Neural correlates of chocolate brand preference: A functional MRI study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Preferences can be developed for, or against, specific brands and services. Using two functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments, this study investigated two dissociable aspects of reward processing, craving and liking, in chocolate lovers. The goal was to further delineate the neural basis supporting branding effects using familiar chocolate (FC) and unfamiliar chocolate (UC) brand images.

METHODS

In the first experiment, subjects rated their subjective craving and liking on a scale of 1-5 (weak-strong) for each FC and UC image. In the second experiment, they performed a choice task between FC and UC images.

RESULTS

Both the craving and liking ratings were significantly greater for FC and were differentially correlated with choice behavior. Craving ratings predicted greater preference for UC, and liking ratings predicted greater preference for FC. A contrast of neural activity for UC versus FC choice trials revealed significantly greater activation for UC choices in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus and right caudate head. Response times for the FC images were faster than UC images; fMRI activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex was significantly correlated with response times during FC trials, but not UC trials. These correlations were significantly different from each other at the group level.

CONCLUSIONS

The choices for branded chocolate products are driven by higher subjective reward ratings and lower neural processing demands.

Perceptual representations mediate effects of stimulus properties on liking for music

Perceptual pleasure and its concomitant hedonic value play an essential role in everyday life, motivating behavior and thus influencing how individuals choose to spend their time and resources. However, how pleasure arises from perception of sensory information remains relatively poorly understood. In particular, research has neglected the question of how perceptual representations mediate the relationships between stimulus properties and liking (e.g., stimulus symmetry can only affect liking if it is perceived). The present research addresses this gap for the first time, analyzing perceptual and liking ratings of 96 nonmusicians (power of 0.99) and finding that perceptual representations mediate effects of feature-based and information-based stimulus properties on liking for a novel set of melodies varying in balance, contour, symmetry, or complexity. Moreover, variability due to individual differences and stimuli accounts for most of the variance in liking. These results have broad implications for psychological research on sensory valuation, advocating a more explicit account of random variability and the mediating role of perceptual representations of stimulus properties.

Plant-Based Alternatives Need Not Be Inferior: Findings from a Sensory and Consumer Research Case Study with Cream Cheese

Reliance on animal foods must be reduced to improve planetary and human well-being. This research studied plant-based cheese alternatives (PBCA) relative to dairy cheese in a consumer taste test with 157 consumers in New Zealand. A case study approach used cream cheese (commercially available) as the focal product category (2 PBCA, 2 dairy) and implemented a multi-response paradigm (hedonic, sensory, emotional, conceptual, situational). "Beyond liking" insights were established, including drivers of liking (sensory, non-sensory) and sensory drivers of non-sensory product associations. Two consumer segments were identified, of which the largest (n = 111) liked PBCA and dairy samples equally (6.5-6.7 of 9). In this PBCA Likers cluster, the key sensory drivers of liking were 'creamy/smooth mouthfeel', 'dissolves quickly in mouth', and 'sweet', while a significant penalty was associated with 'mild/bland flavour'. The non-sensory data contributed additional consumer insights, including the four samples being perceived as differently appropriate for 9 of 12 use situations, with PBCA being regarded as less appropriate. In the limited confines of this case on cream cheese, the findings show that PBCA need not be inferior to their dairy counterparts despite a general narrative to the contrary. Of note, the results were obtained among participants who were open to eating a more PB diet but were not vegetarian or vegan.

A test of the Morality-Agency-Communion (MAC) model of respect and liking across positive and negative traits

The Morality-Agency-Communion (MAC) model of respect and liking suggests that traits linked with morality are important for respect and liking; traits related to competence or assertiveness are important for respect and traits related to warmth are important for liking. However, tests of this model have tended not to consider traits related to immorality, incompetence, lack of assertiveness or coldness. This study addressed this issue by utilizing a within-subjects design in which participants were required to rate their respect and liking for individuals with specific trait types across four categories (moral; competence; assertiveness; and warmth) at three levels (positive, negative and neutral). The central tenets of the MAC model were supported for 'positive' traits (morality, competence, assertiveness and warmth). However, for 'negative' traits (immorality, incompetence and lack of assertiveness), individuals were similarly not liked and not respected. Individuals who were cold were respected more than liked. The findings of this study extend the MAC model by indicating that the amount that individuals are respected versus liked depends not only on trait type but also whether a trait is positive or negative.

Liking Predicts Judgments of Authenticity in Real-Time Interactions More Robustly Than Personality States or Affect

We conducted three studies involving small group interactions (N = 622) that examined whether Big Five personality states, affect, and/or liking predict judgments of others' authenticity. Study 1 (n = 119) revealed that neither self-rated personality states nor affect predicted other-rated authenticity. Instead, other-rated liking was the only predictor of other-rated authenticity. Study 2 (n = 281) revealed that other-rated personality states and affect were significant predictors of other-rated authenticity, but other-rated liking was a more important factor in predicting other-rated authenticity than specific behaviors or affect. Based on these results, Study 3 (n = 222) examined whether experimental manipulation of likability had a causal effect on other-ratings of authenticity. Likable actors were indeed judged as more authentic. Together, this suggests that we judge people we like as more authentic and that likability may be more important than the "objective" content of behavior.

Satiating Capacity of Plant-Based Meat in Realistic Meal Contexts at Home

Plant-based meat substitutes replacing animal meat can potentially support the transition towards more sustainable diets. To enable the required transition, consumer acceptance of plant-based meat is essential. An important aspect of this is the feeling of satiety or being full after eating. This study determined the satiating capacity of both plant-based meat and animal meat in 60 adults under real-life in-home conditions. Participants consumed four fixed ready-to eat meals for lunch at home once per week. Two types of Indian curry with 'chicken' were investigated as well as two types of pasta Bolognese with 'minced meat'. The two 'chicken' dishes and the two 'minced meat' dishes had the same recipe except for a gram-for-gram swap (125 g each) of either animal meat (chicken breast and minced meat) or plant-based (soy) meat. Results showed no difference in the satiating power of an animal meat dish and a plant-based meat dish when these were eaten as part of a full lunch meal at home. In addition, the meals did not result in energy nor macronutrient compensation during the rest of the day after consuming the meals. This occurred despite the caloric differences of the meals as a result of the real-life conditions (i.e., a lower energy content of the pasta with plant-based meat compared to the other meals). We conclude that meals with plant-based meat can be as satiating as meals with animal meat.

Separating desire from prediction of outcome value

Individuals typically want what they expect to like, often based on memories of previous positive experiences. However, in some situations desire can decouple completely from memories and from learned predictions of outcome value. The potential for desire to separate from prediction arises from independent operating rules that control motivational incentive salience. Incentive salience, or 'wanting', is a type of mesolimbic desire that evolved for adaptive goals, but can also generate maladaptive addictions. Two proof-of-principle examples are presented here to show how motivational 'wanting' can soar above memory-based predictions of outcome value: (i) 'wanting what is remembered to be disgusting', and (ii) 'wanting what is predicted to hurt'. Consequently, even outcomes remembered and predicted to be negatively aversive can become positively 'wanted'. Similarly, in human addictions, people may experience powerful cue-triggered cravings for outcomes that are not predicted to be enjoyable.

The effect of intranasal oxytocin on social reward processing in humans: a systematic review

Understanding the neurobiology of social reward processing is fundamental, holding promises for reducing maladaptive/dysfunctional social behaviors and boosting the benefits associated with a healthy social life. Current research shows that processing of social (vs. non-social) rewards may be driven by oxytocinergic signaling. However, studies in humans often led to mixed results. This review aimed to systematically summarize available experimental results that assessed the modulation of social reward processing by intranasal oxytocin (IN-OXY) administration in humans. The literature search yielded 385 results, of which 19 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. The effects of IN-OXY on subjective, behavioral, and (neuro)physiological output variables are discussed in relation to moderating variables-reward phase, reward type, onset and dosage, participants' sex/gender, and clinical condition. Results indicate that IN-OXY is mostly effective during the consumption ("liking") of social rewards. These effects are likely exerted by modulating the activity of the prefrontal cortex, insula, precuneus, anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, and striatum. Finally, we provide suggestions for designing future oxytocin studies.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021278945, identifier CRD42021278945.

A 20-Country Comparative Assessment of the Effectiveness of Nutri-Score vs. NutrInform Battery Front-of-Pack Nutritional Labels on Consumer Subjective Understanding and Liking

The incidence of overweight and obesity has generated significant concerns among European consumers and institutions. As part of a set of measures undertaken, the European Union (EU) called for one harmonized mandatory front-of-pack nutritional label (FOPL) to improve consumer food nutritional knowledge and encourage healthier and more informed food choices. Different types of FOPLs, ranging from nutrient-specific labels-such as the NutrInform Battery-to summary labels-such as the Nutri-Score-have been developed and introduced in different markets, reporting different degrees of effectiveness in terms of understanding. The aim of this study is to provide actionable insights by analyzing a specific part of the complex consumers' decision-making process in food when aided by FOPLs. Adopting a between-subject experiment on a sample of 4560 respondents in 20 EU member countries, the study compares the consumer subjective understanding and liking of two labels currently under examination by the EU bodies, the NutrInform Battery and the Nutri-Score. At an aggregated level, the results show that NutrInform Battery is more effective than Nutri-Score in improving consumer subjective understanding and leads to a higher liking towards the label. A detailed by-country analysis highlights either a superiority or a parity of NutrInform Battery for subjective understanding and liking. Theoretically, this study, through a large panel of respondents, adds the fundamental perspective on subjective understanding, complementing the findings of extant research on objective understanding, and further clarifies the role of liking as a complementary element in the food decision-making process toward heathier and more informed food choices. This might be of significant relevance in providing additional evidence that can be used by policymakers in their attempt toward the selection of a uniform FOPL at EU level.

The influence of music liking on episodic memory for rich spatiotemporal contexts

It is thought that the presence of music influences episodic memory encoding. However, no studies have isolated the influence of music liking - the hedonic value listeners attribute to a musical stimulus - from that of the core affect induced by the presence of that music. In an online survey, participants rated musical excerpts in terms of how much they liked them, as well as in terms of felt valence, felt arousal and familiarity. These ratings were then used to inform the stimuli presented in an online episodic memory task which, across different scenarios, involved dragging cued objects to cued locations and then recalling details of what was moved, where they were moved to and the order of movements made. Our results showed an influence of liking and music-reward sensitivity on memory for what was moved, as well as a detrimental effect of arousing musical stimuli on memory for un-cued scenario details. Taken together, our study showcases the importance of episodic memory paradigms that involve rich spatiotemporal contexts and provides insights into how different aspects of episodic memory may be influenced by the presence of music.

Exploring the Sensory Properties and Preferences of Fruit Wines Based on an Online Survey and Partial Projective Mapping

Non-grapefruits with unique sensory properties and potential health benefits provide added value to fruit wine production. This study aimed to explore consumers' fruit wine preferences and descriptors for the varied fruit wines. First, 234 consumers participated in an online survey concerning their preferences for different wines (grape, blueberry, hawthorn, goji, Rosa roxburghii, and apricot). In addition, their attitudes towards general health interests, food neophobia, alcoholic drinks, and sweetness were collected. Grape wine and blueberry wine were the most favored wines, and goji wine was the least liked fruit wine sample. Moreover, 89 consumers were invited to evaluate 10 commercial fruit wines by using partial projective mapping based on appearance, aroma, and flavor (including taste and mouthfeel) to obtain a comprehensive sensory characterization. Multifactor analysis results showed that consumers could differentiate the fruit wines. Participants preferred fruit wines with "sweet", "sour", and "balanced fragrance", whereas "bitter", "astringent", "deep appearance", and "medicinal fragrance" were not preferred. Attitudes toward health, food neophobia, alcohol, and sweetness had less influence than taste and aroma (sensory attributes) on the preferences for fruit wine products. More frequent self-reported wine usage resulted in higher consumption frequency and liking ratings compared to non-users. Overall, the main factors influencing consumer preference for fruit wines were the sensory characteristics of the products, especially the taste.

Hedonic plasticity of vegan burger patty in implicit or explicit reference frame conditions

BACKGROUND

The vegan food market is one of the fastest growing markets worldwide for ethical, environmental, and health reasons. However, vegan food is still relatively unfamiliar to Korean consumers. Their liking for vegan burger patties is in the early phase of development; thus, it is necessary to place the patties in an appropriate context or 'frame'.

RESULTS

We investigated consumer (n = 269) liking for vegan patty under different frame conditions. The implicit frame condition was manipulated by evaluating a target sample along with four other vegan or meat samples. Consumers were further divided into two explicit groups that were exposed to or not exposed to a video clip on ethical food consumption before evaluating the samples. A control group evaluated the target sample only. The results showed that the implicit frame formed during the sample evaluation had a stronger influence than the explicit frame created by the video clip. Perceived familiarity with the target vegan patty drastically decreased when evaluated with other meat samples and negatively influenced the liking for it.

CONCLUSION

The findings show that the type of samples evaluated sequentially together with the target vegan burger patty within the same session had a greater effect on the target sample than the information provided explicitly. To introduce the target vegan burger patty effectively to consumers who are relatively new to the vegan food product category such as Koreans, it is suggested that the product should be positioned under the category of vegan foods rather than the category of conventional burger patties. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

A mechanistic staging model of reward processing alterations in individuals with binge-type eating disorders

Altered reward processing is thought to characterize binge-type eating disorders, but the exact nature of these alterations is unclear. A more fine-grained understanding of whether specific aspects of reward processing contribute to the development or maintenance of binge eating may point to new therapeutic targets and personalized treatments. The incentive sensitization theory of addiction proposes that repeated use of a substance increases the desire to approach a reward ('wanting') but not pleasure when consuming the reward ('liking'), suggesting that reward processes driving addiction change over time. We hypothesize that the same may be true for binge eating. Further, consistent with the maladaptive scaling hypothesis, reward processing may be heightened for multiple reinforcers in at-risk individuals but become tuned toward food once binge eating is initiated. In this article, we propose a mechanistic staging model of reward processing in binge-type eating disorders that synthesizes existing data and posits that alterations of reward processing depend on illness stage and reward type. We outline translational methods for testing key hypotheses and discuss clinical implications. Considering reward processing alterations in relation to illness stage has the potential to improve treatment outcomes by ensuring that the mechanisms targeted are personalized to the individual patient. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Individuals with binge-type eating disorders experience alterations in their desire for, and pleasure from, food. We believe that the exact nature of these alterations in reward processing change over the course of illness-from the at-risk state to an established illness. If true, treatments for binge-type eating disorders that target reward processing should be personalized to the illness stage of the patient.

On How to Be Liked in First Encounters: The Effects of Agentic and Communal Behaviors on Popularity and Unique Liking

When meeting other people for the first time, how should one behave in order to be liked? We investigated the effects of agentic and communal behaviors on two forms of being liked: popularity (being generally liked by others) and unique liking (being uniquely liked by specific interaction partners). In a round-robin study, 139 unacquainted German adults had dyadic conversations and provided liking ratings afterward. The conversations were recorded on video, and four agentic behaviors (leading, dominant, confident, boastful) and four communal behaviors (polite, benevolent, warm, friendly) were each rated by trained observers. Participants who generally showed agentic and communal behavior were also generally liked (popularity). When participants' level of communal, but not agentic, behavior exceeded their personal standards during an interaction, they were particularly well-liked by the respective interaction partner (unique liking). The behavioral predictors of being liked thus differ, depending on whether one focuses on popularity or unique liking.

Impact of Calorie-Restricted Cafeteria Diet and Treadmill Exercise on Sweet Taste in Diet-Induced Obese Female and Male Rats

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the sweet taste function in obese rats fed with a 30% calorie-restricted cafeteria diet (CAFR) and/or subjected to moderate treadmill exercise (12-17 m/min, 35 min, 5 days per week) for 9 weeks. A two-bottle preference test, a taste reactivity test, and a brief-access licking test were carried out when animals were aged 21 weeks; biometric and metabolic parameters were also measured along the interventions. Two separate experiments for females and males were performed. Behaviorally, CAF diet decreased sucrose intake and preference, as well as perceived palatability, in both sexes and decreased hedonic responses in males. Compared to the CAF diet, CAFR exerted a corrective effect on sweet taste variables in females by increasing sucrose intake in the preference test and licking responses, while exercise decreased sucrose intake in both sexes and licking responses in females. As expected, CAF diet increased body weight and Lee index and worsened the metabolic profile in both sexes, whereas CAFR diet ameliorated these effects mainly in females. Exercise had no noticeable effects on these parameters. We conclude that CAF diet might diminish appetitive behavior toward sucrose in both sexes, and that this effect could be partially reverted by CAFR diet in females only, while exercise might exert protective effects against overconsumption of sucrose in both sexes.

A Systematic Review of Salt Taste Function and Perception Impairments in Adults with Chronic Kidney Disease

Individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) experience physiological changes that likely impair salt taste function and perception. Sodium restriction is a cornerstone of CKD management but dietary sodium plays an important role in food enjoyment and may interfere with compliance to this intervention. Therefore, confirming that taste deficits are present in CKD will improve our understanding of how taste deficits can affect intake, and inform dietary counselling in the future. A systematic review was conducted. Studies that included adults with CKD and healthy controls, and assessed salt taste sensitivity, perceived intensity, and/or hedonic ratings were included. Study quality was assessed using the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Evidence Analysis Library Quality Criteria Checklist: Primary Research. Of the 16 studies, the majority reported decreased salt taste sensitivity, but no consistent differences in intensity or hedonic ratings were observed. Higher recognition thresholds in CKD patients were associated with higher sodium intake, but results should be interpreted with caution as the measures used were subject to error in this population. In conclusion, salt taste sensitivity is decreased in CKD, but intensity and hedonic evaluations appear to be more robust. Given that hedonic assessments are better predictors of intake, and that salt taste preferences can be changed over time, dietary counselling for low-sodium intake is likely to be effective for this population.

The relationship between vocational college students' liking of teachers and learning engagement: A moderated mediation model

To clarify the relationship between higher vocational students' liking of teachers and their learning engagement, based on the theory of social exchange, 1,279 vocational students in the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta in China are used as the research objects. From the perspective of students and teachers, SPSS and AMOS are used to conduct a two-stage linear regression analysis. The results show that (1) students' liking of their teachers has a positive effect on learning engagement; (2) liking positively affects students' psychological empowerment; (3) liking of teachers indirectly influences learning engagement through psychological empowerment; (4) teacher's support positively moderates the indirect relationship between liking of teachers and learning engagement through psychological empowerment. This study attempts to provide practical guidance for college students to provide learning engagement.

Genome-wide Association Study of Liking for Several Types of Physical Activity in the UK Biobank and Two Replication Cohorts

INTRODUCTION

A lack of physical activity (PA) is one of the most pressing health issues today. Our individual propensity for PA is influenced by genetic factors. Stated liking of different PA types may help capture additional and informative dimensions of PA behavior genetics.

METHODS

In over 157,000 individuals from the UK Biobank, we performed genome-wide association studies of five items assessing the liking of different PA types, plus an additional derived trait of overall PA-liking. We attempted to replicate significant associations in the Netherlands Twin Register (NTR) and TwinsUK. Additionally, polygenic scores (PGS) were trained in the UK Biobank for each PA-liking item and for self-reported PA behavior, and tested for association with PA in the NTR.

RESULTS

We identified a total of 19 unique significant loci across all five PA-liking items and the overall PA-liking trait, and these showed strong directional consistency in the replication cohorts. Four of these loci were previously identified for PA behavior, including CADM2 , which was associated with three PA-liking items. The PA-liking items were genetically correlated with self-reported ( rg = 0.38-0.80) and accelerometer ( rg = 0.26-0.49) PA measures, and with a wide range of health-related traits. Each PA-liking PGS significantly predicted the same PA-liking item in NTR. The PGS of liking for going to the gym predicted PA behavior in the NTR ( r2 = 0.40%) nearly as well as a PGS based on self-reported PA behavior ( r2 = 0.42%). Combining the two PGS into a single model increased the r2 to 0.59%, suggesting that PA-liking captures distinct and relevant dimensions of PA behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified the first loci associated with PA-liking and extended our understanding of the genetic basis of PA behavior.

The Interchangeability of Liking and Friend Nominations to Measure Peer Acceptance and Friendship

Two studies examine the convergence between measures of friendship and measures of liking in the assessment of friendship and peer acceptance. In the first study, 551 (301 boys and 250 girls) Canadian primary school children (ages 8 to 11) nominated friends and liked-most classmates. In the second study, 282 (127 boys and 155 girls) U.S. primary school children (ages 9 to 11) nominated friends and rated classmates on a sociometric preference scale. The results revealed considerable convergence in the assessment of friendship. Most 1st, 2nd, and 3rd ranked friends were also nominated and rated as liked-peers, suggesting that when measures of liking are used to identify friends, few top-ranked friendships are overlooked. There was less convergence in assessments of peer acceptance. Peer acceptance scores derived from friend nominations were more strongly correlated with peer acceptance scores derived from liking nominations than with those derived from sociometric preference ratings. We conclude that liking nominations accurately capture friendships, particularly best friendships. Friend nominations may be a suitable substitute for assessments of liking, but they are a poor substitute for assessments of sociometric preference.

An Explorative Analysis of the Influence of Landscape Visual Aesthetic Quality on Food Preferences in Italy: A Pilot Study

As some previous research has highlighted, landscape characteristics are useful for improving the market share of some food products and the market power of companies in the agrifood sector. The purpose of this study is to verify whether the visual aesthetic quality of the landscape can influence food preferences and the willingness to pay for agrifood products. To this end, the preferences of 64 participants for three types of juice (orange, peach and pear) were analysed through a blind tasting experiment. Each participant tasted three pairs of fruit juices, one for each type of juice. The juices belonging to each pair were the same, but before tasting, the participants were shown two photos portraying the orchards where the fruits were produced, so participants were induced to think that the juices were different. The landscape associated with each pair of photographs had a different visual aesthetic quality (high or low). Participants were asked to provide three measures while tasting the juices: their overall juice assessment using a seven-point hedonic scale, the visual aesthetic quality of the photos on a seven-point Likert scale, and their willingness to pay as a percentage variation of the price that they usually pay to buy fruit juices. According to our results, the mean overall liking score and the mean willingness to pay percentage variation for the juices associated with a preferred landscape was higher and statistically different. Despite the need for further research, our results suggest that landscape acts as a proxy for quality in the evaluation of some food products and that the use of landscape photos could be a valid marketing strategy in agribusiness.

Why Being 'Stressed' Is 'Desserts' in Reverse-The Effect of Acute Psychosocial Stress on Food Pleasure and Food Choice

The link between acute stress, food pleasure and eating behavior in humans by employing measures of individual reward mechanisms has not been investigated as of yet. Having these insights is key to understanding why many people experience a change in eating behavior when experiencing stress. Thirty-five Danes (mean age 21.71 years) underwent a stress-inducing and relaxation-inducing task based on a randomized cross-over study design. Both tasks were combined with the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire, to investigate the effect of stress on specific measures of food reward. Furthermore, participants chose a snack, as a covert measure of actual food choice. The study found no effect on explicit liking, explicit wanting or relative preference. For implicit wanting, an effect was detected on high-fat sweet foods, with increasing scores for the stress-induced condition. Moreover, 54% chose a different snack following the stress-inducing condition. Interestingly, 14% chose to change their snack choice to no snack at all. Results suggest acute psychosocial stress can increase cravings for highly palatable foods for some, while for others an experience of loss of appetite prevails. Overall, this study points to a further understanding of why consumers have issues with making healthy food choices, ultimately affecting public health too.

The Effect of Physician Immediacy on Patient Liking for Physician, Motivation, and Recall

Guided by the fostering relationships function of patient-centered communication (PCC), the present study utilized a 2 (high/low nonverbal immediacy) x 2 (high/low verbal immediacy) between-subjects experimental design to determine whether physician verbal and nonverbal immediacy influenced participant liking for physician, motivation to process a health message, and recall of the health message. An actor physician delivered a 3-4 minute video-recorded message, diagnosing U.S. adult participants, serving as analogue patients, with a health issue. The results indicated main effects for physician verbal immediacy and nonverbal immediacy on participant liking for physician and motivation such that participants had greater liking for the physician and motivation to do what the physician requested when the physician demonstrated greater verbal and nonverbal immediacy. However, physician verbal and nonverbal immediacy did not influence participants' recall. Physicians should consider displaying verbal and nonverbal immediacy to create a positive impression among patients, and to motivate patients to take steps to improve their health.

Meal Timing and Macronutrient Composition Modulate Human Metabolism and Reward-Related Drive to Eat

The ‘time-of-day’ modifies the metabolic response to meals, but less data exist on the diurnal variations in the hedonic drive to eat. In the present paper, we evaluate the effects of meal timing and macronutrient composition on metabolic responses and the homeostatic vs. hedonic regulation of appetite. In study 1, 84 young, healthy adults completed an online computer-based task assessing the homeostatic and hedonic drive to eat in the morning and evening. In study 2, 24 healthy, young men received 2 identical (850 kcal each) meals in the morning (8:45 h) and evening (18:00 h), of 2 experimental conditions: (i) regular carbohydrate (CH) meals (regular-CH), and (ii) high carbohydrate (high-CH) meals, containing 50 and 80% of energy from CHs, respectively. Serial blood samples were obtained, and the postprandial feelings of hunger, satiety, wanting and liking were assessed. Study 1 revealed a higher hedonic drive to eat in the evening compared to the morning. Study 2 confirmed this diurnal pattern of hedonic appetite regulation and, moreover, showed increased glucose and insulin responses to the evening meal. Postprandial ghrelin and leptin as well as feelings of hunger and satiety were not different between the mealtimes nor between the macronutrient conditions. In line with this, the homeostatic drive to eat was neither affected by the mealtime nor macronutrient composition. Increased the hedonic drive to eat in the evening may represent a vulnerability to palatable food and, thus, energy overconsumption. Together with lower evening glucose tolerance, these findings reflect an adverse metabolic constellation at the end of the day, especially after the ingestion of CH-rich foods.

Food Reward after a Traditional Inuit or a Westernised Diet in an Inuit Population in Greenland

The food availability and dietary behaviours in Greenland have changed with increasing Westernisation. Food reward is an important driver of food choice and intake, which has not previously been explored in the Arctic population. The aim of this study was to explore differences in food reward after a four-week intervention period with a traditional Inuit diet (TID) or Westernised diet (WD) in Inuit populations in Northern and Western Greenland. This cross-sectional analysis included 44 adults (n = 20 after TID and n = 24 after WD). We assessed the food reward components, explicit liking and implicit wanting, using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire under standardised conditions 60 min after drinking a glucose drink as part of an oral glucose tolerance test after four weeks following a TID or WD. The food intake was assessed using food frequency questionnaires. The intervention groups differed only in implicit wanting for high-fat sweet foods, with higher implicit wanting among the participants following TID compared to WD. Both groups had lower explicit liking and implicit wanting for sweet relative to savoury foods and for high-fat relative to low-fat foods. This exploratory study can guide future studies in Inuit populations to include measures of food reward to better understand food intake in the Arctic.

Extension of Dancer's Legs: Increasing Angles Show Motion

Usain Bolt’s Lightning Bolt pose, one arm highly extended to one side, suggests action. Likewise, static pictures of animals, legs extended, show animation. We tested a new cue for motion perception—extension—and in particular extension of dancer’s legs. An experiment with pictures of a dancer finds larger angles between the legs suggest greater movement, especially with in-air poses and in lateral views. Leg positions graded from simply standing to very difficult front and side splits. Liking ratings (a small range) were more related to Difficulty ratings (a large range) than Movement ratings (a moderate range).