Constitutive activation of the JAK2/STAT5 signal transduction pathway correlates with growth factor independence of megakaryocytic leukemic cell lines

The factor-independent Dami/HEL and Meg-01 and factor-dependent Mo7e leukemic cell lines were used as models to investigate JAK/STAT signal transduction pathways in leukemic cell proliferation. Although Dami/HEL and Meg-01 cell proliferation in vitro was independent of and unresponsive to exogenous cytokines including granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-3 (IL-3), IL-6, thrombopoietin (TPO), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), the growth of Mo7e cells was dependent on hematopoietic growth factors. When these cell lines were cultured in medium without cytokines, a constitutively activated STAT-like DNA-binding factor was detected in nuclear extracts from both Dami/HEL and Meg-01 cells. However, the STAT-like factor was not detectable in untreated Mo7e cells, but was activated transiently in Mo7e cells in response to cytokine treatments. The constitutively activated and cytokine-induced STAT-like DNA-binding factor in these three cell lines was identified as STAT5 by oligonucleotide competition gel mobility assays and by specific anti-STAT antibody gel supershift assays. Constitutive activation of JAK2 also was detected in the factor-independent cell lines, but not in Mo7e cells without cytokine exposure. Meg-01 cells express a p185 BCR/ABL oncogene, which may be responsible for the constitutive activation of STAT5. Dami/HEL cells do not express the BCR/ABL oncogene, but increased constitutive phosphorylation of Raf-1 oncoprotein was detected. In cytokine bioassays using growth factor-dependent Mo7e and TF-1 cells as targets, conditioned media from Dami/HEL and Meg-01 cells did not show stimulatory effects on cell proliferation. Our results indicate that the constitutive activation of JAK2/STAT5 correlates with the factor-independent growth of Dami/HEL and Meg-01 cells. The constitutive activation of JAK2/STAT5 in Dami/HEL cells is triggered by a mechanism other than autocrine cytokines or the BCR/ABL oncoprotein.

Regulation of natriuretic peptide secretion by the heart

Secreted by the heart, more specifically by atrial cardiomyocytes under normal conditions but also by ventricular myocytes during cardiac hypertrophy, natriuretic peptides are now considered important hormones in the control of blood pressure and salt and water excretion. Studies on natriuretic peptide secretagogues and their mechanisms of action have been complicated by hemodynamic changes and contractions to which the atria are constantly subjected. It now appears that atrial stretch through mechano-sensitive ion channels, adrenergic stimulation via alpha 1A-adrenergic receptors, and endothelin via its ETA receptor subtype are major triggering agents of natriuretic peptide release. With several other stimuli, such as angiotensin II and beta-adrenergic agents, modulation of natriuretic peptide release appears to be linked to local generation of prostaglandins. In all cases, intracellular calcium homeostasis, controlled by several ion channels, is considered a key element in the regulation of natriuretic peptide secretion.

Opposite effects of lateral septal LTP and lateral septal lesions on contextual fear conditioning in mice

The effect of fimbrial high-frequency stimulation (HFS)-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) in the lateral septum (LS) on contextual fear conditioning was studied in mice. Mice were conditioned for fear toward a novel context through the use of footshocks. The 1st experiment showed that pretraining HFS reduced significantly conditional freezing to contextual stimuli. The 2nd experiment was designed to determine whether the reduction of freezing produced by fimbrial HFS resulted from LTP in the LS rather than from LTP in other brain structures. Accordingly, mice with lesions of the LS were used and submitted to the same protocol as in the 1st experiment. Results showed that LS lesions completely abolished the impairing effect of fimbrial HFS and, as a whole, potentiated the freezing response. These data suggest that contextual fear conditioning is strongly modulated by the level of hippocampal-LS synaptic neurotransmission.

An analysis of sports knee evaluation instruments

This study examined four commonly used sports knee evaluation instruments to establish normative data. A total of 91 volunteers who had not sought treatment for knee pain or any other knee complaint at any time in the past underwent a detailed medical history and examination of both of their knees. Three numerical systems (Feagin and Blake Knee Score, Lysholm Knee Score, and the Hospital for Special Surgery Knee Disability Assessment) and one nonnumerical system (the International Knee Documentation Committee Quick Knee Profile) were evaluated. A significant difference in the proportion of knees with excellent/normal ratings was seen among the four evaluation systems (P<.0001): Hospital for Special Surgery Knee Disability Assessment, 99.5%; Feagin and Blake Knee Score, 84.6%; Lysholm Knee Score, 84.1%; and the International Knee Documentation Committee Quick Knee Profile, 50.5%. Results showed that three objective component scores for the International Knee Documentation Quick Knee Profile were significantly lower than all other component scores (P<.05). These components included: overall ligament examination, Lachman, and total AP translation. These data may be useful as a baseline by which investigators studying patients following knee reconstructive procedures have a basis for comparison of their results.

Cell proliferation in nasal respiratory epithelium of people exposed to urban pollution

The nasal passages are a common portal of entry and are a prime site for toxicant-induced pathology. Sustained increases in regenerative cell proliferation can be a significant driving force in chemical carcinogenesis. The atmosphere in Mexico City contains a complex mixture of air pollutants and its residents are exposed chronically and sequentially to numerous toxicants and potential carcinogens. We were concerned that exposure to Mexico City's atmosphere might induce cytotoxicity and increase nasal respiratory epithelial cell proliferation. Nasal biopsies were obtained for DNA cell cycle analysis from 195 volunteers. The control population consisted of 16 adults and 27 children that were residents in a Caribbean island with low pollution. The exposed Mexico City population consisted of 109 adults and 43 children. Sixty-one of the adult subjects were newly arrived in Mexico City and were followed for 25 days from their arrival. Control children, control adult and exposed Mexico City children all had similar percentages of cells in the replicative DNA synthesis phase (S phase) of the cell cycle (%S). A significant increase in %S in nasal epithelial cells was seen in exposed adult residents in Mexico City biopsied at three different dates compared with control adults. Newly arrived adults exhibited a control level of cell turnover at day 2 after coming to the city. However, at days 7, 14 and 25 they exhibited significant increases in %S. These data demonstrate an increased and sustained nasal cell turnover rate in the adult population observable in as little as 1 week of residence in Mexico City. This increase in cell proliferation is in agreement with other reports of induced pathological changes in the nasal passages of Mexico City dwellers. These observations suggest an increased potential risk factor of developing nasal neoplasms for residents of large cities with heavy pollution.

Renal angiotensin II receptor regulation and renin-angiotensin system inhibition in one-kidney, one clip hypertensive rats

OBJECTIVE

To characterize glomerular and preglomerular vascular angiotensin II receptors during the acute phase of nonrenin-dependent one-kidney, one clip hypertension in rats, using the angiotensin II antagonists losartan and PD 123319, and to investigate their regulation after renin-angiotensin system blockade with either an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, captopril, or an angiotensin II receptor antagonist, TCV-116.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One-kidney, one clip hypertension was produced in male Sprague-Dawley rats by placing a silver clip (internal diameter 0.2 mm) on the left renal artery and removing the contralateral kidney. After 1, 2 or 4 weeks, the rats were killed, and their glomerular and preglomerular vascular membranes were purified. Competitive binding studies were performed using specific angiotensin II antagonists. Similarly, one-kidney, one clip hypertension was allowed to develop for 2 weeks before treatment with captopril or TCV-116 for 2 weeks.

RESULTS

Competitive binding studies showed that only the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor was detected on both glomeruli and preglomerular vessels of all groups. The vascular AT1 receptor density was significantly higher in the 1 and 2 week one-kidney, one clip groups, but the glomerular receptor density was not different in these rats compared with age-matched uninephrectomized controls. The glomerular receptor density was significantly higher in captopril-treated rats and significantly lower in TCV-116-treated rats compared with untreated and control rats, but no significant changes were detected in any groups in vascular AT1 receptor density.

CONCLUSIONS

Angiotensin II receptors on preglomerular vessels and glomeruli are differentially regulated during the early phase of hypertension and after renin-angiotensin system blockade. Vascular angiotensin II receptors are upregulated in the early phase of hypertension whereas glomerular angiotensin II receptors are not However, after renin-angiotensin system blockade, glomerular but not vascular angiotensin II receptors were differentially regulated according to the type of blockade.

Thyroid transcription factor-1: immunohistochemical evaluation in pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors

Thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1), a nuclear transcription protein selectively expressed in the thyroid, the diencephalon, and respiratory epithelium, is expressed in more than 90% of pulmonary small cell carcinomas (SCLCs) and in almost 75% of pulmonary non-small cell carcinomas (NSCLCs), but it is absent in typical pulmonary carcinoids (TCs). Therefore, it was thought that SCLC and NSCLC might share a common lineage, different from that of TC. TTF-1 expression in atypical pulmonary carcinoids (ACs) and large-cell neuroendocrine carcinomas (LCNECs) was not studied previously. We examined TTF-1 expression in 51 TCs, 9 ACs, 8 LCNECs, and 21 SCLCs with use of formalin-fixed material and heat-induced epitope retrieval. TTF-1 expression was seen in 18 (35%) of 51 TCs, all of the 9 ACs, 6 (75%) of the 8 LCNECs, and 20 (95%) of the 21 SCLCs. These results reinforce earlier findings of the excellent sensitivity of TTF-1 for SCLC, and they show similar sensitivity for AC and LCNEC, but they argue against the hypothesis that SCLC and TC are of different cell lineages. The ubiquity of TTF-1 expression in pulmonary NECs demonstrated in this study also argues against its use in their subclassification.

Synthesis and hypolipidaemic evaluation of a series of alpha-asarone analogues related to clofibrate in mice

A series of alpha-asarone analogues related to clofibrate, containing an acetic acid group at C-2 of the aromatic ring, has been prepared as the acids or as the ethyl and methyl esters. The corresponding alcohols were also synthesized by reduction of the ethyl esters. The compounds were examined in hyperlipidaemic male mice to evaluate their ability to modify serum lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides after oral administration of 40 and 80 mg kg(-1) for 6 days. Except for methyl 2-methoxy-5-nitro-4-(2-propenyl)phenoxyacetate at either dose, these clofibrate-related phenoxyacetic acid derivatives were found to have significant hypocholesterolaemic activity. Levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides were significantly reduced and those of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were elevated. 2-Methoxy-5-nitro-4-(2-propenyl)phenoxyacetic acid was active at both doses in all the tests. Clofibrate (150 mg kg(-1)) was more potent at reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. No activity was detected for the alcohol derivatives. These preliminary results suggest that this class of compound might have more promise as potential hypolipidaemic agents than other alpha-asarone derivatives. Further investigation and characterization should be performed to determine the mode of action of these agents on lipid metabolism.

Vasoactive peptide receptors in the rat kidney

The kidney is composed of different complex structures regulating--among others--renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. Several vasoactive peptide systems are involved in that regulation, including atrial natriuretic peptides, the renin-angiotensin system, endothelin and their respective receptors. In this review, we will briefly describe the characteristics, location and regulation of these receptors in the rat kidney.

Immunolocalization of natriuretic peptide receptor B in the rat kidney

The natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR) family consists of three receptor subtypes: two transmembrane forms that contain a guanylyl cyclase intracellular domain (NPR-A and NPR-B), and one truncated form (NPR-C). Because of the lack of specific agonists and antagonists for each receptor subtype and to the difficulty to detect the presence of small quantities of NPR-B by ligand binding studies, polyclonal antibodies against a peptide whose sequence was chosen from a region of the extracellular domain of rat NPR-B that is not homologous to sequences in NPR-A and NPR-C were developed. Western blotting with affinity-purified anti-NPR-B (413-426)-Tyr revealed a polypeptide of approximately 120 kD on COS-1 cell membranes transfected with rat NPR-B cDNA. The antibody recognized a second polypeptide, approximately 5 to 10 kD smaller, which probably represents the unglycosylated receptor. Anti-NPR-B (413-426)-Tyr did not show crossreactivity to any other NPR. Western blotting analysis with anti-NPR-B (413-426)-Tyr also identified a protein of appropriate size in renal vascular membranes. These results were supported by immunohistochemistry findings that demonstrated staining for NPR-B on papillary and medullary capillaries, glomeruli, and renal arteries. This study concludes that NPR-B is present in the rat kidney, although it was only detected in vascular structures.

Clinical and radiological features of pulmonary disease caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria in cancer patients

The role of rapidly growing mycobacteria in the pathogenesis of pulmonary disease is being increasingly recognized; however, the clinical significance of these mycobacteria in patients with underlying malignancy has not been well studied. Over a 6-year period, 37 cancer patients with rapidly growing mycobacteria isolated from respiratory specimens were identified at our center. Mycobacterium chelonae group was isolated in 24 cases and Mycobacterium fortuitum in 13 cases. Of the 24 cases with cultures yielding Mycobacterium chelonae group, eight met the study criteria for infection and were determined to be clinically significant, whereas only one of the Mycobacterium fortuitum isolates was determined to represent infection. An average of two antimicrobial agents were used for treatment, most commonly clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Although the isolation of rapidly growing mycobacteria represents colonization in most cases, these bacteria, especially the Mycobacterium chelonae group, may cause pulmonary disease in cancer patients. The clinical and radiological findings are usually non-specific in this population, and patients with respiratory cultures yielding rapidly growing mycobacteria should be assessed carefully to distinguish infection from colonization. Effective therapy can be provided with oral regimens that include at least two antibiotics to which the organism is susceptible.

How dentition status and masticatory function affect nutrient intake

The authors examined nutrient intake in relation to the number of teeth, denture type and masticatory function among 638 men in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Dental Longitudinal Study. They found that calorie-adjusted nutrient intakes decreased with progressively impaired dentition status, independently of age, smoking status and alcohol use. Intakes of fiber and most vitamins and minerals were inversely correlated with masticatory function. The findings suggest that prevention of tooth loss and prosthodontic replacement of missing teeth could improve diets of older adults.

Using focus groups to identify diabetes care and education issues for Latinos with diabetes

The purpose of this study was to identify diabetes care and education issues for Latinos with diabetes. Four focus groups of Latinos with diabetes were held in the Detroit area; these sessions were audiotaped. An expert panel of bilingual health professionals from the United States and Mexico reviewed the audiotapes and identified and prioritized 47 issues using a modified Delphi technique. The highest priority issue identified by a wide margin was the difficulty many Latina women with diabetes have with self-care because of other family responsibilities. Universal diabetes care issues have a specific cultural expression which, when identified, can be incorporated into diabetes care and education programs for a particular cultural group. Focus groups are a useful means for identifying and illuminating such issues.

An association between periodontal disease and peripheral vascular disease

BACKGROUND

Periodontal disease has been shown to be associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease. Because coronary heart disease and peripheral vascular disease (PVD) have similar pathophysiologies, we hypothesized that periodontal disease might be a risk factor for PVD.

METHODS

Using the combined data from the Normative Aging Study and Dental Longitudinal Study of the US Department of Veterans Affairs, we examined the relationship between PVD and periodontal disease. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used.

RESULTS

Over the 25 to 30 years of follow-up, 80 of these initially healthy subjects developed PVD. Compared with controls (n = 1,030), subjects with clinically significant periodontal disease at baseline had a 2.27 increment in the risk of developing PVD (95% confidence interval 1.32 to 3.9, P value = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Periodontal disease emerged as a significant independent risk factor for PVD in a multivariate analysis that adjusted for other established risk factors.

Opposite effects of lateral septal LTP and lateral septal lesions on contextual fear conditioning in mice

The effect of fimbrial high-frequency stimulation (HFS)-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) in the lateral septum (LS) on contextual fear conditioning was studied in mice. Mice were conditioned for fear toward a novel context through the use of footshocks. The 1st experiment showed that pretraining HFS reduced significantly conditional freezing to contextual stimuli. The 2nd experiment was designed to determine whether the reduction of freezing produced by fimbrial HFS resulted from LTP in the LS rather than from LTP in other brain structures. Accordingly, mice with lesions of the LS were used and submitted to the same protocol as in the 1st experiment. Results showed that LS lesions completely abolished the impairing effect of fimbrial HFS and, as a whole, potentiated the freezing response. These data suggest that contextual fear conditioning is strongly modulated by the level of hippocampal-LS synaptic neurotransmission.

Periodontitis: a risk factor for coronary heart disease?

This paper evaluates the current information on the relationship between oral disease (specifically periodontitis) and atherosclerosis/coronary heart disease (CHD) to determine whether the information is sufficient to conclude that periodontitis is a risk factor for atherosclerosis/CHD. As background for this evaluation, the term "risk factor" is defined, and the 3 criteria used to establish exposures as risk factors are reviewed. In addition, epidemiologic criteria for defining an exposure as causal are presented. The available evidence then is evaluated according to the criteria for causality, which are extensions of the criteria for establishing a risk factor. This review is done in the context of the relationship between atherosclerosis/CHD and inflammation. A number of findings are briefly reviewed that link inflammation and atherosclerosis/CHD, such as: 1) prior flu-like symptoms were more common in cases of myocardial infarction than in concurrently sampled controls; 2) high levels of cytomegalovirus antibody titers were associated with elevated carotid intimal-medial wall thickness 18 years later; 3) prior infection with cytomegalovirus was a strong independent risk factor for restenosis after coronary atherectomy; 4) dental infections were more common in cases of cerebral infarction compared to community controls matched on age and sex; and 5) the gingival index was significantly correlated with fibrinogen and white cell counts in periodontal patients and controls, adjusted for age, smoking, and socioeconomic status. Three case-control studies and 5 longitudinal studies investigating the relationship between dental conditions and atherosclerosis/CHD are reviewed in terms of strength of associations, consistency of associations, specificity. of associations, time sequence between exposure and outcome, and degree of exposure and outcome. Related to the last criterion, new findings are presented which indicate that the extent of the periodontal infection, a measure reflecting microbial burden, also is related to onset of new CHD events. Our previously published model describing the potential biological mechanisms underlying the associations found is reviewed. This model places the associations into a context of an intrinsic or acquired hyperinflammatory monocyte trait that results in a more intense inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenges, such as periodontal infections. This hyperinflammatory response may promote atheroma formation and thromboembolic events. finally, new findings from ongoing animal studies are presented, indicating that high fat diets in atherosclerotic-susceptible mice induce greater inflammatory responses to Porphyromonas gingivalis challenges. We conclude that the available evidence does allow an interpretation of periodontitis being a risk factor for atherosclerosis/CHD. This conclusion, however. is made with some qualifications. While the associations found across a wide variety of subjects are remarkably consistent, for the most part they are represented by incidence odds ratios around 2.0. While this level of association would result in oral conditions contributing to a large number of CHD cases, it is possible that associations of this magnitude are due to bias in the study designs. In addition, some studies report that periodontitis is associated with all-cause mortality and low birth weight infants. These multiple associations detract from the credibility of periodontitis as a risk factor, as specificity of association is more often related to causality. However, all-cause mortality may largely be driven by mortality from cardiovascular events: and some exposures, such as smoking. are indeed risk factors for multiple conditions. On the other hand, current findings regarding the associations between oral conditions and atherosclerosis/CHD imply that the criteria for causality may be met in the not-too-distant future.

New lysosomal acid lipase gene mutants explain the phenotype of Wolman disease and cholesteryl ester storage disease

Deficiency of lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) leads to either Wolman disease (WD) or the more benign cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD). To identify the molecular basis of the different phenotypes we have characterised the LAL gene mutations in three new patients with LAL deficiency. A patient with WD was homozygote for a null allele Y303X. The other two patients, with CESD, presented either homozygosity for T267I or compound heterozygosity consisting of Q64R and an exon 8 donor splice site substitution (G-->A in position -1). The mutants T267I and Q64R and the previously reported L273S, G66V, and H274Y CESD substitutions, overexpressed in stable clones, were found to be fully glycosylated and show an enzymatic activity of 3-8% of that of normal LAL. On the other hand, the delta254-277 mutant protein derived from exon 8 skipping and the Y303X protein were totally inactive. By transient transfection of hybrid minigene constructs, the CESD G-->A (-1) substitution resulted in partial exon inclusion, thus allowing the production of a small amount of normal LAL mRNA and hence of a functional enzyme. In contrast, a G-->A substitution observed in WD at position + 1 of the same exon 8 donor site resulted in complete exon skipping and the sole production of an inactive delta254-277 protein. In conclusion, LAL genotypes determine the level of residual enzymatic activity, thus explaining the severity of the phenotype.

Stat3 activation by Src induces specific gene regulation and is required for cell transformation

While signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) were originally discovered as intracellular effectors of normal signaling by cytokines, increasing evidence also points to a role for STAT transcription factors in oncogenesis. Previous studies have demonstrated that one STAT family member, Stat3, possesses constitutively elevated tyrosine phosphorylation and DNA-binding activity in fibroblasts stably transformed by the Src oncoprotein. To determine if this Stat3 activation by Src could induce Stat3-mediated gene expression, luciferase reporter constructs based on synthetic and authentic promoters were transfected into NIH 3T3 cells. Activation of endogenous cellular Stat3 by the Src oncoprotein induced gene expression through a Stat3-specific binding element (TTCCCGAA) of the C-reactive protein gene promoter. A naturally occurring splice variant of human Stat3 protein, Stat3beta, with a deletion in the C-terminal transactivation domain abolished this gene induction in a dominant negative manner. Expression of Stat3beta did not have any effect on a reporter construct based on the c-fos serum response element, which is not dependent on Stat3 signaling, indicating that Stat3beta does not nonspecifically inhibit other signaling pathways or Src function. Transfection of vectors expressing Stat3beta together with Src blocked cell transformation by Src as measured in a quantitative focus formation assay using NIH 3T3 cells. By contrast, Stat3beta had a much less pronounced effect on focus formation induced by the Ras oncoprotein, which does not activate Stat3 signaling. In addition, three independent clones of NIH 3T3 cells stably overexpressing Stat3beta were generated and characterized, demonstrating that Stat3beta overexpression does not have a toxic effect on cell viability. These Stat3beta-overexpressing clones were shown to be deficient in Stat3-mediated signaling and refractory to Src-induced cell transformation. We conclude that Stat3 activation by the Src oncoprotein leads to specific gene regulation and that Stat3 is one of the critical signaling pathways involved in Src oncogenesis. Our findings provide evidence that oncogenesis-associated activation of Stat3 signaling is part of the process of malignant transformation.

Relation between variation in copy number of ribosomal RNA encoding genes and size of harbouring chromosomes in Leishmania of subgenus Viannia

Chromosomal size polymorphism in Leishmania of subgenus Viannia has been correlated with eco-geography. The sizes of chromosomes bearing rDNA genes were determined in 69 isolates. A considerable size-variation was observed, ranging from 1100 to 1500 kb. Chromosomes of L.(V.). braziliensis, L.(V.)guyanensis and L.(V.) peruviana from northern Peru were significantly larger (200 kb) than those of L.(V.) peruviana from southern Peru. In addition, 31 out of 69 isolates presented each two different-sized homologues of the rDNA chromosome. Long range restriction mapping of three different-sized rDNA chromosomes from L.(V.)braziliensis M2903 and L.(V.)peruviana HB31 (north) and LC106 (south) each revealed three fragments delimited by PmeI restriction sites: two constant in size (the centre and one extremity of the chromosome) and one variable (the other extremity, containing a single cluster of rDNA genes). Further analysis of the M2903 rDNA chromosome allowed the localization of its 140 kb rDNA cluster at 85 kb from the telomeric end. Two arguments indicated that size-variation of the rDNA chromosome is partially due to amplification/deletion of the clustered rDNA genes: (i) size-variation of the cluster-containing fragment was proportional to the size-variation of the whole chromosome, and (ii) hybridization signal intensity of the rDNA chromosome with a small subunit rDNA probe strongly correlated with chromosomal size. Nevertheless, DNA sequences present between the rDNA cluster and the telomere might also play a role in chromosomal size polymorphism. In addition, our data suggest that rDNA gene copy number (20-40 copies cell(-1) under a diploid hypothesis) in subgenus Viannia is lower than reported previously.