A conserved regulatory mechanism mediates the convergent evolution of plant shoot lateral organs

Land plant shoot structures evolved a diversity of lateral organs as morphological adaptations to the terrestrial environment, with lateral organs arising independently in different lineages. Vascular plants and bryophytes (basally diverging land plants) develop lateral organs from meristems of sporophytes and gametophytes, respectively. Understanding the mechanisms of lateral organ development among divergent plant lineages is crucial for understanding the evolutionary process of morphological diversification of land plants. However, our current knowledge of lateral organ differentiation mechanisms comes almost entirely from studies of seed plants, and thus, it remains unclear how these lateral structures evolved and whether common regulatory mechanisms control the development of analogous lateral organs. Here, we performed a mutant screen in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, a bryophyte, which produces gametophyte axes with nonphotosynthetic scalelike lateral organs. We found that an Arabidopsis LIGHT-DEPENDENT SHORT HYPOCOTYLS 1 and Oryza G1 (ALOG) family protein, named M. polymorpha LATERAL ORGAN SUPRESSOR 1 (MpLOS1), regulates meristem maintenance and lateral organ development in Marchantia. A mutation in MpLOS1, preferentially expressed in lateral organs, induces lateral organs with misspecified identity and increased cell number and, furthermore, causes defects in apical meristem maintenance. Remarkably, MpLOS1 expression rescued the elongated spikelet phenotype of a MpLOS1 homolog in rice. This suggests that ALOG genes regulate the development of lateral organs in both gametophyte and sporophyte shoots by repressing cell divisions. We propose that the recruitment of ALOG-mediated growth repression was in part responsible for the convergent evolution of independently evolved lateral organs among highly divergent plant lineages, contributing to the morphological diversification of land plants.

Ancestral land plants lacked leaves; instead, these evolved independently in each lineage and were key innovations that allowed the radiation of plants on land during the lower Palaeozoic. This study of the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha reveals that each time they evolved they used the same molecular mechanism to control leaf development.

BLADE-ON-PETIOLE genes are not involved in the transition from protonema to gametophore in the moss Physcomitrella patens

The timing of the transition between developmental phases is a critical determinant of plant form. In the moss Physcomitrella patens, the transition from protonema to gametophore is a particularly important step as it results in a change from two-dimensional to three-dimensional growth of the plant body. It is well known that this transition is promoted by cytokinin (CK), however, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Previously, it was reported that P. patens orthologs of BLADE-ON-PETIOLE (BOP) genes (PpBOPs) work downstream of CK to promote the transition to gametophore. To further understand the role of PpBOPs in the control of this transition, we performed functional analyses of PpBOP genes. We simultaneously disrupted the function of all three PpBOP genes in P. patens using CRISPR technology, however, no abnormal phenotypes were observed in the triple mutant during either the gametophytic or the sporophytic growth stages. CK treatment did not alter the phase change in the triple mutant. We conclude that PpBOP genes are unnecessary in the control of P. patens development under normal conditions. We propose that BOP genes are not involved in the control of developmental processes in bryophytes and other basal land plants, but may function in physiological processes such as in the defense response.

Cytokinin Signaling Is Essential for Organ Formation in Marchantia polymorpha

Cytokinins are known to regulate various physiological events in plants. Cytokinin signaling is mediated by the phosphorelay system, one of the most ancient mechanisms controlling hormonal pathways in plants. The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha possesses all components necessary for cytokinin signaling; however, whether they respond to cytokinins and how the signaling is fine-tuned remain largely unknown. Here, we report cytokinin function in Marchantia development and organ formation. Our measurement of cytokinin species revealed that cis-zeatin is the most abundant cytokinin in Marchantia. We reduced the endogenous cytokinin level by overexpressing the gene for cytokinin oxidase, MpCKX, which inactivates cytokinins, and generated overexpression and knockout lines for type-A (MpRRA) and type-B (MpRRB) response regulators to manipulate the signaling. The overexpression lines of MpCKX and MpRRA, and the knockout lines of MpRRB, shared phenotypes such as inhibition of gemma cup formation, enhanced rhizoid formation and hyponastic thallus growth. Conversely, the knockout lines of MpRRA produced more gemma cups and exhibited epinastic thallus growth. MpRRA expression was elevated by cytokinin treatment and reduced by knocking out MpRRB, suggesting that MpRRA is upregulated by the MpRRB-mediated cytokinin signaling, which is antagonized by MpRRA. Our findings indicate that when plants moved onto land they already deployed the negative feedback loop of cytokinin signaling, which has an indispensable role in organogenesis.

Developmental analysis of the early steps in strigolactone-mediated axillary bud dormancy in rice

By contrast with rapid progress in understanding the mechanisms of biosynthesis and signaling of strigolactone (SL), mechanisms by which SL inhibits axillary bud outgrowth are less well understood. We established a rice (Oryza sativa L.) hydroponic culture system to observe axillary buds at the critical point when the buds enter the dormant state. In situ hybridization analysis indicated that cell division stops in the leaf primordia of the buds entering dormancy. We compared transcriptomes in the axillary buds isolated by laser capture microdissection before and after entering the dormant state and identified genes that are specifically upregulated or downregulated in dormant buds respectively, in SL-mediated axillary bud dormancy. Typically, cell cycle genes and ribosomal genes are included among the active genes while abscisic acid (ABA)-inducible genes are among the dormant genes. Application of ABA to the hydroponic culture suppressed the growth of axillary buds of SL mutants to the same level as wild-type (WT) buds. Tiller number was decreased in the transgenic lines overexpressing OsNCED1, the gene that encodes ABA biosynthesis enzyme. These results indicated that the main site of SL function is the leaf primordia in the axillary bud and that ABA is involved in SL-mediated axillary bud dormancy.

BLADE-ON-PETIOLE genes temporally and developmentally regulate the sheath to blade ratio of rice leaves

Axis formation is a fundamental issue in developmental biology. Axis formation and patterning in plant leaves is crucial for morphology and crop productivity. Here, we reveal the basis of proximal-distal patterning in rice leaves, which consist of a proximal sheath, a distal blade, and boundary organs formed between these two regions. Analysis of the three rice homologs of the Arabidopsis BLADE-ON-PETIOLE1 (BOP1) gene indicates that OsBOPs activate proximal sheath differentiation and suppress distal blade differentiation. Temporal expression changes of OsBOPs are responsible for the developmental changes in the sheath:blade ratio. We further identify that the change in the sheath:blade ratio during the juvenile phase is controlled by the miR156/SPL pathway, which modifies the level and pattern of expression of OsBOPs. OsBOPs are also essential for differentiation of the boundary organs. We propose that OsBOPs, the main regulators of proximal-distal patterning, control temporal changes in the sheath:blade ratio of rice leaves.

Strigolactone perception and deactivation by a hydrolase receptor DWARF14

The perception mechanism for the strigolactone (SL) class of plant hormones has been a subject of debate because their receptor, DWARF14 (D14), is an α/β-hydrolase that can cleave SLs. Here we show via time-course analyses of SL binding and hydrolysis by Arabidopsis thaliana D14, that the level of uncleaved SL strongly correlates with the induction of the active signaling state. In addition, we show that an AtD14D218A catalytic mutant that lacks enzymatic activity is still able to complement the atd14 mutant phenotype in an SL-dependent manner. We conclude that the intact SL molecules trigger the D14 active signaling state, and we also describe that D14 deactivates bioactive SLs by the hydrolytic degradation after signal transmission. Together, these results reveal that D14 is a dual-functional receptor, responsible for both the perception and deactivation of bioactive SLs.

Strigolactone perception and deactivation by a hydrolase receptor DWARF14

The perception mechanism for the strigolactone (SL) class of plant hormones has been a subject of debate because their receptor, DWARF14 (D14), is an α/β-hydrolase that can cleave SLs. Here we show via time-course analyses of SL binding and hydrolysis by Arabidopsis thaliana D14, that the level of uncleaved SL strongly correlates with the induction of the active signaling state. In addition, we show that an AtD14^D218A catalytic mutant that lacks enzymatic activity is still able to complement the atd14 mutant phenotype in an SL-dependent manner. We conclude that the intact SL molecules trigger the D14 active signaling state, and we also describe that D14 deactivates bioactive SLs by the hydrolytic degradation after signal transmission. Together, these results reveal that D14 is a dual-functional receptor, responsible for both the perception and deactivation of bioactive SLs.

ARF GTPase machinery at the plasma membrane regulates auxin transport-mediated plant growth

VAN3 is a plant ACAP-type ADP-ribosylation factor-GTPase activating protein (ARF-GAP) that regulates auxin transport-mediated plant morphogenesis such as continuous venation and lateral root development in Arabidopsis. Previous studies suggested that VAN3 localizes at the plasma membrane (PM) and intracellular structures. However, the role of PM localization in mediating the van3 mutant phenotype is not clear. Here we performed subcellular localization analysis of VAN3 and its regulators CVP2 and VAB to determine their endogenous functions. We found that GFP-tagged CVP2 and VAB preferentially localize at the PM in stably transformed plants. We determined that transgenic plants with lower expression levels of GFP- or mRFP-tagged VAN3 displayed PM localization, which was sufficient to rescue the van3 mutant. Functional VAN3-mRFP and VAB-GFP colocalized at PMs. The van3 mutant phenotype was suppressed by mutation of VAN7/GNOM, which encodes an ARF-GEF that localizes at the PM and Golgi apparatus. These combined results suggest that ARF-GTPase machinery at the PM regulates auxin transport-mediated plant growth and development.

Spatial regulation of strigolactone function

Strigolactones are plant hormones that control many aspects of plant development and environmental responses. Despite recent and rapid progress in the biochemical and molecular understanding of strigolactone biosynthesis, transport, and signaling, our knowledge about where strigolactones are produced and where they act is fragmented. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about these aspects of strigolactones, obtained from mutant phenotypes, grafting experiments, gene expression patterns, and protein localization studies. We also discuss the potential of new imaging technologies to reveal the spatial regulation of strigolactone function.

Strigolactone Biosynthesis Genes of Rice are Required for the Punctual Entry of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi into the Roots

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is a mutualistic association between most plant species and the ancient fungal phylum Glomeromycota in roots, and it plays a key role in a plant's nutrient uptake from the soil. Roots synthesize strigolactones (SLs), derivatives of carotenoids, and exude them to induce energy metabolism and hyphal branching of AM fungi. Despite the well-documented roles of SLs in the pre-symbiotic phase, little is known about the role of SLs in the process of root colonization. Here we show that the expansion of root colonization is suppressed in the mutants of rice (Oryza sativa) SL biosynthesis genes, carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase D10 and more severely in D17. Interestingly, most of the colonization process is normal, i.e. AM fungal hyphae approach the roots and cling around them, and epidermal penetration, arbuscule size, arbuscule number per hyphopodium and metabolic activity of the intraradical mycelium are not affected in d10 and d17 mutants. In contrast, hyphopodium formation is severely attenuated. Our observations establish the requirement for SL biosynthesis genes for efficient hyphopodium formation, suggesting that SLs are required in this process. Efficient hyphopodium formation is required for the punctual internalization of hyphae into roots and maintaining the expansion of colonization.

Insights into Land Plant Evolution Garnered from the Marchantia polymorpha Genome

The evolution of land flora transformed the terrestrial environment. Land plants evolved from an ancestral charophycean alga from which they inherited developmental, biochemical, and cell biological attributes. Additional biochemical and physiological adaptations to land, and a life cycle with an alternation between multicellular haploid and diploid generations that facilitated efficient dispersal of desiccation tolerant spores, evolved in the ancestral land plant. We analyzed the genome of the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, a member of a basal land plant lineage. Relative to charophycean algae, land plant genomes are characterized by genes encoding novel biochemical pathways, new phytohormone signaling pathways (notably auxin), expanded repertoires of signaling pathways, and increased diversity in some transcription factor families. Compared with other sequenced land plants, M. polymorpha exhibits low genetic redundancy in most regulatory pathways, with this portion of its genome resembling that predicted for the ancestral land plant. PAPERCLIP.

Regulation of Strigolactone Biosynthesis by Gibberellin Signaling

Strigolactones (SLs) are a class of plant hormones that regulate diverse physiological processes, including shoot branching and root development. They also act as rhizosphere signaling molecules to stimulate the germination of root parasitic weeds and the branching of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Although various types of cross talk between SLs and other hormones have been reported in physiological analyses, the cross talk between gibberellin (GA) and SLs is poorly understood. We screened for chemicals that regulate the level of SLs in rice (Oryza sativa) and identified GA as, to our knowledge, a novel SL-regulating molecule. The regulation of SL biosynthesis by GA is dependent on the GA receptor GID1 and F-box protein GID2. GA treatment also reduced the infection of rice plants by the parasitic plant witchers weed (Striga hermonthica). These data not only demonstrate, to our knowledge, the novel plant hormone cross talk between SL and GA, but also suggest that GA can be used to control parasitic weed infections.

Phloem Transport of the Receptor DWARF14 Protein Is Required for Full Function of Strigolactones

The cell-to-cell transport of signaling molecules is essential for multicellular organisms to coordinate the action of their cells. Recent studies identified DWARF14 (D14) as a receptor of strigolactones (SLs), molecules that act as plant hormones and inhibit shoot branching. Here, we demonstrate that RAMOSUS3, a pea ortholog of D14, works as a graft-transmissible signal to suppress shoot branching. In addition, we show that D14 protein is contained in phloem sap and transported through the phloem to axillary buds in rice. SLs are not required for the transport of D14 protein. Disruption of D14 transport weakens the suppression of axillary bud outgrowth of rice. Taken together, we conclude that the D14 protein works as an intercellular signaling molecule to fine-tune SL function. Our findings provide evidence that the intercellular transport of a receptor can regulate the action of plant hormones.

Analysis of Rhizome Development in Oryza longistaminata, a Wild Rice Species

Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual propagation in plants. A wide range of plants develop rhizomes, modified stems that grow underground horizontally, as a means of vegetative reproduction. In rhizomatous species, despite their distinct developmental patterns, both rhizomes and aerial shoots derive from axillary buds. Therefore, it is of interest to understand the basis of rhizome initiation and development. Oryza longistaminata, a wild rice species, develops rhizomes. We analyzed bud initiation and growth of O. longistaminata rhizomes using various methods of morphological observation. We show that, unlike aerial shoot buds that contain a few leaves only, rhizome buds initiate several leaves and bend to grow at right angles to the original rhizome. Rhizomes are maintained in the juvenile phase irrespective of the developmental phase of the aerial shoot. Stem elongation and reproductive transition are tightly linked in the aerial shoots, but are uncoupled in the rhizome. Our findings indicate that developmental programs operate independently in the rhizomes and aerial shoots. Temporal modification of the developmental pathways that are common to rhizomes and aerial shoots may be the source of developmental plasticity. Furthermore, the creation of new developmental systems appears to be necessary for rhizome development.

Cellular and developmental function of ACAP type ARF-GAP proteins are diverged in plant cells

Vesicle transport is crucial for various cellular functions and development of multicellular organisms. ARF-GAP is one of the key regulators of vesicle transport and is diverse family of proteins. Arabidopsis has 15 ARF-GAP proteins and four members are classified as ACAP type ARF-GAP proteins. Our previous study identified that VASCULAR NETWORK DEFECTIVE3 (VAN3), an ACAP ARF-GAP, played crucial roles in leaf vascular formation. However, it remains question how other members of plant ACAP ARF-GAPs function in cellular and developmental processes. To characterize these, we analyzed spatial expression pattern and subcellular localization of VAN3 and three other ACAPs, so called VAN3-like proteins (VALs). Expression pattern analysis revealed that they were expressed in distinctive developmental processes. Subcellular localization analysis in protoplast cells indicated that in contrast to VAN3, which localizes on trans-Golgi networks/early endosomes (TGNs/EEs), VAL1 and VAL2 were localized on ARA6-labelled endosomes, and VAL3 resided mainly in the cytoplasm. These results indicated that VAN3 and VALs are differently expressed in a tissue level and function in different intracellular compartments, in spite of their significant sequence similarities. These findings suggested functional divergence among plant ACAPs. Cellular localizations of all members of animal ACAP proteins are identical. Therefore our findings also suggested that plant evolved ACAP proteins in plant specific manner.

The Naming of Names: Guidelines for Gene Nomenclature in Marchantia

While Marchantia polymorpha has been utilized as a model system to investigate fundamental biological questions for over almost two centuries, there is renewed interest in M. polymorpha as a model genetic organism in the genomics era. Here we outline community guidelines for M. polymorpha gene and transgene nomenclature, and we anticipate that these guidelines will promote consistency and reduce both redundancy and confusion in the scientific literature.

Hd3a promotes lateral branching in rice

Accumulating evidence indicates that the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) protein is the mobile floral signal known as florigen. A rice FT homolog, Heading date 3a (Hd3a), is transported from the phloem to shoot apical cells, where it interacts with 14-3-3 proteins and transcription factor OsFD1 to form a florigen activation complex (FAC) that activates a rice homolog of the floral identity gene APETALA1. Recent studies showed that florigen has roles in plant development beyond flowering; however, the exact nature of these roles is not well understood. It is not clear whether FT is transported to organs outside the shoot apex, and whether FAC formation is required for processes other than flowering. We show here that the Hd3a protein accumulates in axillary meristems to promote branching, and that FAC formation is required. Analysis of transgenic plants revealed that Hd3a promotes branching through lateral bud outgrowth. Hd3a protein produced in the phloem reached the axillary meristem in the lateral bud, and its transport was required for promotion of branching. Moreover, mutant Hd3a proteins defective in FAC formation but competent with respect to transport did not promote branching. Finally, we show that Hd3a promotes branching independently from strigolactone and FC1, a transcription factor that inhibits branching in rice. Together, these results suggest that Hd3a functions as a mobile signal for branching in rice.

Downregulation of rice DWARF 14 LIKE suppress mesocotyl elongation via a strigolactone independent pathway in the dark

Strigolactones (SLs) are a class of plant hormones that control plant development in response to environmental conditions. In rice, mesocotyl elongation is regulated by SLs in the dark, while mesocotyls are longer in SL deficient or insensitive mutants. SLs are perceived by DWARF14 (D14), which is a member of a small gene family. In this study, we examined the function of another D14 family gene in rice, D14 LIKE (D14L), focusing on mesocotyl growth. The mesocotyls of D14L RNAi lines are longer than those of WT in the dark. This phenotype is enhanced when the D14L RNAi lines are combined with the d14 mutation, suggesting that D14 and D14L work independently to inhibit mesocotyl elongation. This phenotype is alleviated by the exogenous supply of GR24, a synthetic SL, suggesting that D14L is not necessary for SL signaling. D14L mRNA is predominantly expressed in vascular bundles and crown root primordia. Our results suggest that D14L and D14 confer their effects via an SL independent pathway and an SL signaling pathway respectively.

SAD1, an RNA polymerase I subunit A34.5 of rice, interacts with Mediator and controls various aspects of plant development

The DWARF14 (D14) gene of rice functions within the signaling pathway of strigolactones, a group of plant hormones that inhibits shoot branching. We isolated a recessive mutant named super apical dormant (sad1-1) from a suppressor screen of d14-1. The growth of tillers (vegetative shoot branches) is suppressed in both the d14-1 sad1-1 double mutant and the sad1-1 single mutant. In addition, the sad1-1 mutant shows pleiotropic defects throughout development. SAD1 encodes an ortholog of RPA34.5, a subunit of RNA polymerase I (Pol I). Consequently, the level of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is severely reduced in the sad1-1 mutant. These results indicate that proper ribosome function is a prerequisite for normal development in plants. The Arabidopsis ortholog of SAD1 was previously isolated as a Mediator-interacting protein. Here we show that SAD1 interacts physically with the Mediator complex through direct binding with OsMED4, a component of the middle module of the Mediator complex in rice. It is known that Mediator interacts with Pol II, which transcribes mRNAs and functions as a central regulator of transcription. This study indicates a novel aspect of Mediator function in Pol I-controlled rRNA transcription. TFIIF2 and RPC53 are the counterparts of RPA34.5 in Pol II and Pol III, respectively. We demonstrate that the rice orthologs of these proteins also interact with OsMED4. Our results suggest that interaction with MED4 in the Mediator complex is a common feature of the three types of RNA polymerases.

Lack of cytosolic glutamine synthetase1;2 in vascular tissues of axillary buds causes severe reduction in their outgrowth and disorder of metabolic balance in rice seedlings

The development and elongation of active tillers in rice was severely reduced by a lack of cytosolic glutamine synthetase1;2 (GS1;2), and, to a lesser extent, lack of NADH-glutamate synthase1 in knockout mutants. In situ hybridization using the basal part of wild-type seedlings clearly showed that expression of OsGS1;2 was detected in the phloem companion cells of the nodal vascular anastomoses and large vascular bundles of axillary buds. Accumulation of lignin, visualized using phloroglucin HCl, was also observed in these tissues. The lack of GS1;2 resulted in reduced accumulation of lignin. Re-introduction into the mutants of OsGS1;2 cDNA under the control of its own promoter successfully restored the outgrowth of tillers and lignin deposition to wild-type levels. Transcriptomic analysis using a 5 mm basal region of rice shoots showed that the GS1;2 mutants accumulated reduced amounts of mRNAs for carbon and nitrogen metabolism, including C1 unit transfer in lignin synthesis. Although a high content of strigolactone in rice roots is known to reduce active tiller number, the reduction of outgrowth of axillary buds observed in the GS1;2 mutants was independent of the level of strigolactone. Thus metabolic disorder caused by the lack of GS1;2 resulted in a severe reduction in the outgrowth of axillary buds and lignin deposition.

Control of grass inflorescence form by the fine-tuning of meristem phase change

The grass inflorescence is interesting from the points of view of development and evolution. In the grass family, flowers are produced on small branches called spikelets. The recent isolation of regulators of spikelet meristem (SM) identity has shed new light on development and the evolution of the gene networks involved. The timing of SM specification is mediated by the combinatorial functions of these regulators, and determines the grass inflorescence form. Furthermore, tight links between meristem cell proliferation, maintenance of meristem indeterminacy, and suppression of the spikelet identity are being uncovered.

Strigolactone and cytokinin act antagonistically in regulating rice mesocotyl elongation in darkness

Strigolactones (SLs) are a group of phytohormones that control plant growth and development including shoot branching. Previous studies of the phenotypes of SL-related rice (Oryza sativa) dwarf (d) mutants demonstrated that SLs inhibit mesocotyl elongation by controlling cell division. Here, we found that the expression of cytokinin (CK)-responsive type-A RESPONSE REGULATOR (RR) genes was higher in d10-1 and d14-1 mutants than in the wild type. However, CK levels in mesocotyls of the d mutants were not very different from those in the wild type. On the other hand, application of a synthetic CK (kinetin) enhanced mesocotyl elongation in the d mutants and the wild type. d10-1 and d14-1 mesocotyls were more sensitive to CK than wild-type mesocotyls, suggesting that the up-regulation of the CK-responsive type-A RR genes and the higher elongation of mesocotyls in the d mutants are mainly due to the increased sensitivity of the d mutants to CK. Co-treatment with kinetin and a synthetic SL (GR24) confirmed the antagonistic functions of SL and CK on mesocotyl elongation. OsTCP5, which encodes a transcription factor belonging to the cell division-regulating TCP family, was also regulated by SL and CK and its expression was negatively correlated with mesocotyl length. These findings suggest that OsTCP5 contributes to the SL- and CK-controlled mesocotyl elongation in darkness.

Structures of D14 and D14L in the strigolactone and karrikin signaling pathways

Strigolactones (SLs) are plant hormones that inhibit shoot branching. DWARF14 (D14) inhibits rice tillering and is an SL receptor candidate in the branching inhibition pathway, whereas the close homologue DWARF14-LIKE (D14L) participates in the signaling pathway of karrikins (KARs), which are derived from burnt vegetation as smoke stimulants of seed germination. We provide the first evidence for direct binding of the bioactive SL analogue GR24 to D14. Isothermal titration calorimetry measurements show a D14-GR24 binding affinity in the sub-micromolar range. Similarly, bioactive KAR1 directly binds D14L in the micromolar range. The crystal structure of rice D14 shows a compact α-/β-fold hydrolase domain forming a deep ligand-binding pocket capable of accommodating GR24. Insertion of four α-helices between β6 strand and αD helix forms the helical cap of the pocket, although the pocket is open to the solvent. The pocket contains the conserved catalytic triad Ser-His-Asp aligned with the oxyanion hole, suggesting hydrolase activity. Although these structural characteristics are conserved in D14L, the D14L pocket is smaller than that of D14. The KAR-insensitive mutation kai2-1 is located at the prominent long β6-αD1 loop, which is characteristic in D14 and D14L, but not in related α-/β-fold hydrolases.