The effect of O-1602, an atypical cannabinoid, on morphine-induced conditioned place preference and physical dependence

BACKGROUND

Previous studies show that some non-CB1/non-CB2 effects of cannabinoids are mediated through G protein coupled receptor 55 (GPR55). As this receptor is activated by some of cannabinoid receptor ligands and is involved in the modulation of pain, it was hypothesized that this receptor may also interact with opioids. This study examined the effect of atypical cannabinoid O-1602 as a GPR55 agonist on morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) and physical dependence.

METHODS

We used a biased CPP model to evaluate the effect of O-1602 (0.2, 1 and 5mg/kg, intraperitoneal; ip) on the acquisition and expression of morphine-induced CPP in male mice. The locomotor activities of mice were also recorded. Moreover, repeated administration of morphine (50, 50 and 75mg/kg/day) for three days, induced physical dependence. The withdrawal signs such as jumps and diarrhea were precipitated by administration of naloxone (5mg/kg, ip). The effect of O-1602 on the development of morphine physical dependence was assessed by injection of O-1602 (0.2, 1 and 5mg/kg) before morphine administrations.

RESULTS

Morphine (40mg/kg, subcutaneous; sc), but not O-1602 (5mg/kg) elicited significant preference in the post-conditioning phase. O-1602 at the doses of 0.2 and 1mg/kg, but not 5mg/kg reduced acquisition of morphine CPP with an increase in locomotor activity at the dose of 5mg/kg. O-1602 at the doses of 0.2, 1 and 5mg/kg also reduced expression of morphine CPP with an increase in locomotor activity at the dose of 5mg/kg. O-1602 had a significant inhibitory effect on development of morphine-induced physical dependence at the dose of 5mg/kg by decreasing jumps and diarrhea during withdrawal syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results indicate that O-1602 decreased acquisition and expression of morphine CPP and inhibited development of morphine-induced physical dependence.

Role of orexin-A in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of orexin-A (OX-A) on behavioral and pathological parameters and on gene expression of some multiple sclerosis-related peptides in a model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). EAE was induced by subcutaneous administration of MOG 35-55. Following immunization, the treatment was initiated by using SB.334867 (orexin-1 receptor antagonist) and/or OX-A. Locomotor activity and exploratory behaviors were monitored using open field and T-maze continuous alternation task (T-CAT) respectively. Pain sensitivity was assessed by hot-plate test. Histopathological assessments were performed by H&E staining. The expression of TGF-β, MBP, MMP-9, IL-12, iNOS and MCP-1 were measured using real-time PCR method in lumbar spinal cord. OX-A administration in EAE mice remarkably attenuated the clinical symptoms, increased latency response in hot plate test, inhibited infiltration of inflammatory cells, up-regulated mRNA expression of TGF-β as well as MBP and down-regulated mRNA expression of iNOS, MMP-9 and IL-12. In contrast SB.334867 administration in EAE mice deteriorated the clinical symptoms, decreased the alternation in T-CAT, increased infiltration of inflammatory cells, down-regulated mRNA expression of TGF-β and MBP and up-regulated mRNA expression of iNOS. Results of this study suggest that the orexinergic system might be involved in pathological development of EAE. These findings suggest orexinergic system as a potential target for treatment of multiple sclerosis.

The effect of Zataria multiflora Boiss hydroalcoholic extract and fractions in pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling in mice

OBJECTIVE

At present, there are many antiepileptic drugs with a wide range of side effects on the human body. It was assumed that Zataria multiflora Boiss (Z. multiflora) with sedative, anti-spasmodic and anti-inflammatory activity may be effective in the treatment of epilepsy. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the effect of Z. multiflora hydroalcoholic extract and its fraction extracts on pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced chemical kindling.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this experimental study, eight separate groups of male albino mice were used. All groups received 11 separate intraperitoneal injections of PTZ (35 mg/kg) with two-day intervals. 30 min before the injection of PTZ, mice received vehicle, Z. multiflora hydroalcoholic extract (300 and 600 mg/kg), n-hexane, acetone, methanol fraction extracts (150 mg/kg), or diazepam (10 mg/kg).

RESULTS

The kindled mice that were pretreated with vehicle showed a gradual increase in their seizure scores up to the end of the study. The hydroalcoholic extract of Z. multiflora (300 and 600 mg/kg) reduced seizure scores significantly. However, n-hexane, acetone and methanol extracts did not affect seizure scores significantly.

CONCLUSION

The present findings demonstrate that the hydroalcoholic extract of Z. multiflora did reduce the severity of seizure attacks in PTZ-induced chemical kindling in mice.

The Possible Role of Toll-Like Receptor 4 in the Pathology of Stroke

Stroke is a prevalent and dangerous health problem, which triggers an intense inflammatory response to Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation. TLRs are the essential components of the response of the innate immunity system, and, therefore, they are one of the key factors involved in recognizing pathogens and internal ligands. Among TLRs, TLR4 significantly participates in the induction of inflammation and brain functions; hence, it has been hypothesized that this molecule is associated with several immune-related brain diseases such as stroke. It has also been proved that animals with TLR4 deficiency have higher protection against ischemia and that the absence of TLR4 reduces neuroinflammation and injuries associated with brain trauma. TLR4 deficiency may play a neuroprotective role in the occurrence of stroke. This article reviews recent information regarding the impact of TLR4 on the pathogenicity of stroke.

Ginger Extract Reduces the Expression of IL-17 and IL-23 in the Sera and Central Nervous System of EAE Mice

BACKGROUND

IL-17/IL-23 axis plays an important role in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and multiple sclerosis (MS). The immunomodulatory properties of ginger are reported in previous studies.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of ginger extract on the expression of IL-17 and IL-23 in a model of EAE.

METHODS

EAE was induced in C57BL/6 mice by immunization with myelin oligodendroglial glycoprotein and then treated with PBS or ginger extracts, from day +3 to +30. At day 31, mice were scarificed and the expression of IL-17 and IL-23 mRNA in spinal cord were determined by using real time-PCR. The serum levels of cytokines were measured by ELISA.

RESULTS

The mRNA expression of IL-17, IL-23 P19 and IL-23 P40 in CNS and serum levels of IL-17 and IL-23 were significantly higher in PBS-treated EAE mice than non-EAE group (p<0.003, p<0.001, p<0.001, p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively). In 200 mg/kg ginger-treated EAE mice the mRNA expression of IL-17, P19 and P40 in CNS and serum IL-23 levels were significantly decreased as compared to PBS-treated EAE mice (p<0.05, p<0.001, p<0.001 and p<0.05, respectively). Moreover, 300 mg/kg ginger-treated EAE group had significantly lower expression of IL-17, P19 and P40 in CNS and lower serum IL-17 and IL-23 levels than PBS-treated EAE group (p<0.02, p<0.001, p<0.001, p<0.03 and p<0.004, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Ginger extract reduces the expression of IL-17 and IL-23 in EAE mice. The therapeutic potential of ginger for treatment of MS could be considered in further studies.

Induction of apoptosis by pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) hull extract and its molecular mechanisms of action in human hepatoma cell line HepG2

Several important Pistacia species such as P. vera have been traditionally used for treating a wide range of diseases (for instance, liver-related disorders). There is a relative lack of research into pharmacological aspects of pistachio hull. Hence, this study was aimed at investigating whether pistachio rosy hull (PRH) extract exerts apoptotic impacts on HepG2 liver cancer cell line. In order to evaluate cell viability and apoptosis in response to treatment with the extract, MTT assay and Annexin-V-fluorescein/propidium iodide (PI) double staining were performed, respectively. Moreover, molecular mechanism of apoptosis induced by the extract was determined using human apoptosis PCR array. Our findings showed that PRH extract treatment reduced cell viability (IC50 ~ 0.3 mg/ml) in a dose-dependent manner. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that the extract significantly induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells. In addition, quantitative PCR array results demonstrated the regulation of a considerable number of apoptosis-related genes belonging to the TNF, BCL2, IAP, TRAF, and caspase families. We observed altered expression of both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes associated with the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis signaling pathways. These results suggest that the aqueous extract of PRH possesses apoptotic activity through cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing effects on HepG2 cells.

Toll-like receptor 4 plays significant roles during allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis is a nasal hypersensitivity and allergic disease which leads to inflammation of nasal mucosa. Previous investigations revealed that innate immune receptors play a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases including allergic diseases. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which are important innate immune receptors, play crucial roles in the recognition of foreign antigens, including allergens, and subsequently for the induction of immune responses such as inflammation. There are several controversial reports regarding the roles of TLR4 in the pathogenesis of allergic rhinitis. This review presents current information regarding the roles of TLR4 in the pathogenesis of allergic rhinitis and the plausible mechanisms which lead to the expression and function of TLR4 in this disease.

Vitex Agnus Castus Extract Improves Learning and Memory and Increases the Transcription of Estrogen Receptor α in Hippocampus of Ovariectomized Rats

INTRODUCTION

Lower level of estrogen hormone is considered as an important factor for loss of learning and memory in postmenopausal women. Although estrogen replacement therapy is used for compensation, but long-term usage of estrogen is associated with a higher risk of hormone-dependent cancers. Phytoestrogens, due to fewer side effects, have been proposed to prevent menopause-related cognitive decline.

METHODS

24 female Wistar rats weighing 180-220 g were used in this study. The animals were ovariectomized and randomly divided into four groups including, control and two groups which received 8 and 80 mg/kg Vitex agnus castus (VAC) ethanolic extract orally. The last groups were treated with 40 μg/kg of estradiol valerat. Step-through passive avoidance (STPA) test was used for the evaluation of learning and memory. The hippocampal estrogen receptor α (ERα) expression was measured using Real-Time PCR.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that VAC extract or estradiol had better performance on step-through passive avoidance test than control group (all P<0.05). Moreover, administration of either estradiol or VAC extract increased the hippocampal mRNA level of ERα and prevented the decrease in uterine weight of ovariectomized rats.

DISCUSSION

Based on our data, VAC extract improves learning and memory in ovariectomized rats. The positive effect of VAC extract on learning and memory is possibly associated with an increase in ERα gene expression in the hippocampal formation.

Ascorbic Acid Reduces the Adverse Effects of Delayed Administration of Tissue Plasminogen Activator in a Rat Stroke Model

Delayed treatment of stroke with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (r-tPA) induces overexpression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) which leads to breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and causes more injuries to the brain parenchyma. In this study, the effect of ascorbic acid (AA), an antioxidant agent, on the delayed administration of r-tPA in a rat model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was investigated. Forty male rats were randomly divided into four groups: untreated control rats (ischaemic animals), AA-treated (500 mg/kg; 5 hr after stroke) rats, r-tPA-treated (5 hr after stroke 1 mg/kg) rats and rats treated with the combination of AA and r-tPA. Middle cerebral artery occlusion was induced by occluding the right middle cerebral artery (MCA). Infarct size, BBB, brain oedema and the levels of MMP-9 were measured at the end of study. Neurological deficits were evaluated at 24 and 48 hr after stroke. Compared to the control or r-tPA-treated animals, AA alone (p < 0.001) or in combination with r-tPA (p < 0.05) significantly decreased infarct volume. Ascorbic acid alone or r-tPA + AA significantly reduced BBB permeability (p < 0.05), levels of MMP-9 (p < 0.05 versus control; p < 0.01 versus r-tPA) and brain oedema (p < 0.001) when compared to either the control or the r-tPA-treated animals. Latency to the removal of sticky labels from the forepaw was also significantly decreased after the administration of AA + r-tPA (p < 0.05) at 24 or 48 hr after stroke. Based on our data, acute treatment with AA may be considered as a useful candidate to reduce the side effects of delayed application of r-tPA in stroke therapy.

Vitamin D Modulates the Expression of IL-27 and IL-33 in the Central Nervous System in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE)

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that vitamin D has broad anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of vitamin D on the expression of IL-27 and IL-33 in a model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

METHODS

EAE was induced in C57BL/6 mice by immunization with myelin oligodendroglial glycoprotein mixed with complete Freund's adjuvant. The mice were administered with PBS or olive oil, intraperitoneally, in the control groups and vitamin D (200 ng every two days) in the treatment group, from day +3 to +30. At day 31, the mice were scarified and their spinal cords and brains were harvested. The expression of the IL-27 and IL-33 mRNA in the spinal cord was measured using real time-PCR.

RESULTS

In PBS- or olive oil-treated EAE mice the expression of IL-27 P28 mRNA was significantly lower than that in the healthy control group (p<0.002). In both PBS- and olive oil-treated EAE groups, the expression of IL-27 EBI3 mRNA was also lower than that observed in the healthy group, but the differences were not significant. In vitamin D-treated EAE group, the expression of IL-27 P28 and IL-27 EBI3 were significantly higher compared with the olive oil-treated EAE groups (p<0.002 and p<0.04, respectively). The expression of IL-33 was significantly higher in PBS-or olive oil-treated EAE groups compared with healthy mice (p<0.05 and p<0.02, respectively). Vitamin D significantly decreased the expression of IL-33 compared with PBS- or olive oil-treated EAE mice (p<0.04, p<0.02, respectively). The PBS- or olive oil -treated EAE mice showed the clinical symptoms of EAE at days 9 and 10, respectively. The vitamin D-treated EAE group exhibited the symptoms at day 12 post immunization. The maximum mean clinical score and mean pathological scores were also significantly lower in vitamin D-treated EAE group, in comparison with PBS- or olive oil treated EAE mice (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Vitamin D may modulate the expression of IL-27 and IL-33 in the spinal cord of EAE mice and also ameliorate the clinical symptoms of the disease.

Effect of aqueous extract of Achillea millefolium on the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in C57BL/6 mice

Objective:

Achillea millefolium (A. millefolium) is widely used as an anti-inflammatory remedy in traditional and herbal medicine. In this study, we investigated the effect of an aqueous extract from A. millefolium on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and on the serum cytokine levels in C57BL/6 mice.

Materials and Methods:

EAE was induced in 63 C57BL/6 mice weighing 20-25 g (8 weeks old). Following immunization, the treatment protocol was initiated by using different doses of an aqueous extract from A. millefolium (1, 5, and 10 mg/mouse/day). Histopathologic assessments were performed by hematoxylin and eosin (H and E) and luxol fast blue (LFB) staining. Behavioral disabilities were recorded by a camera. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-10, IL-12, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results:

On average, mice developed classical behavioral disabilities of EAE, 13.2 ± 1.9 days following immunization. Treatment of mice with A. millefolium led to delay the appearance of behavioral disabilities along with reduced severity of the behavioral disabilities. Treatment with A. millefolium prevented weight loss and increased serum levels of TGF-β in immunized mice with MOG35-55. EAE-induced mice, which were treated with A. millefolium, had less cerebral infiltration of inflammatory cells.

Conclusion:

The results demonstrated that treatment with aqueous extract of A. millefolium may attenuate disease severity, inflammatory responses, and demyelinating lesions in EAE-induced mice. In addition, following treatment with A. millefolium, serum levels of TGF-βwere increased in EAE-induced mice.

Morphine and nicotine addiction and withdrawal influence baroreflex sensitivity and blood pressure in two-kidney one clip hypertensive (2K1C) rats

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the effects of addiction to morphine and nicotine as well as their withdrawal on both baroreflex sensitivity and blood pressure in hypertensive rats.

METHODS

In this experimental study 40 male rats were divided into two main groups as follows: in group I, hypertensive rats received saline for 8 weeks; in group II, hypertensive rats were treated with morphine and nicotine for 8 weeks. At the end of 8 weeks group II rats were divided into four sub-groups including, 3 sub-groups of those were put on drug withdrawal protocol. At the end of experiment, blood pressure, heart rate, plasma renin activity (PRA), serum NO concentration and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) were measured.

RESULTS

RESULTS demonstrated that BP and BRS were significantly lower in addicted to morphine and nicotine hypertensive rats compared to control (p < 0.05). Addiction withdrawal (in morphine and nicotine withdrawal rats) completely reversed BP and BRS to the pre-addiction levels (p < 0.05). Withdrawal in the only nicotine treated group lowered BP and BRS compared to group that had received morphine and nicotine together (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

RESULTS of current study may propose simultaneous morphine and nicotine withdrawal can prevent cardiovascular complications raised due to withdrawal (Fig. 5, Ref. 58).

Ginger extracts influence the expression of IL-27 and IL-33 in the central nervous system in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and ameliorates the clinical symptoms of disease

The immunomodulatory effects of the IL-27 and IL-33 and the anti-inflammatory effects of ginger have been reported in some studies. The aim was to evaluate the effects of the ginger extract on the expression of IL-27 and IL-33 in a model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). In PBS-treated EAE mice the expression of IL-27 P28 was significantly lower whereas the expression of IL-33 was significantly higher than unimmunized control mice. In 200 and 300 mg/kg ginger-treated EAE groups the expression of IL-27 P28 and IL-27 EBI3 was significantly higher whereas the expression of IL-33 was significantly lower than PBS-treated EAE mice. The EAE clinical symptoms and the pathological scores were significantly lower in ginger-treated EAE groups. These results showed that the ginger extract modulates the expression of the IL-27 and IL-33 in the spinal cord of EAE mice and ameliorates the clinical symptoms of disease.

Seroprevalence of pertussis antibodies in 6-17-year-old students in Ahvaz, south-west Islamic Republic of Iran

Although pertussis is a vaccine-preventable infection, vaccine-induced immunity is not lifelong and booster doses are recommended according to national disease epidemiology. The aim of this study was to evaluate pertussis-IgG levels in school-aged students in Ahvaz, south-west Islamic Republic of Iran. In a descriptive, cross-sectional study, blood samples were obtained from 640 students (382 boys and 258 girls) aged 6-17 years during 2010-2011. All students had received a full course of pertussis whole-cell vaccination at ages 2, 4, 6 and 18 months and 4-6 years. Using a Bordetella IgG ELISA kit, pertussis-IgG was detected in 301 (47.0%) students. No statistically significant differences in pertussis-IgG levels were found between girls and boys or across different age groups. The findings show that the overall level of pertussis-IgG seropositivity was unacceptable. Booster vaccination with an acellular pertussis vaccine should be considered in adolescents and/or adults in our region.

Interaction between the dopaminergic and opioidergic systems in dorsal hippocampus in modulation of formalin-induced orofacial pain in rats

The hippocampus is a region of the brain that serves several functions. The dopaminergic system acts through D1- and D2-like receptors to interfere in pain modulation and the opioid receptors play major roles in analgesic processes and there are obvious overlaps between these two systems. The present study investigated the interaction between the opioidergic and dopaminergic systems in the dorsal hippocampus (CA1) region for formalin-induced orofacial pain. Two guide cannulae were stereotaxically implanted in the CA1 region and morphine (0.5, 1, 2 and 4 μg/0.5 μl saline) and naloxone (0.3, 1 and 3 μg/0.5 μl saline) were used as the opioid receptor agonist and antagonist, respectively. SKF-38393 (1 μg/0.5 μl saline) was used as a D1-like receptor agonist, quinpirole (2 μg/0.5 μl saline) as a D2-like receptor agonist, SCH-23390 (0.5 μg/0.5 μl saline) as a D1-like receptor antagonist and sulpiride (3 μg/0.5 μl DMSO) as a D2-like receptor antagonist. To induce orofacial pain, 50 μl of 1% formalin was subcutaneously injected into the left side of the upper lip. Our results showed that different doses of morphine significantly reduced orofacial pain in both phases induced by formalin. Naloxone (1 and 3 μg) reversed morphine induced analgesia in CA1. SKF-38393 and quinpirole with naloxone (1 μg) significantly decreased formalin-induced orofacial pain in both phases. SCH-23390 had no effect on the antinociceptive response of morphine in both phases of orofacial pain. Sulpiride reversed the antinociceptive effects of morphine only in the first phase, but this result was not significant. Our findings suggest that there is cross-talk between the opioidergic and dopaminergic systems. Opioidergic neurons also exerted antinociceptive effects by modulation of the dopaminergic system in the CA1 region of the brain.

Morphine Reduces Expression of TRPV1 Receptors in the Amygdala but not in the Hippocampus of Male Rats

BACKGROUND

Chronic use of opioids usually results in physical dependence. The underlying mechanisms for this dependence are still being evaluated. Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) are important receptors of pain perception. Their role during opioid dependence has not been studied well. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of morphine-dependence on the expression of TRPV1 receptors in the amygdala and CA1 region of the hippocampus.

METHODS

This study used four groups of rats. Two groups of rats (morphine and morphine+naloxone) received morphine based on the following protocol: 10 mg/kg (twice daily, 3 days) followed by 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/kg (twice daily), respectively, for 4 consecutive days. Another group received vehicle (1 ml/kg) instead of morphine given using the same schedule. The morphine+naloxone group of rats additionally received naloxone (5 mg/kg) at the end of the protocol. The control group rats received no injections or intervention. The amygdala and CA1 regions of the morphine, saline-treated and intact animals were isolated and prepared for real-time PCR analysis.

RESULTS

Administration of naloxone induced withdrawal signs in morphine-treated animals. The results showed a significant decrease in TRPV1 gene expression in the amygdala (P<0.05) but not the CA1 region of morphine dependent rats.

CONCLUSION

TRPV1 receptors may be involved in morphine-induced dependence.

Regulatory effects of chronic low-dose morphine on nitric oxide level along with baroreflex sensitivity in two-kidney one-clip hypertensive rats

INTRODUCTION

Opiates are traditionally used for treatment of some acute heart disorders. There are only few reports on the effects of long-term treatment of cardiovascular diseases with morphine. This study aimed to investigate the effects of chronic low-dose morphine use on the cardiovascular system in two-kidney one-clip (2K1C) hypertensive rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups as the sham and 2K1C groups and each group was further subdivided into saline and morphine treatment subgroups. Blood pressure, heart rate, plasma rennin activity, serum nitric oxide concentration, and baroreflex sensitivity were measured.

RESULTS

Morphine significantly attenuated systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and mean arterial pressure in the 2K1C animals. In addition, morphine decreased plasma rennin activity in the 2K1C group. Serum concentrations of nitric oxide were also decreased, and morphine prevented the reduction of nitric oxide. The baroreflex sensitivity was also improved following morphine administration in the 2K1C group.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results presented in this study, chronic administration of low-dose morphine reduces regulated hypertension in the 2K1C rats, probably via a nitric oxide-dependent pathway.

Cannabinoid receptors in the basolateral amygdala are involved in the potentiation of morphine rewarding properties in the acquisition, but not expression of conditioned place preference in rats

Several studies show the role of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in drug-seeking, relapse and the brain׳s emotional systems. Several lines of evidence indicate a functional interaction between opioid and endogenous cannabinoid systems. In the present study, we investigated the role of intra-BLA cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the potentiation, acquisition and expression of morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). One-hundred and forty-two adult male Wistar rats weighing 230-280g were bilaterally implanted by two separate cannulae into the BLA. The CPP paradigm was done, and conditioning score and locomotor activity were recorded by Ethovision software. Results showed that intra-BLA administration of different doses of WIN55,212-2 (1, 2 and 4mmol/0.3µl DMSO) as a cannabinoid receptor agonist during the conditioning phase induced place preference in animals that received the ineffective (2mg/kg) dose of morphine compared to respective control group in saline-treated animals. On the other hand, intra-BLA injection of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist AM251 (45 and 90µmol/0.3µl DMSO) during the 3-day conditioning phase reduced morphine-induced CPP. Furthermore, microinjection of both AM251 (15, 45 and 90µmol) and WIN55,212-2 (1-4mmol), into the BLA had no effect on the expression of morphine (5mg/kg)-induced CPP. Our findings suggest that cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the BLA are involved in the development of reward-related behaviors and they can potentiate the rewarding effects of morphine. It seems that the glutamatergic projection from the BLA to the nucleus accumbens and reward-related learning in the hippocampus may be involved in the acquisition and expression of opioid reward-related behaviors in rats.

Proinflammatory cytokines in the embolic model of cerebral ischemia in rat

Increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines have been recorded after the onset of transient or permanent brain ischemia and are usually associated with exacerbation of ischemic injury. Embolic stroke model is more relevant to the pathophysiological situation in such patients, because the majority of ischemic injuries in humans are induced by old thrombi that originate from the heart and carotid arteries. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate changes of inflammatory cytokines after embolic stroke. Rats were subjected to embolic stroke, induced by a natural old clot which was injected in Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA), or sham stroke, which the same volume of saline was injected into the MCA. At 48 h after stroke induction, the levels of 5 cytokines (IL-1α and β, IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α) were determined in 500 µg of total protein using the Bio-Plex Rat Cytokine Array (BioRad), according to the manufacturer's instructions in ischemic and non-ischemic cortices. While stroke animals showed infarctions and neurological deficits, we did not observe any cerebral infarction and neurological deficits in sham-operated animals. The levels of IL-1α (p=0.000) and -β (p =0.004), IL-6 (p =0.008), TNF-α (p =0.000) and IFN-γ (p =0.044) were significantly increased compared to sham treated animals. The findings of the present study suggest that part of ischemic injury in the embolic stroke may be mediated through the increased levels of inflammatory cytokines.

Effect of co-administration of morphine and nicotine on cardiovascular function in two-kidney one clip hypertensive (2K1C) rats

Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are potentiated with smoking and hypertension. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of morphine and nicotine co-administration on cardiovascular function in two-kidney one-clip hypertensive (2K1C) rats. Thirty-two male rats were divided into four groups as follow: Vehicle, morphine, nicotine and nicotine + morphine. All drugs were administered for 8 weeks. Baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), heart rate and blood pressure were measured using a Power Lab data acquisition. Plasma rennin activity (PRA) and serum concentration of nitric oxide (NO) were measured using Elisa method. To induce hypertension, the renal artery of left kidney was clipped for 8 weeks. A significant decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) was observed in nicotine + morphine group compared to vehicle and nicotine groups (p<0.05). Serum concentration of NO was lower in nicotine + morphine group compared to morphine group and significantly higher than nicotine group. The BRS was lower in the nicotine + morphine group compared to other groups. The PRA level was higher in nicotine + morphine compared to morphine group but it was higher than nicotine group. This study demonstrated that prolonged co-consumption of morphine and nicotinedecreased PRA and blood pressure and increased the serum concentration of NO in hypertensive rats. Co-administration of morphine and nicotine decreased BRS in 2k1c hypertensive rats probably via central nervous system.

Permanent lesion in rostral ventromedial medulla potentiates swim stress-induced analgesia in formalin test

OBJECTIVE(S)

There are many reports about the role of rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) in modulating stress-induced analgesia (SIA). In the previous study we demonstrated that temporal inactivation of RVM by lidocaine potentiated stress-induced analgesia. In this study, we investigated the effect of permanent lesion of the RVM on SIA by using formalin test as a model of acute inflammatory pain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three sets of experiments were conducted: (1) Application of stress protocol (2) Formalin injection after exposing the animals to the swim stress (3) Either the relevant vehicle or dopamine receptor 1 (D1) agonist R-SKF38393 was injected into the RVM to cause a lesion. For permanent lesion of RVM, R-SKF38393 was injected into the RVM. Forced swim stress in water was employed in adult male rats. Nociceptive responses were measured by formalin test (50µl injection of formalin 2% subcutaneously into hind paw) and pain related behaviors were monitored for 90 min.

RESULTS

In the unstressed rats, permanent lesion of the RVM by R-SKF38393 decreased formalin-induced nociceptive behaviors in phase 1, while in stressed rats, injection of R-SKF38393 into the RVM potentiated swim stress-induced antinociception in phase 1 and interphase, phase 2A of formalin test. Furthermore, R-SKF38393 had pronociceptive effects in phase2B whereas injections of R-SKF38393 resulted in significant difference in nociceptive bahaviours in all phases of formalin test (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

The result of the present study demonstrated that permanent inactivation of RVM can potentiate stress-induced analgesia in formalin test.

The effect of minocycline on seizures induced by amygdala kindling in rats

PURPOSE

Minocycline is known as a chemical with neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. In this study, the effects of minocycline on seizures induced by amygdala kindling in rats were studied.

METHODS

Kindled Wistar rats were injected intraperitoneally with saline and, on the following day, with minocycline (50, 25, and 12.5mg/kg for the three groups (1-3), respectively). The animals in groups 1-3 had similar protocols. Groups 4 and 5 were given for the rotarod test and received 25 or 50mg/kg minocycline, respectively, without any kindling stimulation. The animals in groups 6 and 7 (seven each) received 25mg/kg minocycline or saline, respectively. All the injections were carried out 1h before kindling stimulation. Seizure parameters, including after discharge duration (ADD), stage 4 latency (S4L), stage 5 duration (S5D), and seizure duration (SD), were recorded and compared with those of the saline groups.

RESULTS

Minocycline (50mg/kg) significantly reduced ADD, 1/S4L, S5D, and SD (P<0.001, P<0.05, P<0.001, and P<0.001, respectively) in group 1. While the administration of 25mg/kg of minocycline decreased the ADD and S5D (P<0.05), in group 2. The injection of 12.5mg/kg resulted in decreased S5D (P<0.001) in group 3. The daily injection of minocycline (25mg/kg) significantly decreased ADD, S5D, and SD (P<0.001) in group 6.

CONCLUSION

The obtained results revealed that minocycline has anticonvulsant effect on seizures induced by amygdala kindling. Thus, it may be useful for epilepsy treatment.

Interleukin-10 Serum Levels after Vaccination with In Vivo Prepared Toxoplasma gondii Excreted/Secreted Antigens

OBJECTIVES

Toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide prevalent zoonotic parasite which causes toxoplasmosis. An appropriate vaccine for animals could interrupt the circle between animals and humans. Our previous study showed that excreted/secreted antigens (E/SA), derived from the peritoneum of mice infected with T. gondii tachyzoites could be considered as a good candidate for animal vaccination. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) inhibits proliferation of B and T lymphocytes and induces homeostasis in immune system responses. However, since IL-10 has also been shown to suppress the killing of T. gondii by human macrophages, the aim of this study was to evaluate IL-10 serum levels after vaccination with T. gondii E/SA prepared in vivo.

METHODS

T. gondii tachyzoites were inoculated in the peritoneum of mice and harvested E/SA were used as a vaccine, with and without adjuvant, in T. gondii infected and un-infected mice. IL-10 serum levels were evaluated using the ELISA technique.

RESULTS

The data showed that although serum levels of IL-10 were not changed at the early phases, they were elevated at the end phases of vaccination with T. gondii E/SA.

CONCLUSION

Based on these and our previous results, it can be concluded that in vivo prepared T. gondii E/SA could be considered as a good candidate for animal vaccination.

The Role of Capsaicin-induced Acute Inactivation of C-fibers on Tactile Learning in Rat

OBJECTIVE(S)

In our previous study, we reported that capsaicin-induced unmyelinated C-fiber depletion can modulate excitatory and integrative circuits in the somatosensory cortex following experience-dependent plasticity. In this study, we investigated the involvement of the capsaicin-induced acute inactivation of c-fibers on tactile learning in rat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The delayed novel object recognition test was used to assess tactile learning. This procedure consisted of two phases. The first of these (T1) was a training phase during which the animals explored two similar objects. T2, the test phase, occurred 24 hr later, during which the animals explored one novel and one familiar object. In order to induce acute inactivation of the C-fiber pathway, 25-30 μl of a 10% capsaicin was injected subcutaneously into the rat's upper lip, 6 h prior to T1. Tactile learning was quantified using a discrimination ratio.

RESULTS

In T2, the discrimination ratio in capsaicin-treated animals (37.3±3.8%) was lower than that observed in vehicle-treated animals (54.4±5.1%, P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that the selective inactivation of a peripheral nociceptor subpopulation affects tactile learning.

Neuroprotective consequences of postconditioning on embolic model of cerebral ischemia in rat

OBJECTIVE(S)

It has been reported that ischemic postconditioning, conducted by a series of brief occlusion and release of the bilateral common carotid arteries, confers neuroprotection in permanent or transient models of stroke. However, consequences of postconditioning on embolic stroke have not yet been investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, rats were subjected to embolic stroke (n=30) or sham stroke (n=5). Stroke animals were divided into control (n=10) or three different patterns of postconditioning treatments (n=20). In the first pattern of postconditioning (PC10, n=10), the common carotid arteries (CCA) were occluded and reopened 10 and 30 sec, respectively for 5 cycles. Both occluding and releasing times in pattern 2 (PC30, n=5) and 3 (PC60, N=5) of postconditionings, were five cycles of 30 or 60 sec, respectively. Postconditioning was induced at 30 min following the stroke. Subsequently, cerebral blood flow (CBF) was measured from 5 min before to 60 min following to stroke induction. Infarct size, brain edema and neurological deficits and reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was measured two days later.

RESULTS

While PC10 (P<0.001), PC30 and PC60 (P<0.05) significantly decreased infarct volume, only PC10 decreased brain edema and neurological deficits (P<0.05). Correspondingly, PC10 prevented the hyperemia of brain at 35, 40, 50 and 60 min after the embolic stroke (P<0.005). No significant difference in ROS level was observed between PC10 and control group.

CONCLUSION

Ischemic postconditioning reduces infarct volume and brain edema, decreases hyperemia following to injury and improves neurological functions after the embolic model of stroke.

Pharmacological blockade of TRPV1 receptors modulates the effects of 6-OHDA on motor and cognitive functions in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

TRPV1 receptors and cannabinoid system are considered as important modulators of basal ganglia functions, and their pharmacologic manipulation represents a promising therapy to alleviate Parkinson-induced hypokinesia. Recent evidence suggests that the blockade of cannabinoid receptors might be beneficial to alleviate motor deficits observed in Parkinson's disease. In the present study, we have evaluated the effects of AMG9810 , a selective antagonist of TRPV1 receptors, on the motor and cognitive functions in a rat model of Parkinson's disease generated by an intracerebroventricular injection of 6- hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) (200 μg per animal). The injection of 10 nmol of AMG9810 for a single dose (AMG1) and for 2 weeks (AMG14) partially attenuated the hypokinesia shown by these animals in motor function evaluation tests, whereas chronic administration of AMG had destructive effects on learning and memory in 6-OHDA-treated rats. Animals in the AMG 1 and AMG 14 groups showed an increased latency to fall in rotarod and grasping tests in each trials compared with 6-OHDA-treated rats (P < 0.01) and DMSO 1 and 14 groups (P < 0.05). Our data indicate that pharmacological blockade of TRPV1 receptors by AMG 9810 attenuates the hypokinetic effects of 6-OHDA and that TRPV1 receptors play an important role in 6-OHDA-induced hypokinesia, although elucidation of the neurochemical substrate involved in this process remains a major challenge for the future.

Differential expression of CXC chemokines CXCL10 and CXCL12 in term and pre-term neonates and their mothers

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Pre-term delivery is a mostly unknown frequent disorder worldwide. This project aimed to investigate the circulating levels of CXCL12 (SDF-1) and CXCL10 (IP-10) in cord blood of term and pre-term delivered fetuses and their corresponding mothers.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Cord and peripheral blood samples were collected from 50 pre-term and 50 term infants and their mothers. Serum levels of CXCL12 and CXCL10 were measured by ELISA.

RESULTS

The findings of this study indicated that the circulating levels of CXCL10 were elevated in mothers bearing pre-term infants, while CXCL12 was only increased in pre-term infants.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that the pathophysiological status of both mother and infant are involved in prematurity. Moreover, these findings suggest an inflammatory response in pre-term labor, which probably is controlled by inducible chemokines such as CXCL10.

Endocannabinoid System and TRPV1 Receptors in the Dorsal Hippocampus of the Rats Modulate Anxiety-like Behaviors

OBJECTIVES

Fatty acid is amide hydrolase which reduce endogenous anandamide. Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) channels have been reported to have a role in the modulation of anxiety-like behaviors in rodents. In the present study, the effects of either endocannabinoid system or TRPV1 channels and their possible interaction on anxiety-like behaviors of the rats were explored.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Elevated plus-maze test of anxiety was used to induce anxiety. Capsaicin and AMG 9810 as TRPV1 agonist and antagonist respectively were injected into the dorsal hippocampus. URB 597 as selective FAAH inhibitor and AM 251 as CB1 receptor selective antagonist were also injected into the dorsal hippocampus. The effect of AMG 9810 on the response of URB 597 was also examined.

RESULTS

Intra-CA1 injection of URB 597 (0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 µg/rat) and AMG 9810 (0.003, 0.03 and 0.3 µg/rat) produced anxiolytic-like effects. Intra-CA1 infusion of capsaicin (0.003, 0.03 and 0.3 µg/rat) increased the anxiety-related behaviors and AM 251 (0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 µg/rat) did not significantly change the animals behavior. AMG 9810 at the dose of 0.003 µg/rat did not change the anxiolytic-like effect of URB 597.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study demonstrated that both endocannabinoid system and TRPV1 receptors may affect anxiety-like behaviors. In addition, it seems that TRPV1 receptors are not involved in the effects of anandamide on anxiety-related behaviors in the CA1 region.

The SDF-1 3'a genetic variation of the chemokine SDF-1α (CXCL12) in parallel with its increased circulating levels is associated with susceptibility to MS: a study on Iranian multiple sclerosis patients

Immune system-related factors are important in pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. The CXC chemokine SDF-1α (CXCL12) is involved in the immune responses. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate the association between serum levels of SDF-1α (CXCL12) and its gene polymorphisms at position +801 with multiple sclerosis. In this experimental study, blood samples were collected from 100 multiple sclerosis patients and 100 healthy controls on EDTA pre-coated tubes. DNA was extracted and DNA samples were analyzed for SDF-1α (CXCL12) polymorphisms using PCR-RLFP in patients and controls. The serum levels of SDF-1α (CXCL12) were measured by ELISA. Demographic data were also collected by a questionnaire which was designed specifically for this study. Our results showed a significant difference between the A/A, A/G, and G/G genotype and A and G alleles of polymorphisms at position +801 of SDF-1α (CXCL12). Our results also showed that serum levels of SDF-1α (CXCL12) were markedly higher in patients than healthy controls, but no association was observed between SDF-1α (CXCL12) polymorphism and its serum levels. The results of this study might suggest the serum levels of SDF-1α (CXCL12) and its polymorphism play an important role in pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. It is also worth noting that these factors could probably use as pivotal biological markers in the diagnosis of MS.

Effects of electrical stimulation of dorsal raphe nucleus on neuronal response properties of barrel cortex layer IV neurons following long-term sensory deprivation

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of electrical stimulation of dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) on response properties of layer IV barrel cortex neurons following long-term sensory deprivation.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were divided into sensory-deprived (SD) and control (unplucked) groups. In SD group, all vibrissae except the D2 vibrissa were plucked on postnatal day one, and kept plucked for a period of 60 d. After that, whisker regrowth was allowed for 8-10 d. The D2 principal whisker (PW) and the D1 adjacent whisker (AW) were either deflected singly or both deflected in a serial order that the AW was deflected 20 ms before PW deflection for assessing lateral inhibition, and neuronal responses were recorded from layer IV of the D2 barrel cortex. DRN was electrically stimulated at inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) ranging from 0 to 800 ms before whisker deflection.

RESULTS

PW-evoked responses increased in the SD group with DRN electrical stimulation at ISIs of 50 ms and 100 ms, whereas AW-evoked responses increased at ISI of 800 ms in both groups. Whisker plucking before DRN stimulation could enhance the responsiveness of barrel cortex neurons to PW deflection and decrease the responsiveness to AW deflection. DRN electrical stimulation significantly reduced this difference only in PW-evoked responses between groups. Besides, no DRN stimulation-related changes in response latency were observed following PW or AW deflection in either group. Moreover, condition test (CT) ratio increased in SD rats, while DRN stimulation did not affect the CT ratio in either group. There was no obvious change in 5-HT(2A) receptor protein density in barrel cortex between SD and control groups.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that DRN electrical stimulation can modulate information processing in the SD barrel cortex.

Non-association of IL-12 +1188 and IFN-γ +874 polymorphisms with cytokines serum level in occult HBV infected patients

BACKGROUND/AIM

Occult hepatitis B infection (OBI) is identified as a form of hepatitis in which despite the absence of detectable HBsAg, HBV-DNA is observed in peripheral blood of patients. The main aim of this study has been to investigate the association between polymorphisms in +874 of IFN-γ and +1188 of IL-12 with their serum level in patients suffering from OBI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this experimental study, plasma samples of 3700 blood donors were tested for the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and anti-HBc by ELISA. The HBsAg-/anti-HBc+ samples were selected and screened for HBV-DNA by PCR. HBV-DNA positive samples were assigned as OBI cases and ARMS-PCR techniques were performed to examine the two known polymorphisms within IL-12 and IFN-γ. In addition, the serum levels of IL-12 and IFN-γ were also determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

Results of this study demonstrated that, 352 (9.5%) out of 3700 blood samples were HBsAg-/anti-HBc+ and HBV-DNA was detected in 57/352 (16.1%) of HBsAg-/anti-HBc+ samples. Our results showed that groups showed significant difference in CC allele of +1188 region of IL-12 and no difference was observed in the other evaluated genes. Our results also showed that the alleles of +1188 region of IL-12 and alleles of +874 of IFN-γ were also not associated with serum level of cytokines.

CONCLUSION

According to the results of this study, it may be concluded that the polymorphisms in +1188 region of IL-12 and +874 region of IFN-γ would not affect the expression of both cytokines at serum level in OBI patients.

Polymorphisms within exon 9 but not intron 8 of the vitamin D receptor are associated with the nephropathic complication of type-2 diabetes

The impact of several environmental and genetic factors on diabetes and its complications is well documented but there is an urgent need to understand more about genetic risk factors associated with this disease. The present study was aimed at examining the two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in intron 8 and exon 9 of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene in nephropathic and non-nephropathic type-2 diabetic patients. In this clinical study, peripheral blood samples were obtained from 100 type-2 diabetic patients, 100 nephropathic type-2 diabetic patients and 100 healthy controls. DNA was extracted and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) was performed to examine two SNP polymorphisms within the VDR gene. Our results showed a significant difference in the Taq-1 evaluated genotypes of exon 9 in the VDR gene of diabetic individuals with (P=0.012) and without (P ≤ 0.001) nephropathy. Analysis of the Taq-1 evaluated alleles of nephropathic (P=0.917) and non-nephropathic (P=1.000) did not show a significant difference. We also evaluated the intron 8 Apa-1 alleles in patients with (P=0.480) and without nephropathy (P=0.543) and determined there were no differences between these groups. Our results also showed that the frequency of Apa-1 genotypes did not differ in nephropathic (P=0.224) and non-nephropathic (P=0.236) diabetic patients. Based on our results, it can be concluded that VDR and its functional polymorphism in exon 9 may play an important role in pathogenesis of type-2 diabetes and more investigations are required to clarify their role in nephropathy.

The intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of W-7, a calmodulin inhibitor, attenuates the development of morphine tolerance in rats

The present study was performed to determine the effect of intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of W-7, a specific calmodulin inhibitor, on the development of tolerance to antinociceptive effect morphine administration. This study was carried out on male wistar rats, weighing 200-250 g. Morphine was administered daily (15 mg/kg for 8 days). The threshold to thermal nociceptive stimuli was measured by tail-flick test. W-7 (0.25, 0.5 and 1 micromol/rat) was injected through ICV. Maximal possible effect percentage (MPE %) was considered as analgesia index. Our result showed that chronic morphine exposure induced tolerance to its antinociceptive effect and administration of W-7 (0.5 and 1 micromol/rat) decreased the development of tolerance to it. In conclusion these data showed that chronic injection of W-7 inhibited the development of morphine tolerance which indicates that calmodulin and its dependent pathways may play a role in the morphine tolerance processes.

Anticonvulsant effect of aqueous extract of Valeriana officinalis in amygdala-kindled rats: possible involvement of adenosine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Valeriana officinalis L. (valerian) root extract has been used as an antiepileptic herbal medicine in Iran.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

In the present study the effect of valerian extracts on an experimental model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was evaluated. Moreover, the involvement of adenosine system in the actions of aqueous extract of valerian was evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bipolar stimulating and monopolar recording electrodes were implanted stereotaxically in the right basolateral amygdala of male Sprague-Dawley rats. After kindling, the effect of aqueous (200, 500 and 800 mg/kg; intraperitoneal) and petroleum ether (PE; 50 and 100mg/kg; intraperitoneal) extracts of valerian and CPT (selective A(1) receptor antagonist; 10 and 20 microM; intracerebroventricular) on afterdischarge duration (ADD), duration of stage 5 seizure (S5D) and latency to the onset of bilateral forelimb clonuses (S4L) were measured. The effect of CPT (10 microM) on the response of aqueous extract of valerian (500 mg/kg) was also determined.

RESULTS

The results showed that aqueous extract of valerian had anticonvulsant effect. However, PE extract and CPT (20 microM) had proconvulsant effect. Administration of CPT (10 microM) before the administration of aqueous extract decreased the anticonvulsant effect of valerian.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed significant anticonvulsant effect for aqueous but not PE extract of valerian. Moreover, CPT as a selective adenosine A(1) receptor antagonist decreased the anticonvulsant effect of valerian aqueous extract. Therefore, we concluded that part of anticonvulsant effect of valerian probably is mediated through activation of adenosine system.

Nephropathic complication of type-2 diabetes is following pattern of autoimmune diseases?

The impact of several environmental and genetic factors on diabetes and its complications is well documented. The present study was aimed to examine the serum levels of IL-17A and IFN-gamma as antagonistic cytokines in nephropathic and non-nephropathic type-2 diabetic patients. In this experimental study, serum samples were obtained from 180 type-2 diabetic patients, 100 nephropathic type-2 diabetic patients and 100 healthy controls. Serum levels of IL-17A and IFN-gamma was detected by ELISA. Results of this study showed that the serum level of IFN-gamma was higher in both diabetic patients (nephropathic and non-nephropathic) in comparison to the controls. In terms of IL-17A, while non-nephropathic type-2 diabetic patients showed an increased serum level of it, the other patients group had a lower serum level. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the lower serum level of IL-17A is possibly associated with nephropathic complications of type-2 diabetes.