Increasing mouthguards usage among junior rugby and basketball players

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a Western Australian mouthguard promotion campaign, launched at the start of the 1997/98 junior rugby union and junior basketball seasons, aimed at increasing mouthguard usage at competition and training.

METHOD

A quasi-experimental field design was used to assess the impact of the mouthguard campaign on behavioural change. Observational data were collected pre- and post-campaign on mouthguard usage by players present at a rugby and basketball competition event and at a training session. Junior Australian Rules Football players were used as a control group.

RESULTS

Pre-post observational surveys showed a significantly greater increase in mouthguard usage in competition games among rugby union (77% to 84%) and basketball players (23% to 43%) compared with the control group (72% to 73%). All codes showed a post-campaign increase in mouthguard usage at training, but the intervention codes' increases were greater than the control's increase (rugby union: 29% to 40%; basketball: 11% to 36%; football: 34% to 40%).

CONCLUSIONS

The campaign had a significant and substantial effect on behaviour and provides evidence of the benefits of leveraging a sponsorship to modify the behaviour of the target group.

IMPLICATIONS

This campaign provides a model for promoting mouthguard usage in other sports among junior players.

Expert model of decision-making system for efficient orientation of basketball players to positions and roles in the game--empirical verification

The purpose of the research was to empirically verify the expert model system designed for more efficient orientation of basketball players to particular positions and /or roles in the game (specialization). Participants were 60 randomly chosen male basketball players (12 players per each position) from the 12 Croatian 1st league teams in season 1998/99. Data were gathered from 10 basketball coaches who estimated overall performance (actual quality) of players on defense (7 variables) and on offense (12 variables). Variables were established by Trninić, Perica and Dizdar. A measure of body height was added to the aforementioned group of variables. The results obtained suggest that the proposed decision-making system can be used as an auxiliary instrument in orienting players to the positions and roles in the game. It has been established that the players have attained the highest grades of overall performance exactly at their primary playing positions in the game. The largest differences were determined between point guards (position 1) and centers (position 5). The greatest difficulties have occurred in determining optimal position for small forwards (position 3), then for shooting guards (position 2) and, last, for power forwards (position 4), because all these basketball players are the most versatile ones. Therefore, reliability of the system is the lowest when it is applied for selecting and orientating players to these positions. Convenient body height significantly contributes to aptitude of these players to play multiple positions and to assume multiple roles in the game. This research has reinforced the thesis that body height is a variable with the greatest influence on orientation of players to particular positions and roles in the game.

Longitudinal growth study of male Japanese junior high school athletes

The aim of this study was to establish the pattern of adolescent growth in height of male Japanese athletes, and to compare their growth with appropriate controls. The sample consisted of 126 baseball, 39 basketball, 83 soccer, and 53 volleyball players, and 36 nonathletes. The data were collected retrospectively in six public schools in Fukui Prefecture of Western Japan between 1970 and 1987. All subjects were measured at yearly intervals between the age of 6 and 18 years. The total number of measurement occasions for the 337 subjects amounted to 4,134. Athletes trained between 13 and 18 h/week. Individual growth patterns were determined by fitting Preece Baines model I to each individual's serial data. Various biological parameters were derived from the fitted curves. The results indicated that the average growth pattern of these adolescent athletes did not differ substantially from the control group. Volleyball players were significantly taller at 18 years (+3 cm) than the nonathletes (Student's t-test, P < 0.05). Soccer players showed a slight tendency towards late maturation with age at take-off and at peak velocity about half a year later than in nonathletes (Student's t-test, P < 0.05). The 2.3 cm gain in body height due to the later onset of the pubertal growth spurt in soccer players was counterbalanced by a 0.7 cm smaller prepubertal height and a 0.9 cm smaller adolescent gain, so that they ended up slightly, but not significantly, taller than the controls (+0.7 cm). The small differences in growth pattern observed between the nonathletes and the various sports suggest that, in contrast with top-level athletes, body size and maturation rate were not important selective factors in the various groups of athletes of the present study.

Effects of alternated sport competition in perceived competence for adolescent males with mild to moderate mental retardation

Since the beginning of the 1990s, two types of organized competitive sport (Segregated or Integrated) have been proposed for adolescents with mental retardation (AMR). These programmes often have as an objective the improvement of the individual's perceived competence. In France, a third competitive system, called Alternated sport meets (Segregated and Integrated) is actually used. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of this type of programme and type of sport (basketball versus running) on domains of perceived competence and general self-worth. The participants were 32 AMR (Mean age 13.5 years, SD = 0.80) divided equally into four groups: (a) alternated basketball; (b) alternated running; (c) control, adapted physical activity; (d) control, sedentary. The experimental treatment was for 7 months. The sport groups participated in 2 hours training each week and six competitive meets. We administrated Harter's (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children seven times to determine changes in perceived competence and general self-worth. Results indicated no significant changes in the specific domains of perceived competence and general self-worth.

Self-talk in a basketball-shooting task

This study examined the effectiveness of two different types of self-talk on the performance of a basketball-shooting task. 60 physical education and sports sciences students were organized into one control and two treatment groups which used self-talk. During the experiment, the control group performed with the general instructions, whereas the self-talk groups used the cue-words "relax" and "fast," respectively, Analysis showed that only the participants of the self-talk group who used the word "relax" improved their performance significantly as compared to the other two groups. It appears that self-talk can positively affect performance if its content is appropriate for the task performed.

An investigation of the dynamics of aggression: direct observations in ice hockey and basketball

There have been significant problems in the study of sports aggression, and they are linked to how aggression has been defined, measured, and analyzed. Following a review of the whole domain, this study aimed to construct a theoretically coherent and ecologically valid framework for research on processes underlying sports aggression and to contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the area. An exploratory method using computer observational analysis as the primary research method, along with complementary questionnaires and personal reflections, considered aggression in two comparison sports: ice hockey and basketball. Data were compiled and classified by involved and independent experts relative to factors and behaviors associated with sports aggression derived from a comprehensive review of the literature. Among the study's findings were that: (a) aggression was instrumental in nature two-thirds of the time; (b) aggressive acts typically occurred in clusters and varied in frequency according to game circumstances; and (c) multiple variables and aggression theories were related to severely aggressive acts. The complex dynamics of sports aggression via similar naturalistic methodologies is discussed.

Empirical verification of the weighted system of criteria for the elite basketball players quality evaluation

This article is a continuation of research aimed at formation of a system of criteria for the expert evaluation of the basketball players' actual quality. So far, the external standards for assessing players' performance have been defined and described and the relative importance coefficients of each criterion for the performance evaluation per positions in the game have been established as well. The purpose of this research was to test empirically the latter--the weighted system of criteria for evaluating the actual quality of basketball players proposed by Trninić and Dizdar (2000). Based on the determined descriptive indicators and the coefficients of importance of criteria, and on the degree of the objectivity level (interobservers' agreement) of the expert evaluations, it can be concluded that the measuring attributes (objectivity and sensitivity) for most of the criteria are in accordance with their relative importance coefficients for a particular position in the game. Consequently, the structure of the relevant criteria for each play position in the basketball is proposed.

Trust in leadership and team performance: evidence from NCAA basketball

This study empirically examined the relationship between trust, leadership, and team performance with 2 objectives. The 1st objective was to empirically examine an assumption found in several literatures--that a team's trust in its leader has a significant effect on the team's performance. The 2nd objective was to explore a more complex and dynamic relationship between trust and team performance whereby trust in leadership mediates the relationship between past team performance and future team performance. This relationship is derived by combining theories of trust with an attributional theory of leadership. Survey and archival data from a sample of men's college basketball teams provides support for both hypotheses, indicating that trust in leadership is both a product and a determinant of team performance.

[Sport as integration factor of the physically handicapped in our society]

The objective of this study was to make use of sports as a rehabilitation method, as well as to assess the physical, psychological, and social aspects of those present some physical handicap, particularly those who have some kind of chronic disease and are no longer taking part in any rehabilitation program. Thirty handicapped people were evaluated: fifteen started with basketball and fifteen with swimming, according either to the specific preference of each one of them or to the degree and kind of physical impairment. They were submmited to the following evaluations: clinical examination, physiotherapy assessment, social interview and use of the Rivermead Social Scale, functional classification of the sport, use of the Barthel and Rivermead Functional Scales, and the psychological profile test (POMS). After two years, no relevant change in the moving evolution of the athletes were reported. Concerning the POMS psychological test, both basketball and swimming groups presented with high vigor and low depression levels. Considering the social aspects, both groups presented substantial improvement, specially regarding their relationship to one person or more people and also in the everyday activities (be it social, leisure, or domestic), thus leading them to better social integration. This essay shows that sport can bring people who are physically impaired a better social integration and physical conditions.

Patellar tendinopathy in junior basketball players: a controlled clinical and ultrasonographic study of 268 patellar tendons in players aged 14-18 years

Anterior knee pain is a common presenting complaint amongst adolescent athletes. We hypothesised that patellar tendinopathy may occur at a younger age than is generally recognised. Thus, we studied the patellar tendons in 134 elite 14- to 18-year-old female (n=64) and male (n=70) basketball players and 29 control swimmers (17 female, 12 male) clinically and with ultrasonography. We found that of 268 tendons, 19 (7%) had current patellar tendinopathy on clinical grounds (11% in males, 2% in females). Twenty-six percent of the basketball players' patellar tendons contained an ultrasonographic hypoechoic region. Ultrasonographic abnormality was more prevalent in the oldest tertile of players (17-18 years) than the youngest tertile (14-15.9 years). Of tendons categorised clinically as 'Never patellar tendinopathy', 22% had an ultrasonographic hypoechoic region nevertheless. This study indicates that patellar tendinopathy can occur in 14- to 18-year-old basketball players. Ultrasonographic tendon abnormality is 3 times as common as clinical symptoms.

Personal and situational variables that describe coping with acute stress in competitive sport

The authors examined the degree to which competitive basketball players in Australia were consistent in their cognitive appraisals and coping strategies in response to 4 types of stressful situations that they had experienced during previous basketball games as functions of perceived stress intensity. The authors predicted that both approach and avoidance coping strategies would be dependent on the type of stressful event, in accord with the transactional model. The results supported that prediction: Approach strategies were more prevalent than avoidance strategies following 3 of the 4 events. Cognitive appraisals and perceived stress intensity also strongly influenced the participants' use of coping strategies, accounting for 34% of the variance.

[Sudden cardiac death during sports due to coronariitis]

A case of sudden and unexpected death of a 29-year-old man during a basketball game is reported. Six years before death a transient ischemic attack and a membranous glomerulonephritis were diagnosed. The autopsy revealed as cause of death to be a severe lymphoplasmocytic coronariitis and, in addition, a small single focus of a lymphoplasmocytic aortitis, indicating a systemic disease. A suspected syphilitic vasculitis could not be confirmed. In the literature there are few cases of similar coronary arteriitis are described, such as Takayasu's type of arteriitis in men of young and middle age.

Psychological predictors of coping responses among Greek basketball referees

The authors examined the effects of situational appraisals (perceived control and intensity), coping styles (monitoring and blunting), and personal dispositions (optimism and self-esteem) on the approach and avoidance coping responses of skilled Greek basketball referees (N = 162) and the consistency of their responses following 3 game-related stressful situations. In an effort to clarify the variables involved in coping and to consider the theoretical principles both within and beyond sports, the authors replicated an earlier study among Australian basketball referees (A. Kaissidis-Rodafinos, M. H. Anshel, & A. Porter, 1997). The results were equivocal: The Greek referees were not consistent in using avoidance and approach coping responses across situations. Approach coping was more predictable than avoidance coping in accounting for both situational and personal variables.

Athletic competition: a means of improving the self-image of the mentally retarded adolescent?

This study investigated whether participation in athletic training and competition positively affects self-perception in the different domains of competence in mentally retarded adolescents. We compared the effects of sport participation in four groups of eight mentally retarded adolescents over a period of 14 months. The adolescents were all students in specialized learning centres. The four athletic groups were constituted as follows: segregated basketball practice and meets, integrated basketball practice and meets, segregated swimming practice and meets, integrated swimming practice and meets. Two other groups served as controls: a sedentary group and a group that participated in classic adapted physical activities. We used skill tests and Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Children (1985) to measure, respectively, athletic skill and domains of perceived competence. The results showed that athletic skill increased over the 14 months, but the perception of competence in the subjects who participated in the segregated meets did not increase significantly in perceived physical ability, or in any other domain. Moreover, the integrated basketball group showed a decrease in perceived physical ability. The results are discussed in terms of the influence of specialized classes.

Leisure-time physical activity in school environments: an observational study using SOPLAY

BACKGROUND

Schools provide settings for physical activity (PA), but objective tools for measuring PA are lacking. We assessed an instrument to directly observe group PA and measured the leisure-time PA of adolescents throughout the school day.

METHODS

Leisure-time PA was studied by direct observation in 24 middle schools in Southern California using SOPLAY (System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth). SOPLAY uses momentary time sampling to record the activity of each individual as sedentary, walking, or very active.

RESULTS

The largest proportion of students visited activity areas at lunch time (19.5%), followed by before (4. 1%) and after school (2.1%). More boys than girls visited activity areas before school (33.4 vs 7.7) and at lunch time (148.8 vs 36.7). Boys in areas engaged in more moderate to vigorous PA than girls before school (59.6 vs 40%) and at lunch time (67.7 vs 51.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

Few students use opportunities to be physically active during lesiure time at school. Policies and environmental manipulations (e.g., supervision, equipment, structured programs) are needed to attract more adolescents, especially girls, to existing activity areas. The feasibility of SOPLAY for measuring group PA was established.

An application of the matching law to evaluate the allocation of two- and three-point shots by college basketball players

We applied the matching equation to evaluate the allocation of two- and three-point shots by male and female college basketball players from a large Division 1 university. The matching law predicts that the proportion of shots taken from three-point range should match the proportional reinforcement rate produced by such shots. Thus, we compared the proportion of three-point shots taken relative to all shots to the proportion of three-point shots scored relative to all shots scored. However, the matching equation was adjusted to account for the greater reinforcer magnitude of the three-point basket (i.e., 1.5 times greater than the two-point basket reinforcer magnitude). For players with substantial playing time, results showed that the overall distribution of two- and three-point shots was predicted by the matching equation. Game-by-game shot distribution was variable, but the cumulative proportion of shots taken from three-point range as the season progressed was predicted almost perfectly on a player-by-player basis for both male and female basketball players.

Changes in basketball shooting patterns as a function of distance

The effect of distance on the accuracy and movement form in basketball shooting was examined using a dynamic systems approach. Five male and five female young adults (M = 26 yr.) with no basketball experience beyond regular physical education shot a basketball 20 times at each of eight distances from 5 to 40 ft. (Natural condition). Also, they pretended to shoot the ball 5 times at each of the eight distances, for a total of 200 shots each (Pretend condition). In the Natural condition, shooting accuracy significantly decreased as shooting distance increased. Across both conditions and across four body components (feet position, hand position, trunk rotation, and jump height), the participants shifted from one movement pattern to another 86.3% of the time as shooting distance increased. The distances at which the transitions occurred were significantly shorter in the Natural than the Pretend condition for the feet and hand components but not the trunk and jump-height components. These results indicated that shooting a basketball at increasing distances can be portrayed as a dynamic system characterized by abrupt changes in at least four body components at critical distances.

Basketball injuries in a rural area

This study was conducted to determine the frequency and nature of basketball injuries occurring in a rural setting. More than 6000 patients with sports-related injuries presented to a rural emergency department between June 1, 1988 and June 1, 1994. Of these patients, 1189 (19% of the total) were injured playing basketball. A chart abstraction form was utilized to retrospectively review injuries noting demographics, types and sites of injuries, as well as referral and treatment plans. Approximately two-thirds (66.4%) of those injured were males, with most injuries (53%) occurring during school-related activities. Almost four-fifths (78%) of injuries occurred between the ages of 10 and 19. The ankle (33.1%) was the body site most commonly injured, followed in frequency by finger injuries (19.3%), sprains and strains, which accounted for the majority (55%) of injuries. The most common mechanism of injury was recorded in which no contact with other players occurred (37.4%). The vast majority (99%) of injuries were managed as outpatients. The majority of cases (72%) were expected to recover within 2 weeks. Similarities were noted regarding sites of injury and age of distribution of patients when compared to the previous studies.

Magnesium, zinc, and copper status in women involved in different sports

The dietary intake, serum levels, and urinary excretion of magnesium, zinc, and copper were studied in 78 women involved in different sports (karate, handball, basketball, and running) and in 65 sedentary women. Seven-day, weighed-food dietary reports revealed that no group of female athletes reached the minimal intake recommended for magnesium (280 mg/day) and zinc (12 mg/day), although their values were superior to those of the control group. The estimated safe and adequate minimal intake of copper (1.5 mg/day) was amply surpassed by the basketball players and runners but was not reached by the handball players. Serum levels and urinary excretion of magnesium, zinc and copper di not seem related either to their intake or to the type of physical activity performed. The influence of other factors such as nutritional status, bioavailability, intestinal absorption mechanisms, and muscle-level modifications might explain the differences between the different groups of female athletes.

Planning for scholastic cardiac emergencies: the Ripley project

Fatalities during sports participation are usually cardiac in origin. Sudden Cardiac Arrest (SCA) from ventricular fibrillation has been reported in several sporting venues over the last decade. Successful treatment of stadium SCA requires a rapid response team equipped with defibrillator capabilities. The use of automated external defibrillators (AED) by responders in sports arenas is critical to help prevent catastrophic scholastic athlete and spectator cases of unexpected sudden cardiac death.

Effects of exercise for 1 month on serum lipids in adolescent females

BACKGROUND

The present study was done to clarify the effects of 1 month of exercise on levels of total cholesterol (TC) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) and on the ratio TC/HDLC and also to evaluate the relationship of body fat to amount of exercise and TC/HDLC ratio.

METHODS

Twenty-seven female athletes (aged 15-18 years) were divided into two groups: the participant's group, in which players trained and attended a tournament, and the non-participant's group, in which players did not attend the tournament. We assessed the amount of exercise, body composition, serum TC and HDLC and TC/HDLC on four occasions: before (T0), during (T1), 1 day after (T2) and a week after (T3) the experimental period. Levels of TC and HDLC adjusted for changes in plasma volume were compared for each occasion. Two multiple regression models for change in TC/HDLC from T0 to T2 and from T0 to T3 were employed.

RESULTS

(i) The changing patterns in TC and HDLC throughout the program were different between the two groups; (ii) the decreased level of TC/HDLC after 1 month of exercise may easily revert to its original level; and (iii) the relevant factor for the decline in TC/HDLC was the amount of exercise, not body fat reduction.

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise may be a more important factor for the improvement of TC/HDLC than concomitant body fat reduction and non-strenuous exercise may maintain a more stable and higher HDLC level than strenuous exercise.

Sudden death in right ventricular dysplasia with minimal gross abnormalities

Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy is emerging as a relatively common cause of exercise-induced sudden death in the young. The diagnostic criteria at autopsy are, however, not fully established, leading to both over- and underdiagnosis. We report a young man and a young woman dying suddenly of right ventricular dysplasia during exercise, in whom the gross autopsy findings in the right ventricle were minimal or even absent. However, the histologic features in both right and left ventricles were typical of the disease, and consisted of fibrofatty infiltrates with typical myocyte degeneration of the right ventricle and subepicardial regions of the left ventricle. These cases illustrate that microscopic findings are diagnostic and may be present in the absence of gross findings. Marked fat replacement is not essential for the diagnosis of right ventricular dysplasia, and the right ventricle should be extensively sampled histologically in all cases of sudden unexpected death, especially those that are exercise related.

Testosterone, cortisol, and mood in a sports team competition

In humans, hormonal responses to winning/losing and their relationships to mood and status change have mostly been examined in individual athletic competitions. In this study, the salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) and mood responses to a real match between two professional basketball teams were investigated. Data about individuals' contributions to outcome, performance appraisal, and attribution of outcome to internal/external factors were also collected. Results did not show statistically significant different T and C responses depending on the outcome. Negative mood was significantly enhanced, especially in the losers, while winners showed a better appraisal of team performance and a more internal attribution. T response did not show a significant relationship with mood changes, but it correlated positively with the "score/time playing" ratio, an indicator of individual participation in the outcome. Furthermore, T response correlated negatively with external attribution in winners and positively in losers. These results indicate that in a real, highly competitive situation, T changes are not directly a response to the outcome, but rather to the contribution the individual makes to it and to the causes he attributes.

Testosterone changes during vicarious experiences of winning and losing among fans at sporting events

Basking in reflected glory, in which individuals increase their self-esteem by identifying with successful others, is usually regarded as a cognitive process that can affect behavior. It may also involve physiological processes, including changes in the production of endocrine hormones. The present research involved two studies of changes in testosterone levels among fans watching their favorite sports teams win or lose. In the first study, participants were eight male fans attending a basketball game between traditional college rivals. In the second study, participants were 21 male fans watching a televised World Cup soccer match between traditional international rivals. Participants provided saliva samples for testosterone assay before and after the contest. In both studies, mean testosterone level increased in the fans of winning teams and decreased in the fans of losing teams. These findings suggest that watching one's heroes win or lose has physiological consequences that extend beyond changes in mood and self-esteem.

Optimal trajectory for the basketball free throw

Using a theoretical approach, we studied the basketball free throw as a function of angle, speed and spin at release. The ball was constrained to the sagittal plane bisecting the hoop and normal to the backboard, and was permitted to bounce and change spin on both backboard and hoop. Combinations of angle, speed and spin resulting in a successful shot were calculated analytically. Standard deviations for a shooter's angle and speed were used to predict the optimal trajectory for a specific position of release. An optimal trajectory was predicted which had an initial angle and speed of approximately 60 degrees and 7.3 m s(-1) respectively over the domain of spins (-2 to +2 m s(-1) surface speed; -16 to +16 rad s[1]). The effect of air resistance and the sagittal plane constraint on the predicted optimal trajectory were discussed and quantified. The optimal trajectory depended on both the anthropometric characteristics and accuracy of the shooter, but generally a high backspin with an angle and speed combination which sent the ball closer to the far rim of the basket than the near rim was advantageous. We provide recommendations for shooters as a function of the height of ball release.

The influence of basketball shoes with increased ankle support on shock attenuation and performance in running and jumping

The aim of this study was to assess the influence of footwear with increased ankle support on ankle kinematics and on impact loads during landing from a vertical jump using high-speed cinematography, dynamometry and accelerometry in a series of tests in which a rebound action was simulated. To analyse the effect of this increased support on motor performance, two performance tests were designed: a vertical jump test and an obstacle course running test. Two prototype shoes with identical soles but different uppers were used. The first was designed to provide greater ankle support, with such features as a high top, heel counters and a rearfoot lacing system. The second prototype was a less supporting shoe, with low top and no heel counter or any other feature for support. In the shock attenuation test, the use of high-support shoes resulted in higher forefoot impact forces and higher shock transmission to the head, but showed lower shock transmission to the tibia. The use of high support shoes resulted in lower ranges of eversion and higher ranges of inversion of the ankle on landing. In the motor performance tests, the high-support shoes reduced the height jumped and increased the time to complete the running course relative to the low-support shoes. We conclude that increased ankle support reduces ankle eversion range but increases shock transmission, and reduces both jumping and running performance.

Oral contraceptive use among female elite athletes and age-matched controls and its relation to low back pain

BACKGROUND

Exogenous and endogenous female sex steroids may influence the risk of low back pain. The fact that back pain is a very common symptom during pregnancy supports this theory. Back pain is also more common among female than male athletes. Oral contraceptives have been suggested to increase the risk of low back pain.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether the prevalence of low back pain is higher among oral contraceptive users than non-users and if it differs between women taking part in different sports.

METHODS

A questionnaire was sent to female elite athletes in volleyball (n = 205), basketball (n = 150), and soccer (n = 361) as well as to age-matched controls (n = 113). The questionnaire comprised questions about age, constitution, occupation, parity and use of contraceptive method as well as previous and current back pain and possible consequences of the back problems.

RESULTS

The response rate was 85%. Between 42% and 52% of the women in the different groups used oral contraceptives. The groups were similar in most background variables, except that the volleyball and basketball players were taller. The prevalence of current low back pain was between 21% and 34% in the different athlete groups with an average of 30%, whereas only 18% of the controls suffered from low back pain (p < 0.01). The prevalence of low back pain within each group, athletes as well as controls, was similar in women who used, and did not use oral contraceptives.

CONCLUSIONS

This study does not support the theory that low back pain is affected by the use of oral contraceptives. Instead, constitutional factors and mechanical stress during intense physical activity is probably more important.

[Suprascapular nerve entrapment in a basketball player]

A basketball player was shown to have a suprascapular nerve lesion without any history of shoulder girdle trauma. This acute neuropathy, never previously described in basketball players, is a result of repeated micro-trauma, due to nerve traction over the coracoid notch during violent movement ("dunking" most probably). Clinically, he was unable to abduct his arm and had some difficulty in external rotation. He developed atrophy in both the supra- and the infraspinatus muscles. Nerve conduction latency to the supraspinatus muscle was 8.0 ms, and to the infraspinatus, 8.5 ms. The compound muscle action potential registered in the supraspinatus was 1.224 mV, and in the infraspinatus, 1.237 mV. After 3 weeks of inactivity, recovery was spontaneous and practically complete.

Effect of travel and rest on performance of professional basketball players

We have studied 8,495 regular season games in the National Basketball Association over eight seasons (1987-1988 through 1994-1995) to analyze the effects of travel and rest on performance. We found that more time between games improved performance, an effect that was constant over time and statistically significant. More than 1 day between games increased the home team's score by 1.1 points and the visitor's by 1.6 points. Peak performance occurred with 3 days between games. The negative effects of little time between games may be due to lack of time for physical recovery, rather than any effects of circadian rhythm (jet lag). We found few consistent effects of distance traveled or direction of travel. We did find a suggestion of circadian rhythm effects in a subanalysis of games on either coast in which the visitor traveled across the country, while the home team did not travel (n = 101). In these games, the visiting team did four points better (p = 0.07) when they traveled west to east rather than east to west, almost nullifying the home-court advantage. This effect, like similar findings for Monday Night Football games, may be due to West Coast visitors playing night games at an earlier time according to their "internal clock". An incidental finding in our study was that the home-court advantage decreased over 8 years, from about six points to three points (due to relatively lower field-goal percentages and fewer free throws by the home team).

The effects of basketball training on the maladaptive behaviors of trainable mentally retarded children

The effects of basketball training on the maladaptive behaviors of 19 trainable mentally retarded children attending a special state school were investigated. Children in the experimental group took 7 weeks of basketball training (Special Olympics Inc.) designed for mentally retarded children, whereas the control group children engaged in free play activities with the ball. Both groups were assessed before the training and free play activity applications (preassessment), immediately after the applications (postassessment) and 30 days after the applications (follow-up assessment). All the children were observed (Classroom Behavior Checklist developed for this study) in their classroom during the academic tasks in which they were involved. Furthermore, their mothers were interviewed to get information about manifested maladaptive behaviors at home. To assess the children's level of improvement in basketball skills, the Sports Skills Assessment was utilized. Children trained in basketball skills showed a reduction in their level of maladaptive behavior both at home and in the school. This reduction was maintained in the follow-up period. Thus, basketball training can be proposed as an effective and practical rehabilitation program for trainable mentally retarded children attending an institution.

Nicotine levels in indoor athletic centres

The levels of nicotine during athletic events were measured at six indoor athletic centres in Cyprus. Samples of air were pumped through a tube containing XAD-4 resin. Quantitation of nicotine was carried out by GC with a method detection limit of 0.03 microgram of nicotine, recovery ranged between 99.5 and 100.5%. Confirmation of the nicotine presence was carried out by GC/MS. The concentrations of nicotine measured were between 3.6 and 39.0 micrograms/Nm3 with a geometric mean range 6.5-28.3 micrograms/Nm3.

Pericarditis in a collegiate basketball player

PURPOSE

To present an uncommon cause of chest pain in an athlete.

CASE SUMMARY

A 17-year-old black man suffered recurrent episodes of chest pain due to pericarditis. Based on presentation and serology, he was diagnosed as having unspecified connective tissue disease.

DISCUSSION

Rheumatologic disease will often manifest over a period of time. Diagnosis and treatment is often elusive.

RELEVANCE

Rheumatologic disorders should be included in the differential diagnosis of chest pain in athletes.

Body weight changes and voluntary fluid intakes during training and competition sessions in team sports

Fluid losses (measured by body weight changes) and voluntary fluid intakes were measured in elite basketball, netball, and soccer teams during typical summer and winter exercise sessions to determine fluid requirements and the degree of fluid replacement. Each subject was weighed in minimal clothing before and immediately after training, weights, and competition sessions; fluid intake, duration of exercise, temperature and humidity, and opportunity to drink were recorded. Sweat rates were greatest during competition sessions and significantly lower during weights sessions for all sports. Seasonal variation in dehydration (%DH) was not as great as may have been expected, particularly in sports played indoors. Factors influencing fluid replacement during exercise included provision of an individual water bottle, proximity to water bottles during sessions, encouragement to drink, rules of the game, duration and number of breaks or substitutions, and awareness of personal sweat rates. Guidelines for optimizing fluid intakes in these three sports are provided.

Iron nutritional status in female karatekas, handball and basketball players, and runners

The iron nutritional status was studied in 84 sportswomen (19 karatekas, 20 handball players, 20 basketball players, and 25 middle and long distance runners) and in 82 nonathletic females of similar characteristics (control group). After a 7-day nutritional survey by means of the food weighing method, it was found that iron intake was significantly higher in the handball players (p < 0.05), basketball players (p < 0.01), and runners (p < 0.01) with regard to the control group; the basketball players were the only ones to cover the recommended minimum intake (15 mg/day). The heme iron intake was significantly greater in the handball and basketball players (p < 0.01), who, together with the runners, reached the value of 1.5 mg/day, which is considered to be optimal. In relation to the control group, the karatekas and handball and basketball players had lower levels of serum ferritin, although their iron intake was greater, whereas the runners had higher values that were very similar to those of the control group, due to the iron supplementation they had received. Despite finding a marked prevalence of inadequate iron intake, both in the sportswomen and in the control group, the manifest cases of anemia are relatively scarce. The organic iron stores do not seem to depend exclusively on the iron intake but also on intimate mechanisms of intestinal absorption and diverse causes of iron loss.

Searching for the Magic Johnson effect: AIDS, adolescents, and celebrity disclosure

The objectives of this study were to measure changes in AIDS-related attitudes and behaviors in adolescents in the 13 months following Magic Johnson's disclosure that he was HIV positive, and to test whether gender, race, age, sexual experience, and pre-existing HIV-avoidant behaviors would emerge as significant dependent variables. Adolescent clinic attendees (N = 181) ages 12-19 in four cities completed a questionnaire assessing change in AIDS-related attitudes and behaviors since Johnson's announcement. Respondents were divided into low-risk and at-risk groups. Sixty percent of respondents reported that Magic Johnson's announcement had increased their awareness of AIDS, 65.4% reported increased self-efficacy in a sexual situation, 37.2% reported that they had changed their perceived AIDS risk, 37.8% described increased resistance to peer pressure for sexual intercourse. The low-risk group was more likely to report increased self-efficacy and resistance to peer pressure but no change in perceived risk or increased AIDS awareness. Significant relationships were found between gender and increased AIDS awareness, gender and increased resistance to peer pressure to engage in sexual intercourse, race and increased AIDS awareness, and more lifetime sex partners and increased self-efficacy.

The effect of ambient temperature on the shoe-surface interface release coefficient

Previous studies of the shoe-surface interface correlated foot fixation with cleat length, configuration, and material composition as well as turf type and surface conditions. Our study examined the effect of temperature on the rotational torsion resistance of artificial turf football shoes. Five football shoe models, a flat-soled basketball-style turf shoe, a natural grass soccer-style shoe, and three multistudded turf shoes, were studied on dry Astro Turf at five temperatures (range, 52 degrees F to 110 degrees F). An assay device, a prosthetic foot mounted on a loaded stainless steel shaft, was used to determine the force necessary to release a shoe from the turf's surface. We used a torque wrench to apply a rotational force so that each shoe was pivoted counterclockwise through an arc of 60 degrees. Our results indicated that release coefficients differ within and among the shoe models at various turf temperatures. We also found that an increase in turf temperature, in combination with cleat characteristics, affects shoe-surface interface friction and potentially places the athlete's knee and ankle at risk of injury. Based on an established risk criterion, which correlated shoe-surface interface combinations in the laboratory with documented clinical occurrences, only the flat-soled basketball-style turf shoe could be designated "safe" or "probably safe" at all five temperatures.