Metabolism of the lipid peroxidation product, 4-hydroxy-trans-2-nonenal, in isolated perfused rat heart

The metabolism of 4-hydroxy-trans-2-nonenal (HNE), an alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehyde generated during lipid peroxidation, was studied in isolated perfused rat hearts. High performance liquid chromatography separation of radioactive metabolites recovered from [3H]HNE-treated hearts revealed four major peaks. Based on the retention times of synthesized standards, peak I, which accounted for 20% radioactivity administered to the heart, was identified to be due to glutathione conjugates of HNE. Peaks II and III, containing 2 and 37% radioactivity, were assigned to 1, 4-dihydroxy-2-nonene (DHN) and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenoic acid, respectively. Peak IV was due to unmetabolized HNE. The electrospray ionization mass spectrum of peak I revealed two prominent metabolites with m/z values corresponding to [M + H]+ of HNE and DHN conjugates with glutathione. The presence of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenoic acid in peak III was substantiated using gas chromatography-chemical ionization mass spectroscopy. When exposed to sorbinil, an inhibitor of aldose reductase, no GS-DHN was recovered in the coronary effluent, and treatment with cyanamide, an inhibitor of aldehyde dehydrogenase, attenuated 4-hydroxy-2-nonenoic acid formation. These results show that the major metabolic transformations of HNE in rat heart involve conjugation with glutathione and oxidation to 4-hydroxy-2-nonenoic acid. Further metabolism of the GS-HNE conjugate involves aldose reductase-mediated reduction, a reaction catalyzed in vitro by homogenous cardiac aldose reductase.

ATP-Dependent human erythrocyte glutathione-conjugate transporter. II. Functional reconstitution of transport activity

Purified dinitrophenyl S-glutathione (DNP-SG) ATPase was reconstituted into artificial liposomes prepared from soybean asolectin. Electron micrography confirmed the formation of unilamellar vesicles with an average radius of 0.25 micron. Intravesicular volume estimated by incorporation of radiolabled inulin into the vesicles was found to be 19.7 +/- 1.3 microL/mL reconstitution solution. Accumulation of the glutathione-conjugate of CDNB, DNP-SG, and of doxorubicin (DOX) in the proteoliposomes was increased in the presence of ATP as compared to equimolar ADP or adenosine 5'-[beta,gamma-methylene]triphosphate tetralithium. ATP-dependent transmembrane movement of DOX and DNP-SG into DNP-SG ATPase-reconstituted vesicles was saturable with respect to time, sensitive to the osmolarity of the assay medium, and temperature dependent. The energy of activation was found to be 12 and 15 kcal/mol for DNP-SG and DOX, respectively. Optimal temperature for transport was 37 degrees C. Saturable transport was demonstrated for DNP-SG (Vmax of 433 +/- 20 nmol/min/mg of protein, KmATP = 2.4 +/- 0. 3 mM and KmDNP-SG = 36 +/- 5 microM) as well as DOX (Vmax = 194 +/- 19 nmol/min/mg of protein, KmATP = 2.5 +/- 0.6 mM and KmDOX = 2.4 +/- 0.7 microM). The kinetic data for both DNP-SG and DOX transport were consistent with a random bi-bi sequential reaction mechanism. DOX was found to be a competitive inhibitor of DNP-SG transport with Kis of 1.2 +/- 0.2 microM and DNP-SG was found to be a competitive inhibitor of DOX transport with Kis of 13.3 +/- 2.6 microM.

ATP-Dependent human erythrocyte glutathione-conjugate transporter. I. Purification, photoaffinity labeling, and kinetic characteristics of ATPase activity

Dinitrophenyl S-glutathione (DNP-SG) ATPase is a 38 kDa membrane protein expressed in erythrocytes and other tissues. Although stimulation of ATP hydrolysis catalyzed by DNP-SG ATPase has been demonstrated in the presence of several structurally unrelated amphiphilic ions, structural and functional properties of this protein have not been well-defined. In the present study, we have developed an improved protocol for the purification of DNP-SG ATPase and investigated its kinetic and substrate-binding properties. The purification procedure was based on highly specific elution of the 38 kDa protein from DNP-SG affinity resin in the presence of ATP. The protein could not be eluted using either ADP or adenosine-5'-[beta,gamma-methylene]triphosphate (methylene-ATP), a nonhydrolyzable analogue of ATP. Doxorubicin (DOX), a weakly basic anthracycline chemotherapy agent, was found to be the preferred activator for stimulation of ATP hydrolysis by the enzyme. ATP binding to the enzyme was demonstrated using 8-azido-ATP photoaffinity labeling and binding of trinitrophenyl (TNP)-ATP, a fluorescent analogue of ATP. The photoaffinity labeling of DNP-SG ATPase (38 kDa) was saturable with respect to 8-azido ATP (Kd = 2 microM), indicating that the enzyme was capable of specific and saturable binding to ATP. DNP-SG binding was evident from the purification procedure itself and was also demonstrable by quenching of tryptophan fluorescence. Results of quenching of tryptophan fluorescence as well as radioactive isotope-binding studies indicated that DOX was bound to the purified protein as well.

Differential induction of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase by anti-carcinogenic organosulfides from garlic

This study was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism of organ specificity and differential efficacy of garlic organosulfides (OSCs) [diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), diallyl trisulfide (DATS), dipropyl sulfide (DPS) and dipropyl disulfide (DPDS)] in preventing benzo(a)pyrene (BP)-induced tumorigenesis in mice. The results of the present study reveal a good correlation between chemopreventive efficacies of garlic OSCs and their inductive effects on the expression of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO), an enzyme implicated in the detoxification of activated quinone metabolites of BP. Treatment of mice with DADS and DATS, which are potent inhibitors of BP-induced forestomach tumorigenesis, resulted in a statistically significant increase (2.4- and 1.5-fold, respectively) in forestomach NQO activity. In addition, DADS and DATS were much more potent inducers of forestomach NQO activity than DAS, which is a weak inhibitor of BP-induced forestomach tumorigenesis than the former compounds. Propyl-group containing OSCs (DPS and DPDS), which do not inhibit BP-induced tumorigenesis, did not affect forestomach NQO activity. Similar to forestomach, a good correlation was also observed between effects of these OSCs against BP-induced pulmonary tumorigenesis and their effects on NQO expression in the lung. For example, treatment of mice with DAS, which is a potent inhibitor of BP-induced pulmonary tumorigenesis, resulted in about 3.2-fold increase in pulmonary NQO activity. On the other hand, this activity was increased by about 1.5-fold upon DATS administration, which does not inhibit BP-induced cancer of the lung. In conclusion, our results suggest that induction of NQO may be important in anti-cancer effects of garlic OSCs.

Identification of cardiac oxidoreductase(s) involved in the metabolism of the lipid peroxidation-derived aldehyde-4-hydroxynonenal

The aim of this study was to identify the cardiac oxidoreductases involved in the metabolism of 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal (HNE), an alpha,beta unsaturated aldehyde generated during the peroxidation of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. In homogenates of bovine, human and rat ventricles the primary pyridine coenzyme-linked metabolism of HNE was associated with NADPH oxidation. The NADPH-dependent enzyme catalysing HNE reduction was purified to homogeneity from bovine heart. The purified enzyme displayed kinetic and immunological properties identical with the polyol pathway enzyme aldose reductase (AR), and catalysed the reduction of HNE to its alcohol 1,4-dihydroxynonene (DHN), with a Km of 7+/-2 microM. In the presence of NADP the enzyme did not catalyse the oxidation of DHN. During catalysis, HNE did not cause inactivation of AR. Nevertheless when the apoenzyme was incubated with HNE a dissociable complex was formed between the enzyme and HNE, followed by irreversible loss of activity. Inactivation of the enzyme by HNE was prevented by NADP. Partial modification of the enzyme with HNE led to a 17-fold increase in the KHNEm and Kglyceraldehydem, and the HNE-modified enzyme had a 500-fold higher IC50 for sorbinil than for the reduced enzyme, whereas the IC50 for tolrestat increased 25-fold. Incubation of the enzyme with radiolabelled HNE resulted in the incorporation of 2 mol of the aldehyde per mol of the enzyme. Sequence analysis of the radiolabelled peptides revealed modification of Cys-298 and Cys-187. The amino acid sequence of the HNE-modified peptides confirmed that the HNE-reducing cardiac enzyme is AR and not a related protein such as the fibroblast-growth-factor-regulated protein FR-1 or the mouse vas deferens protein MVDP. These results indicate that AR represents the only major oxidoreductase in the heart capable of utilizing HNE. The high affinity of the enzyme for HNE, the lack of inactivation during catalysis, and the lack of significant alcohol dehydrogenase activity of the protein suggests that AR-mediated catalysis of HNE is unlikely to be limited by substrate/product inhibition. Thus AR might constitute an antioxidative enzyme involved in myocardial protection against endogenous and exogenous cytotoxic aldehydes and against oxidative stress.

Modification of aldose reductase by S-nitrosoglutathione

Kinetic and structural changes in recombinant human aldose reductase (AR) due to modification by S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) were investigated. Incubation of the enzyme with 10-50 microM GSNO led to a time- and concentration-dependent inactivation of the enzyme, with a second-order rate constant of 0.087 +/- 0.009 M-1 min-1. However, upon exhaustive modification, 30-40% of the enzyme activity was retained. The non-inactivated enzyme displayed a 2-3-fold change in Km for NADPH and Km fordl-glyceraldehyde, whereas the Km for the lipid peroxidation product, 4-hydroxy-2-trans nonenal (HNE), was comparable to that of the untreated enzyme. The residual activity of the enzyme after GSNO treatment was less sensitive to inhibition by the active site inhibitor sorbinil or to activation by sulfate. Significantly higher catalytic activity was retained when the enzyme was modified in the presence of NADPH, suggesting relatively low reactivity of the E-NADPH complex with GSNO. The modification site was identified using site-directed mutants in which each of the solvent-exposed cysteines of the enzyme was replaced individually by serine. The mutant C298S was insensitive to GSNO, whereas the sensitivity of the mutants C303S and C80S was comparable to that of the wild-type enzyme. Electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy of the GSNO-modified enzyme revealed a major modified species (70% of the protein) with a molecular mass that was 306 Da higher than that of the untreated enzyme, which is consistent with the addition of a single glutathione molecule to the enzyme. The remaining 30% of the protein displayed a molecular mass that was not significantly different from that of the native enzyme. No nitrosated forms of the enzyme were observed. These results suggest that inactivation of AR by GSNO is due to the selective formation of a single mixed disulfide between glutathione and Cys-298 located at the NADP(H)-binding site of the enzyme.

Induction of glutathione S-transferase pi as a bioassay for the evaluation of potency of inhibitors of benzo(a)pyrene-induced cancer in a murine model

There is a growing need for short-term and cost-effective bioassay to assess the efficacy of potential chemo-preventive agents. We report that the induction of glutathione (GSH) S-transferase pi (mGSTP1-1) by a chemo-preventive agent can be used as a reliable marker to assess its efficacy in retarding chemical carcinogenesis induced by benzo(a)pyrene (BP), which is a widespread environmental pollutant and believed to be a risk factor in human chemical carcinogenesis. This conclusion is based on 1) the relative contribution of mGSTP1-1 of the liver and forestomach of female A/J mice in the detoxification of the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite of BP, (+)-anti-7,8-dihydroxy-9, 10-oxy-7,8,9, 10-tetrahydrobenzo(a)pyrene [(+)-anti-BPDE]; and 2) a positive correlation between the induction of hepatic and forestomach mGSTP1-1 by 5 naturally occurring organosulfides (OSCs) from garlic (diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide, dipropyl sulfide and dipropyl disulfide) and their effectiveness in preventing BP-induced forestomach neoplasia in mice. In the liver, the combined contribution of other GSTs in the detoxification of (+)-anti-BPDE was far less than the contribution of mGSTP1-1 alone. Likewise, in the forestomach, the contribution of mGSTP1-1 far exceeded the combined contribution of other GSTs. Studies on the effects of OSCs against BP-induced forestomach neoplasia revealed a good correlation between their chemo-preventive efficacy and their ability to induce mGSTP1-1 expression in the liver (r = -0.89; p < 0.05) as well as in the forestomach (r = -0.97; p < 0.05). Our results suggest that the induction of mGSTP1-1 may be a reliable marker for evaluating the efficacy of potential inhibitors of BP-induced cancer in a murine model.

Calcium homeostasis of isolated single cortical fibers of rat lens

PURPOSE

To investigate the calcium homeostasis in single fiber cells isolated from rat ocular lens cortex and to quantify the changes in the concentration of free intracellular calcium [Ca2+]i during the process of disintegrative globulization.

METHODS

Individual fiber cells from the cortex of the adult rat lens were isolated by treatment with trypsin in ion-free buffered sucrose. The isolated fiber cells were loaded with the acetoxymethyl esters of Fluo-3 or Calcium Green-2, or with Fluo-3 and Fura Red, and changes in [Ca2+]i of single cortical fibers were measured using a microfluorometer. The time course of increase of [Ca2+]i in fiber cells exposed to Ringer's solution was measured, and the effects on the increase of [Ca2+]i of calcium channel blocker, verapamil, Na-Ca exchange inhibitors Ni2+ and Zn2+, and protease inhibitor, leupeptin, Na+-free and K+-free media and Ca2+-containing isotonic sucrose solution, were investigated.

RESULTS

In Hepes sucrose solution (containing approximately 1.5 microM Ca2+), the isolated fiber cells maintained stable values of [Ca2+]i at 99.6+/-10 nM (n = 32). Exposure of the isolated fibers to Ringer's solution (containing 2 mM Ca2+) led to a monoexponential increase of [Ca2+]i at a rate of 0.12 min(-1). This increase in [Ca2+]i was accompanied by disintegration of the isolated fibers into discrete but resealed globules. Changes in [Ca2+]i, monitored by using a two-dye ratiometric method using Fura Red and fluo-3, showed a progressive increase in [Ca2+]i in fibers exposed to Ringer's solution, preceding globulization. The [Ca2+]i in the globules in Ringer's solution, determined using Calcium Green-2, was 3.6+/-0.7 microM (n = 23). Compared with that in fibers in Ringer's solution, the rate of increase of [Ca2+]i in fibers was much slower in the presence of 50 microM verapamil (0.047 min[-1]), in Na+-free (0.086 min[-1]) and in K+-free (0.062 min[-1]) Ringer's solution, or when the fibers were suspended in Hepes-sucrose solution, containing 2 mM Ca2+ (0.046 min[-1]). After 30 minutes, the [Ca2+]i of fiber cells exposed to Ringer's solution, containing 2 mM Ni2+ (574.7+/-29 nM; n = 7) or Zn2+ (402.6+/-77 nM; n = 7) was significantly lower (P < 0.001) compared with that in fiber cells exposed to Ringer's solution alone (1995+/-461 nM, n = 10). In Ringer's solution, leupeptin delayed globulization without significantly affecting the increase in [Ca2+]i. The [Ca2+]i of fiber cells isolated from outer and inner cortex and suspended in Hepes-sucrose was comparable; however, after 15 minutes of exposure to Ringer's solution, [Ca2+]i in fibers from the outer cortex was approximately three times higher than [Ca2+]i in those from the inner cortex.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to high (millimolar) concentrations of calcium in the external medium leads to an increase in [Ca2+]i of isolated individual fiber cells, which precedes disintegrative globulization. The protective effects of Na+-free and K+-free solutions on globulization appear to be due to a lower rate of increase of [Ca2+]i. Part of the calcium influx may be mediated by L-type calcium channels and by Na-Ca exchange, operating in reverse. Proteolytic inhibitors do not affect the increase in [Ca2+]i but delay globulization by inhibiting calcium-mediated proteolysis. The isolated fiber cells and the disintegrated globules maintain a 100- to 300-fold gradient of calcium across their plasma membranes.

Activity of four allelic forms of glutathione S-transferase hGSTP1-1 for diol epoxides of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Allelic forms of hGSTP1-1 which differ from each other by their catalytic properties and, structurally, by the amino acid(s) in position(s) 104 or (and) 113 are known to exist in human populations. The four possible isoforms of hGSTP1-1 with isoleucine or valine in position 104 and with alanine or valine in position 113 were produced by site-directed mutagenesis of the cDNA followed by bacterial expression and purification of the proteins. Glutathione-conjugating activity was measured with the diol epoxides of benzo(a)pyrene and chrysene, as well as with the model substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. Isoenzymes with valine in position 104 were more effective with the diol epoxides of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons but less effective with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene than the isoforms with isoleucine 104. In addition, the transition A113V in the presence of V104 caused a pronounced increase in catalytic efficiency for the benzo(a)pyrene but not the chrysene diol epoxide. It is proposed that amino acid 113 functions as part of a clamp that lines the mouth of the water channel leading to the active sites of the hGSTP1-1 dimer and controls the access to substrates. Therefore, the hydrophobicity and the size of residue 113 are important in co-determining the substrate specificity of the isoenzymes. The widely different activities of the allelic isoforms toward carcinogenic diol epoxides of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons may help to explain the correlation between cancer susceptibility and genotype at the hGSTP1 locus that has been found by others.

Mechanism of differential efficacy of garlic organosulfides in preventing benzo(a)pyrene-induced cancer in mice

The mechanism of differential efficacies of diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), diallyl trisulfide (DATS), dipropyl sulfide (DPS) and dipropyl disulfide (DPDS) in preventing benzo(a)pyrene (BP)-induced cancer in mice has been investigated by determining their effects on the enzymes of BP activation/inactivation pathways. With the exception of DATS, treatment of mice with other organosulfides (OSCs) caused a small but significant increase (37-44%) in hepatic ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity. However, the forestomach EROD activity did not differ significantly between control and treated groups. Only DAS treatment caused a modest but statistically significant reduction (about 25%) in pulmonary EROD activity. These results suggest that while reduction of EROD activity may, at least in part, contribute to the DAS-mediated inhibition of BP-induced lung cancer, anticarcinogenic effects of OSCs against BP-induced forestomach carcinogenesis seems to be independent of this mechanism. Treatment of mice with DAS, DADS and DATS resulted in a significant increase, as compared with control, in both hepatic (3.0-, 3.2- and 4.4-fold, respectively) and forestomach (1.5-, 2.7- and 2.7-fold, respectively) glutathione transferase (GST) activity toward anti-7beta,8alpha-dihydroxy-9alpha,10alpha-oxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo(a)pyrene (anti-BPDE), which is the ultimate carcinogen of BP. The pulmonary GST activity was not increased by any of the OSCs. Even though epoxide hydrolase (EH) activity was differentially altered by these OSCs, a correlation between chemopreventive efficacy of OSCs and their effects on EH activity was not apparent. The results of the present study suggest that differences in the ability of OSCs to modulate GST activity toward anti-BPDE may, at least in part, account for their differential chemopreventive efficacy against BP-induced cancer in mice.

Active site modification of aldose reductase by nitric oxide donors

Nitric oxide (NO) donors sodium nitrosoprusside (SNP), S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP), and 3-morpholinosydnonemine (SIN-1) caused a time- and concentration-dependent loss of catalytic activity of recombinant human placental aldose reductase. Modification of the enzyme was prevented by NADPH and NADP and reversed partially by dithiothreitol (DTT) and sodium borohydride. The protection by NADPH was lost in the presence of both substrates (NADPH and glyceraldehyde), indicating that the enzyme becomes sensitive to inhibition by SNP during catalysis. Site-directed mutant form of the enzyme, in which active site cys-298 was substituted with serine (C298S) was not inactivated by NO donors, whereas, ARC80S and ARC303 were as sensitive as the wild type enzyme, indicating that inactivation of aldose reductase is due to modification of the active site at cys298. These results suggest that NO may be an endogenous regulator of aldose reductase, and consequently the polyol pathway of glucose metabolism; which has been implicated in the pathogenesis of secondary diabetic complications.

Mechanism of differential catalytic efficiency of two polymorphic forms of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 in the glutathione conjugation of carcinogenic diol epoxide of chrysene

The kinetics of the conjugation of glutathione (GSH) with anti-1, 2-dihydroxy-3,4-oxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrochrysene (anti-CDE), the activated form of the widespread environmental pollutant chrysene, catalyzed by two naturally occurring polymorphic forms of the pi class human GSH S-transferase (hGSTP1-1), has been investigated. The polymorphic forms of hGSTP1-1, which differ in their primary structure by a single amino acid in position 104, exhibited preference for the GSH conjugation of (+)-anti-CDE, which is a far more potent carcinogen than (-)-anti-CDE. When concentration of anti-CDE was varied (5-200 microM and the GSH concentration was kept constant at 2 mM, both hGSTP1-1(I104) and hGSTP1-1(V104) obeyed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. However, the Vmax of GSH conjugation of anti-CDE was approximately 5.3-fold higher for the V104 variant than for the I104 form. Calculation of catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) thus resulted in a value for hGSTP1-1(V104), 28 mM-1 s-1, that was 7.0-fold higher than that for hGSTP1-1(I104), 4 mM-1 s-1. The mechanism of the differences in the kinetic properties of hGSTP1-1 isoforms toward anti-CDE was investigated by molecular modeling of the two proteins with GSH conjugation products in their active sites. These studies revealed that the enantioselectivity of hGSTP1-1 for (+)-anti-CDE and the differential catalytic efficiencies of the V104 and I104 forms of hGSTP1-1 in the GSH conjugation of (+)-anti-CDE were due to the differences in the active-site architecture of the two proteins. The results of the present study, for the first time, provide evidence for the toxicological relevance of GSTP1-1 polymorphism in humans and suggest that the population polymorphism of hGSTP1-1 variants with disparate enzyme activities may, at least in part, account for the differential susceptibility of individuals to environmental carcinogens such as anti-CDE and possibly other similar carcinogens.

Contribution of osmotic changes to disintegrative globulization of single cortical fibers isolated from rat lens

In this study the contribution of osmotic changes to disintegrative globulization of lens cortical fibers was examined. Single fiber cells were isolated by trypsinization of adult rat lens cortex, and morphological changes elicited by exposure to different external solutions were monitored optically. The survival of the fiber-shaped cells was analysed in accordance with the Weibull distribution. Changes in [Ca2+]i were measured using the fluorescent calcium-sensitive dye-Fluo-3. Exposure of isolated fiber cells to Ringer's solution (containing 2 mm Ca2+) led to an exponential increase in [Ca2+]i with a time constant of 10.2+/-0.8 min, and caused disintegrative globulization in 25+/-4 min (=Tg). The process of globulization as well as the rate of increase in [Ca2+]i was delayed by removing Cl- ions from the external media. Globulization was also delayed by adding 20% bovine serum albumin (Tg=107+/-3 min) or chloride channel inhibitors 5, nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoate (NPPB), dideoxyforskolin, niflumic acid, and tamoxifen. When the fiber cells were suspended in isotonic (280 mm sucrose) HEPES-sucrose (HS) or HEPES-EDTA-sucrose (HES) solution, no globulization was observed for an observation time of 120 min. However, exposure to hypotonic (180 mm) HES solution led to disintegration of fiber cells in 75+/-7 min. Disintegration of the fiber induced by hypotonic HES solution could be delayed by either 0. 05 mm leupeptin (Tg=97+/-6 min) or by pre-loading the fibers with BAPTA (Tg=100+/-4 min). Inhibition of membrane calcium transport by 0.5 mm La3+ had no effect on Tg in hypotonic HES. Addition of 2 mm Ca2+ to HES solution accelerated globulization, and Tg was 57+/-4, 69+/-5 and 102+/-6 min for hypo-, iso- and hyper- tonic solutions, respectively. Transient exposure to calcium also accelerated disintegrative globulization of fiber cells exposed subsequently to HES solution. These results suggest that in ionic media, part of the calcium influx in isolated fiber cells is mediated by the influx of chloride ions. In the absence of other ions, the fiber cells still accumulate calcium, although this calcium influx was independent of medium tonicity. Globulization-induced by hypotonic sucrose solution appears to be mediated by the activation of intracellular proteases and by cell swelling-induced release of calcium from internal stores. Such swelling-mediated disintegrative globulization of fiber cells may be of significance in understanding the cellular basis of diabetic cataracts.

A synthesis of 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal and 4-(3H) 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal

4-Hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal, the most abundant and toxic unsaturated aldehyde generated during membrane lipid peroxidation, was synthesized starting from fumaraldehyde dimethyl acetal. In the first step of the synthesis, the fumaraldehyde dimethyl acetal was partially hydrolyzed using amberlyst catalyst to obtain the monoacetal. The 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal was synthesized by the Grignard reaction of the fumaraldehyde monoacetal with 1-bromopentane. 4-Hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal, obtained as its dimethylacetal, was oxidized to its corresponding 4-keto derivative using pyridinium chlorochromate buffered with sodium acetate as the oxidizing agent. 4-(3H) 4-Hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal was obtained in one step by the sodium borotriteride reduction of the 4-keto derivative.

Active site architecture of polymorphic forms of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 accounts for their enantioselectivity and disparate activity in the glutathione conjugation of 7beta,8alpha-dihydroxy-9alpha,10alpha-ox y-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo(a)pyrene

In this study, we demonstrate that the active site architecture of the human glutathione (GSH) S-transferase Pi (GSTP1-1) accounts for its enantioselectivity in the GSH conjugation of 7beta,8alpha-dihydroxy-9alpha,10alpha-oxy-7,8,9, 10-tetrahydrobenzo(a) pyrene (anti-BPDE), the ultimate carcinogen of benzo(a)pyrene. Furthermore, we report that the two polymorphic forms of human GSTP1-1, differing in their primary structure by a single amino acid in position 104, have disparate activity toward (+)-anti-BPDE, which can also be rationalized in terms of their active site structures. When concentration of (+)-anti-BPDE, which among four BPDE isomers is the most potent carcinogen, was varied and GSH concentration was kept constant at 2 mM (saturating concentration), both forms of hGSTP1-1 [hGSTP1-1(V104) and hGSTP1-1(I104)] obeyed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The V(max) of GSH conjugation of (+)-anti-BPDE was approximately 3.4-fold higher for hGSTP1-1(V104) than for hGSTP1-1(I104). Adherence to Michaelis-Menten kinetics was also observed for both isoforms when (-)-anti-BPDE, which is a weak carcinogen, was used as the variable substrate. However, (-)-anti-BPDE was a relatively poor substrate for both isoforms as compared with (+)-anti-BPDE. Moreover, there were no significant differences between hGSTP1-1(V104) and hGSTP1-1(I104) in either V(max) or K(m) for (-)-anti-BPDE. The mechanism of differences in kinetic properties and enantioselectivity of hGSTP1-1 variants toward anti-BPDE was investigated by modeling of the two proteins with conjugation product molecules in their active sites. Molecular modeling studies revealed that the differences in catalytic properties of hGSTP1-1 variants as well as the enantioselectivity of hGSTP1-1 in the GSH conjugation of anti-BPDE can be rationalized in terms of the architecture of their active sites. Our results suggest that the population polymorphism of hGSTP1-1 variants with disparate enzyme activities may, at least in part, account for the differential susceptibility of individuals to carcinogens such as anti-BPDE and possibly other similar carcinogens.

Rat GST 8-8 is expressed predominantly in myeloid origin cells infiltrating the gravid uterus

Previous studies from our laboratory have shown a relatively high expression of rGST8-8 in uterine tissues. This GST isozyme displays relatively high glutathione-peroxidase activity towards lipid-hydroperoxides and towards toxic 4-hydroxyalkenals generated from lipid peroxidation. Since the uterus is a unique organ, subject to oxidative stress due to infiltration by immune effector cells during gestation and because this infiltration is readily identifiable histologically, the studies reported herein were performed to localize the cell specific expression of rGST8-8 to determine whether immune effector cells infiltrating the pregnant rat uterus specifically expressed rGST8-8. A 75 bp end-radiolabeled cRNA probe was prepared from the full length mGSTA4-4 cDNA from the region which is highly homologous with rGST8-8. This cRNA probe was used for in situ hybridization studies to localize rGST8-8 in specific cell types of gravid rat uterus. Results of these studies indicate that this GST isozyme is selectively expressed in myeloid origin cells such as monocytes/macrophages, and neutrophils infiltrating the uterine endometrium and in vascular walls. Selective expression of rGST8-8 in the myeloid origin cells, which are known to generate higher levels of reactive oxygen species, suggests that this GST isozyme plays an important role in the protection mechanisms against lipid peroxidation.

Selective demethylation of some aconitine-type norditerpenoid alkaloids

Demethylation of some aconitine-type norditerpenoid alkaloids was carried out with trimethylsilyl iodide and with HBr in glacial AcOH. Aconitine (10), cammaconine (23), delphinine (3), falconerine (18), lappaconitine (22), and talatizamine (24) afforded partially demethylated products. When methoxyl groups are present at the C-16 and C-18 positions, these are demethylated, and the methoxyl group at the C-1 position underwent demethylation in none the alkaloids studied except falconerine (18). With HBr-AcOH, in the case of alkaloids possessing a C-3 hydroxyl group, the methoxymethyl at C-18 formed a tetrahydrofuran, cyclizing at the C-6 position. Detailed NMR spectral studies (1H, 13C, 1H homonuclear COSY, HETCOR, and selective INEPT) carried out on the demethylation products have enabled accurate chemical shift assignments to be made for the demethylated alkaloids.

Evidence for antiaggressive property of some calcium channel blockers

The effect of calcium channel blockers on foot shock induced (aggression (FSA) were studied in mice. Verapamil, (10, 20 and 40 mg kg-1 i.p.) diltiazem (20 and 40 mg kg-1 i.p.) and nifedipine (25 and 50 mg kg-1 i.p.) significantly reduced fighting episodes. Diltiazem and nifedipine blocked the amphetamine induced facilitation of FSA, while verapamil blocked both amphetamine as well as physostigmine induced facilitation of FSA. These findings suggest that calcium channel blockers possess antiaggressive activity, which may be attributed to decrease in central dopaminergic and/or cholinergic mechanism.

Increased resistance to oxidative stress in transfected cultured cells overexpressing glutathione S-transferase mGSTA4-4

Peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids is one of the multiple cytotoxic effects of oxidative stress. Lipid peroxidation is significant because a single initiating event triggers a chain reaction, thus amplifying the initial stimulus. Many oxidative stress-related pathologies have been linked to lipid peroxidation. Mouse glutathione S-transferase mGSTA4-4 exhibits high glutathione conjugating activity with toxic products of lipid peroxidation, e.g., 4-hydroxynon-2-enal. In addition, mGSTA4-4 has glutathione peroxidase activity toward phospholipid hydroperoxides. On the basis of these catalytic properties, we have previously proposed that the enzyme may be physiologically important in alleviating the cytotoxic effects of lipid peroxidation. We have now experimentally confirmed this hypothesis by transfecting HepG2 cells with mGSTA4 cDNA, and demonstrating a protective effect of expressed mGSTA4-4 protein on cells exposed during plating to H2O2, organic hydroperoxides, and phosphatidylcholine hydroperoxide. As compared to cells transfected with insert-free vector, a larger proportion of mGSTA4-transfected cells was able to attach to the culture dish, and continued to divide in the presence of the above compounds. In addition to alleviating the cytotoxic effects of oxidative stress, mGSTA4-4 may interfere with the subtoxic but cytostatic signals generated by a low-level pro-oxidant state.

Alterations in the light transmission through single lens fibers during calcium-mediated disintegrative globulization

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in the light transmission through single cortical fibers isolated from the rat lens during the process of disintegrative globulization.

METHODS

Single cortical fibers were isolated from adult rat lens by treatment with trypsin in a solution containing 10 mM HEPES, 10 mM EDTA, and 280 mM sucrose (pH 7.4, 300 to 310 mOsm) HEPES-EDTA-sucrose (HES) solution. The isolated fibers were illuminated by a white light source, and the light transmission through the fibers was collected by a charge-coupled device camera and quantified by digital image analysis. In some experiments, thin sections of fixed lens cells were examined using transmission electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Enzymatic dissociation of the lens yielded elongated fibers, which, in the presence of Ringer's solution (containing 2 mM Ca2+), underwent disintegrative globulization. Measurements of light transmission through elongated fibers suspended in HES solution showed maximal transmission at the center of the fiber. Exposure of the cortical fibers to Ringer's solution led to biphasic changes in the intensity of the transmitted light. Within 5 to 10 minutes of exposure to Ringer's solution, a general decrease in the light transmission across the long axis of the fiber was observed. Extended superfusion led to a local, apparent increase in light transmission corresponding to the formation of membrane blebs and globules. Images of disingerated globules focused above their equator showed bright halos with dark central zones. In electron micrographs, the single fibers showed uniform electron density. No significant inhomogeneities or precipitation of intracellular crystallins was observed in globules generated from fiber cells exposed to Ringer's solution; in addition, no high molecular weight protein aggregates were found in the globules.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to calcium alters the light-transmitting properties of isolated cortical fibers. The initial decrease in the average light transmittance of the fiber appears to be secondary to cell swelling and may relate to protein-based opacification. An apparent increase in light transmission through calcium-generated globules is likely because of the Becke line generated by a mismatch between the refractive index of the medium and the globule cytoplasm and accentuated by the transition from rod-shaped to spheroidal morphology.

Delivery of liposome-sequestered hydrophobic proteins to lysosomes of normal and Batten disease cells

We have developed a method to deliver hydrophobic proteins such as ATP synthase subunit c and ubiquitin to lysosomes of PMN (polymorphonucleocytes) and fibroblasts. ATP synthase subunit c is stored in the lysosomes of various tissues in late infantile and juvenile forms of neuronal ceriod lipofuscinosis, also called Batten disease (BD). Whether this protein storage is due to an abbreviation in protein or in the lysosomal hydrolases of BD is still not clear. We have sequestered this protein and ubiquitin in the lipid membrane of liposomes. The liposomes coated with autologous heat-aggregated IgG or apolipoprotein E when presented to the PMN and fibroblasts, respectively, accumulated in the lysosomes. Both normal and BD PMN degraded 125I-ubiquitin; the rate of degradation was, however, slower by Batten PMN. These studies indicate that a hydrophobic molecule such as subunit c can be delivered to PMN and fibroblasts, and the sequestered proteins are accessible to lysosomal hydrolases. Therefore, this technique can be used to study the metabolism of highly hydrophobic proteins by lysosomes, especially the biochemical mechanism(s) of subunit c storage in BD.