artificial intelligence has applications in several medical fields. Machine learning algorithms (MLAs) use large amounts of data to detect unforeseen patterns and complex interactions between variables. Artificial neural networks and decision trees were the most common forms of MLA tested on LA. Some researchers have shown them to be superior for predicting waiting list mortality and graft failure than conventional statistical methods. These promising techniques are increasingly being considered for implementation.

Artificial intelligence in pathological evaluation of gastrointestinal cancers

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) has shown promising benefits in many fields of diagnostic histopathology, including for gastrointestinal cancers (GCs), such as tumor identification, classification, and prognosis prediction. In parallel, recent evidence suggests that AI may help reduce the workload in gastrointestinal pathology by automatically detecting tumor tissues and evaluating prognostic parameters. In addition, AI seems to be an attractive tool for biomarker/genetic alteration prediction in GC, as it can contain a massive amount of information from visual data that is complex and partially understandable by pathologists. From this point of view, it is suggested that advances in AI could lead to revolutionary changes in many fields of pathology. Unfortunately, these findings do not exclude the possibility that there are still many hurdles to overcome before AI applications can be safely and effectively applied in actual pathology practice. These include a broad spectrum of challenges from needs identification to cost-effectiveness. Therefore, unlike other disciplines of medicine, no histopathology-based AI application, including in GC, has ever been approved either by a regulatory authority or approved for public reimbursement. The purpose of this review is to present data related to the applications of AI in pathology practice in GC and present the challenges that need to be overcome for their implementation.

Application of artificial intelligence in liver diseases: From diagnosis to treatment

Infectious or noninfectious liver disease has inexorably risen as one of the leading causes of global death and disease burden. There were an estimated 2.14 million liver-related deaths in 2017, representing an 11.4% increase since 2012. Traditional diagnosis and treatment methods have various dilemmas in different causes of liver disease. As a hot research topic in recent years, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in different fields has attracted extensive attention, and new technologies have brought more ideas for the diagnosis and treatment of some liver diseases. Machine learning (ML) is the core of AI and the basic way to make a computer intelligent. ML technology has many potential uses in hepatology, ranging from exploring new noninvasive means to predict or diagnose different liver diseases to automated image analysis. The application of ML in liver diseases can help clinical staff to diagnose and treat different liver diseases quickly, accurately and scientifically, which is of importance for reducing the incidence and mortality of liver diseases, reducing medical errors, and promoting the development of medicine. This paper reviews the application and prospects of AI in liver diseases, and aims to improve clinicians’ awareness of the importance of AI in the diagnosis and treatment of liver diseases.