Comparison of buprenorphine and butorphanol analgesia in the eastern red-spotted newt (Notophthalmus viridescens)

The experimental use of amphibian models in biomedical research increases yearly, but there is a paucity of reports concerning analgesic use in many of these species. In this study, buprenorphine given by intracoelomic injection and butorphanol added to the tank water were compared for analgesic effect in the eastern red-spotted newt after bilateral forelimb amputations. Newts undergoing anesthesia but not surgery and newts having surgery but not given analgesia postoperatively were used as control groups. Animals were tested for food consumption, spontaneous movement, response to tapping on the tank, response to being touched, and body posture. Both buprenorphine by intracoelomic injection and butorphanol in tank water significantly promoted resumption of normal behavior after bilateral surgical amputation of the forelimbs. The difference between analgesic treatment and no analgesic treatment was maintained until 72 h after surgery.

Developmental lead exposure induces tactile defensiveness in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

BACKGROUND

Tactile defensiveness in children is associated with difficult social relations, emotional dysregulation, and inattention. However, there are no studies of lead exposure and tactile defensiveness in children or animals in spite of the fact that lead exposure is also associated with inattention and emotional dysregulation.

OBJECTIVES

In this study we tested whether lead exposure induces tactile defensiveness in rhesus monkeys.

METHODS

We tested 61 monkeys from a 3 (no lead, 1-year lead, 2-year lead) x 2 (succimer chelation or not) factorial experiment for tactile defensiveness at 4 years of age. Lead-treated monkeys had been orally administered lead in a daily milk solution from 8 days of life to either 1 or 2 years of age to produce blood lead levels of 35-40 mg/dL. Succimer chelation therapy or placebo was administered at 1 year of age. We measured tactile defensiveness using six repeated trials of each of three textures as a swipe to the cheek and neck.

RESULTS

Lead-exposed monkeys showed higher negative responses to repeated tactile stimulation compared with controls. Blood lead during the first 3 months of life was positively correlated with the negative response on the tactile defensiveness test. There was an interaction of lead exposure x succimer chelation x trials, but it is not clear that succimer chelation was beneficial with respect to tactile defensiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report to implicate lead as a potential cause of tactile defensiveness. Research should examine whether lead exposure is associated with tactile defensiveness in children.

Variation in chronic nicotinamide treatment after traumatic brain injury can alter components of functional recovery independent of histological damage

Previously, we have shown that the window of opportunity for nicotinamide (NAM) therapy (50 mg/kg) following cortical contusion injuries (CCI) extended to 4-8 hrs post-CCI when administered over a six day post-CCI interval. The purpose of the present study was to determine if a more chronic NAM treatment protocol administered following CCI would extend the current window of opportunity for effective treatment onset. Groups of rats received either unilateral CCI's or sham procedures. Initiation of NAM therapy (50 mg/kg, ip) began at either 15-min, 4-hrs, 8-hrs or 24-hrs post-injury. All groups received daily systemic treatments for 12 days post-CCI at 24 hr intervals. Behavioral assessments were conducted for 28 days post injury and included: vibrissae forelimb placing, bilateral tactile adhesive removal, forelimb asymmetry task and locomotor placing testing. Behavioral analysis on both the tactile removal and locomotor placing tests showed that all NAM-treated groups facilitated recovery of function compared to saline treatment. However, on the vibrissae-forelimb placing and forelimb asymmetry tests only the 4-hr and 8-hr NAM-treated groups were significantly different from the saline-treated group. The lesion analysis showed that treatment with NAM out to 8 hrs post-CCI significantly reduced the size of the injury cavity. The window of opportunity for NAM treatment is task-dependent and in some situations can extend to 24 hrs post-CCI. These results suggest that a long term treatment regimen of 50 mg/kg of NAM starting at the clinically relevant time points may prove efficacious in human TBI.

Nicotinamide treatment induces behavioral recovery when administered up to 4 hours following cortical contusion injury in the rat

Recent studies have demonstrated nicotinamide (NAM), a soluble B-group vitamin, to be an effective treatment in experimental models of traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, research on this compound has been limited to administration regimens starting shortly after injury. This study was conducted to establish the window of opportunity for NAM administration following controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury to the frontal cortex. Groups of rats were assigned to NAM (50 mg/kg), saline (1 ml/kg), or sham conditions and received contusion injuries or sham procedures. Injections of NAM or saline were administered at 15 min, 4 h, or 8 h post-injury, followed by five boosters at 24 h intervals. Following the last injection, blood was taken for serum NAM analysis. Animals were tested on a variety of tasks to assess somatosensory performance (bilateral tactile adhesive removal and vibrissae-forelimb placement) and cognitive performance (reference and working memory) in the Morris water maze. The results of the serum NAM analysis showed that NAM levels were significantly elevated in treated animals. Behavioral analysis on the tactile removal test showed that all NAM-treated groups facilitated recovery of function compared with saline treatment. On the vibrissae-forelimb placing test all NAM-treated groups also were significantly different from the saline-treated group. However, the acquisition of reference memory was only significantly improved in the 15-min and 4-h groups. In the working memory task both the 15-min and 4-h groups also improved working memory compared with saline treatment. The window of opportunity for NAM treatment is task-dependent and extends to 8 h for the sensorimotor tests but only extends to 4 h post-injury in the cognitive tests. These results suggest that a 50 mg/kg treatment regimen starting at the clinically relevant time point of 4 h may result in attenuated injury severity in the human TBI population.

Peripheral inflammation undermines the plasticity of the isolated spinal cord

Peripheral capsaicin treatment induces molecular changes that sensitize the responses of nociceptive neurons in the spinal dorsal horn. The current studies demonstrate that capsaicin also undermines the adaptive plasticity of the spinal cord, rendering the system incapable of learning a simple instrumental task. In these studies, male rats are transected at the second thoracic vertebra and are tested 24 to 48 hours later. During testing, subjects receive shock to one hindleg when it is extended (controllable stimulation). Rats quickly learn to maintain the leg in a flexed position. Rats that have been injected with capsaicin (1% or 3%) in the hindpaw fail to learn, even when tested on the leg contralateral to the injection. This learning deficit lasts at least 24 hours. Interestingly, training with controllable electrical stimulation prior to capsaicin administration protects the spinal cord against the maladaptive effects. Rats pretrained with controllable stimulation do not display a learning deficit or tactile allodynia. Moreover, controllable stimulation, combined with naltrexone, reverses the capsaicin-induced deficit. These data suggest that peripheral inflammation, accompanying spinal cord injuries, might have an adverse effect on recovery.

Analgesic and antinociceptive effects of peripheral nerve neurostimulation in an advanced human experimental model

Electrical peripheral nerve neurostimulation (PNS) is reported to be an effective pain treatment. An objective proof of antinociceptive effect is lacking. The human experimental study addressed PNS effects on nociception and pain by electrophysiology and psychophysics. In 23 healthy volunteers, 39 sessions were conducted. Three experiments (PNS ipsilateral, PNS contralateral, Control) consisted of 13 sessions each. Conditioning PNS (100 Hz) of left (PNS ipsilateral) or right (PNS contralateral) superficial radial nerve trunk evoked non-painful, tingling sensations on the hand dorsum. Local cutaneous anesthesia at PNS site provided for preferential nerve trunk stimulation. Cortical laser-evoked potentials (LEP) after painful stimulation at left hand dorsum were recorded together with mechanical and thermal perception thresholds at the same site before (T1), during (T2), and after (T3) PNS or a no stimulation period (Control). Mechanical and thermal perception decreased in the anesthetized area. Late LEP amplitude decreased independently of PNS site. Exclusively under ipsilateral PNS, N2 latency increased and laser ratings decreased. Mechanical detection threshold transiently increased during ipsilateral PNS at hand dorsum. PNS induced strong reduction of mechanical perception due to peripheral collision of orthodromic (test stimulus) and antidromic (PNS) selective Abeta fiber excitation. Delay of N2 component and reduction of laser pain were specific to ipsilateral PNS. Divergent and common effects of ipsilateral and contralateral PNS suggest a combination of peripheral and central antinociceptive mechanisms. The study in man documents inhibition of nociception and pain by PNS and provides with an experimental model for future objectives in neuromodulation.

Differential effects of morphine on the affective and the sensory component of carrageenan-induced nociception in the rat

Pain is generally considered to have a sensory and an affective component. Clinical research has suggested that morphine more potently attenuates the affective component as compared to the sensory component. Because preclinical nociception models typically focus on the sensory component of nociception, and do not assess the affective component, it is unclear whether this potency difference of morphine can also be found in preclinical models. We therefore adapted the place conditioning paradigm to investigate negative affect accompanying carrageenan-induced (0.5% intraplantar) inflammatory nociception in rats. We found that carrageenan produced clear conditioned place aversion (CPA). Morphine (0.01-10mg/kg i.p.) dose-dependently reduced carrageenan-induced CPA with a minimal effective dose (MED) of 0.03mg/kg. Since morphine has a rewarding effect by itself, morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) was also investigated. Morphine induced CPP with a MED of 1mg/kg, suggesting that the rewarding effect of morphine was not responsible for reducing carrageenan-induced CPA. We also demonstrated that morphine reduced carrageenan-induced mechanical nociception as assessed in the Randall Selitto paradigm with a MED of 1mg/kg. It is concluded that the CPA model allows for an assessment of the negative affective component of carrageenan-induced nociception. Moreover, morphine was able to reduce the affective component of nociception at doses that did not affect the sensory component of nociception, and this effect was not due to its rewarding properties. The fact that this finding mirrors the clinical situation validates the use of the CPA model for assessing the affective component of nociception.

Quantitative Sensory Findings in Patients With Bortezomib-Induced Pain

Bortezomib (PS-341) is a newly developed proteosome inhibitor that shows extremely promising antineoplastic effects against a variety of neoplasias. Neuropathic pain is emerging as a major complication of bortezomib. Although clinical reports have appeared in the literature describing the general symptoms of bortezomib chemoneuropathy, specific quantitative sensory data that detail the sensory deficits that might yield insight to the primary afferent dysfunction contributing to this pain is lacking. In this report, it is shown that patients with bortezomib-induced neuropathic pain have significantly elevated touch detection threshold and slotted peg board time, impaired sharpness detection, and elevated thresholds for the detection of skin warming and heat pain. Patients also had increased reports of cold pain. These data indicate that bortezomib-induced neuropathy is associated with deficits in Abeta, Adelta, and C caliber primary afferent fibers.

PERSPECTIVE

This work demonstrates that pain induced by the chemotherapy drug bortezomib is accompanied by dysfunction in all fiber types in sensory nerves. Impaired Abeta and C sensory function also extends into areas of skin that are not perceived as affected by pain.

Dopaminergic influences on changes in human tactile acuity induced by tactile coactivation

As shown in animal experiments, dopaminergic mechanisms participate in N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-dependent neuroplasticity. Dopamine is thought to play a similar role in humans, where it influences learning and memory. Here, we tested the dopaminergic action on learning in the tactile domain. To induce tactile non-associative learning, we applied a tactile coactivation protocol, which is known to improve tactile two-point discrimination of the stimulated finger. We studied the influence of a single oral dose of levodopa (25, 50, 100, 250 or 350 mg) administered preceding the coactivation protocol on changes in tactile performance in different groups of subjects. In addition, 3 x 100 mg levodopa was administered over a time period of 3 h in another group. Under placebo conditions, tactile two-point discrimination was improved on the coactivated index finger. Similar improvement was found when 25, 50 and 250 mg levodopa was applied. On the contrary, tactile improvement was completely eliminated by 1 x 100 and 3 x 100 mg levodopa. No drug effects were found on the left index finger indicating that the drug had no effect on performance per se. In contrast to previous findings in the motor and speech domain, we found that the administration of levodopa exerts either no or even negative effects on non-associative learning in the human somatosensory system. Whenever levodopa is used in neurorehabilitative context, it has to be kept in mind that beneficial effects in the motor or speech domain cannot be easily generalized to other systems.

Oral and spinal melatonin reduces tactile allodynia in rats via activation of MT2 and opioid receptors

The antiallodynic effect of melatonin after intrathecal (it) and oral administration as well as the possible participation of MT(2) and opioid receptors in melatonin-induced antiallodynia in neuropathic rats were assessed. Ligation of the L5/L6 spinal nerves produced a clear-cut tactile allodynia in the rats. Intrathecal (3-100 microg) and oral (37.5-300 mg/kg) administration of melatonin decreased tactile allodynia induced by spinal nerve ligation. Intrathecal administration of the preferential MT(2) receptor antagonist luzindole (1-100 microg), but not vehicle, significantly diminished in a dose-dependent manner the antiallodynic effect induced by melatonin (100 microg, it). Oral (0.01-1mg/kg) or intrathecal (0.1-10 microg) administration of the highly selective MT(2) receptor antagonist 4P-PDOT diminished the antiallodynic activity induced by oral (150 mg/kg) or intrathecal (100 microg) administration of melatonin, respectively. Subcutaneous (1mg/kg) or intrathecal (0.5-50 microg) treatment with naltrexone, but not vehicle, significantly diminished the antiallodynic effect induced by oral (150 mg/kg) or intrathecal (100 microg) administration of melatonin. Oral melatonin (150 mg/kg)-induced antiallodynia was partially reduced by the spinal administration of 4P-PDOT (10 microg). Moreover, the spinal effect of melatonin (100 microg) was significantly reduced by the combination 4P-PDOT (0.1 microg)-naltrexone (0.5 microg). At the greatest tested doses, the antagonist drugs did not modify tactile allodynia in neuropathic rats. Melatonin (100 microg or 300 mg/kg) did not affect motor co-ordination in the rotarod test. Results indicate that melatonin reduces tactile allodynia in neuropathic rats after intrathecal and oral administration. Moreover, data suggest the participation of spinal MT(2) and opioid receptors in the melatonin-induced antiallodynic effect in this model.

Systemic administration of monosodium glutamate elevates intramuscular glutamate levels and sensitizes rat masseter muscle afferent fibers

There is evidence that elevated tissue concentrations of glutamate may contribute to pain and sensitivity in certain musculoskeletal pain conditions. In the present study, the food additive monosodium glutamate (MSG) was injected intravenously into rats to determine whether it could significantly elevate interstitial concentrations of glutamate in the masseter muscle and whether MSG administration could excite and/or sensitize slowly conducting masseter afferent fibers through N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activation. The interstitial concentration of glutamate after systemic injection of isotonic phosphate-buffered saline (control) or MSG (10 and 50mg/kg) was measured with a glutamate-selective biosensor. The pre-injection baseline interstitial concentration of glutamate in the rat masseter muscle was 24+/-11 microM. Peak interstitial concentration after injection of 50mg/kg MSG was 63+/-18 microM and remained elevated above baseline for approximately 18 min. In vivo single unit recording experiments were undertaken to assess the effect of MSG (50mg/kg) on masseter afferent fibers. Injection of MSG evoked a brief discharge in one afferent fiber, and significantly decreased ( approximately 25%) the average afferent mechanical threshold (n=10) during the first 5 min after injection of MSG. Intravenous injection of ketamine (1mg/kg), 5 min prior to MSG, prevented the MSG-induced decreases in the mechanical threshold of masseter afferent fibers. The present results indicate that a 2- to 3-fold elevation in interstitial glutamate levels in the masseter muscle is sufficient to excite and induce afferent mechanical sensitization through NMDA receptor activation. These findings suggest that modest elevations of interstitial glutamate concentration could alter musculoskeletal pain sensitivity in humans.

Spatial and temporal assessment of orofacial somatosensory sensitivity: a methodological study

AIMS

To evaluate the sensitivity and reproducibility of a multimodal psychophysical technique for the assessment of both spatial and temporal changes in somatosensory function after an infraorbital nerve block.

METHODS

Sixteen healthy volunteers with a mean (+/- SD) age of 22.5 +/- 3.4 years participated in 2 identical experimental sessions separated by 2 weeks. The subjects rated the perceived intensity of standardized nonpainful tactile, painful pinprick, warm, and cold stimuli applied to 25 points in 5 x 5 matrices in the infraorbital region of each side. The reproducibility of single points was tested, and a mean difference of 1.4 +/- 0.5 was found. A 0-50-100 numerical rating scale (NRS) with 50 denoting "just barely painful" was used. A modified ice hockey mask with adjustable settings was developed as a template to allow stimulation of the same points in the 2 sessions. Assessment of somatosensory function was carried out before the injection (baseline) and after 30 and 60 minutes on both the anesthetized and contralateral (control) side. In addition, the applicability of the psychophysical techniques was tested in pilot experiments in 2 patients before maxillary osteotomy and 3 months afterward.

RESULTS

The overall analysis of mean NRS scores, number of points, and center-of-gravity coordinates for all stimulus modalities showed no significant main effects of session. Post-hoc tests for all stimulus modalities demonstrated significantly lower mean NRS scores and significantly more points (hyposensitivity) at 30 and 60 minutes postinjection compared to baseline values on the injection side (Tukey tests: P < .002). In the 2 maxillary osteotomy patients, the psychophysical techniques could successfully be applied, and bilateral hyposensitivity to all stimulus modalities was demonstrated at the 3-month follow-up.

CONCLUSION

The present findings indicate that the psychophysical method is sufficiently reproducible, with no major differences between sessions in healthy subjects. All stimulus modalities demonstrated adequate sensitivity. Furthermore, measurement of points in 5 x 5 matrices allowed a spatial description of somatosensory sensitivity. This method may be valuable for studies on changes in somatosensory sensitivity following trauma or orthognathic surgery on the maxilla.

Nicotinamide treatment reduces behavioral impairments and provides cortical protection after fluid percussion injury in the rat

This study examined the ability of nicotinamide (vitamin B3) to improve functional outcome in a dose-dependent manner following fluid percussion injury (FPI). Injured (duration of unconsciousness mean = 85.8 sec; apnea = 9.9 sec), rats were administered nicotinamide (500 or 50 mg/kg; ip) or saline at 15 min and 24 h. Serum analysis of nicotinamide concentrations were conducted 1 h following the last injection. Sensorimotor and cognitive tests were conducted for 35 days following FPI. Both the 500 and 50 mg/kg doses of nicotinamide significantly facilitated recovery on the vibrissae-forelimb placing test compared to saline treatment, which showed chronic impairments. Both treatments also significantly improved performance on the bilateral tactile adhesive removal test. On the cognitive tests, the 500 mg/kg dose, but not the 50 mg/kg dose, improved performance on a working memory task in the Morris water maze (MWM). However, acquisition of a reference memory task in the MWM was not improved. Serum analysis showed that the 500 mg/kg dose significantly raised nicotinamide concentrations by 30-fold and the 50 mg/kg dose by 3-fold compared to the saline administration. This study demonstrated that raising nicotinamide concentrations resulted in the reduction of the behavioral impairments following FPI. In fact, the 500 mg/kg dose prevented the occurrence of the behavioral deficits on the bilateral tactile removal and working memory tests. Both doses significantly reduced tissue loss and glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) expression in the cortex. The 500 mg/kg dose reduced GFAP expression in the hippocampus. This data suggests that nicotinamide has substantial preclinical efficacy for TBI, and there appears to be some differences in the ability of the doses to improve performance in the MWM.

Participation of peripheral group I and II metabotropic glutamate receptors in the development or maintenance of IL-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia in the orofacial area of conscious rats

The present study investigated the role of peripheral groups I and II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in interleukin (IL)-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia in the orofacial area of rats. Subcutaneous injection of 10 pg of IL-1beta decreased air-puff thresholds ipsilateral or contralateral to the injection site. The decrease in air-puff thresholds appeared 10 min after the injection of IL-1beta and IL-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia persisted for over 3 h. Pre-treatment with 7-(hydroxyimino) cyclopropa[b] chromen-1a-carboxylate ethyl ester (CPCCOEt) or 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine hydrochloride (MPEP), a mGluR1 or mGluR5 antagonist, blocked IL-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia and mirror-image mechanical allodynia produced by a subcutaneous injection of 10 pg of IL-1beta. However, post-treatment with CPCCOEt or MPEP did not affect changes in behavioral responses, which were produced by the IL-1beta injection. Pre-treatment, as well as post-treatment with (2R,4R)-4-aminopyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylate (APDC), a group II mGluR agonist, blocked either IL-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia or mirror-image mechanical allodynia. The anti-allodynic effects of APDC were abolished by pre-treatment with (2S)-2-amino-2[(1S,2S)-2-carboxycycloprop-1-yl]-3-(xanth-9-yl) propanoic acid (LY341495), a group II mGluR antagonist. These results indicate that peripheral group II mGluRs are involved in the development and maintenance of IL-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia, while peripheral group I mGluRs are involved in the development of IL-1beta-induced mechanical allodynia. Based on our observations, the peripheral application of group II mGluR agonists may be of therapeutic value in treating inflammatory pain.

17β-Estradiol treatment following permanent focal ischemia does not influence recovery of sensorimotor function

The development of therapy to aid poststroke recovery is essential. The female hormone 17beta-estradiol has been shown to promote synaptogenesis; the purpose of this study was to attempt to harness these mechanisms to promote repair and recovery in the peri-infarct zone. Rats were ovariectomized, tested for sensorimotor function, and the middle cerebral artery permanently occluded (MCAO). Infarct volumes were calculated using MRI, and damage was equivalent in all animals prior to implantation of either 17beta-estradiol or placebo pellets. Animals were tested for functional recovery for 28 days and tissue processed for synaptic marker syntaxin immunohistochemistry. The stroke induced a significant behavioral deficit, which persisted out to 28 days, and was not significantly different between 17beta-estradiol and placebo treatment groups. There was no difference in syntaxin immunostaining between groups in either the peri-infarct cortex or in the dendritic CA1 reference region. In conclusion, 17beta-estradiol treatment, delivered poststroke, did not influence recovery of function or synaptogenesis.

Sensory assessment of epidural block for Caesarean section

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Comparisons between the profile of regional blocks are difficult to make because different methods of testing are used among the studies. The aims of this prospective study were to describe the profile of epidural block by using a scoring system to evaluate the density of the block as assessed by the loss to pinprick, cold and touch sensation; to evaluate the extent of differential block and to determine whether there is any relationship between these three modalities of testing.

METHODS

We studied 85 parturients undergoing elective Caesarean delivery with epidural anaesthesia with pH adjusted lidocaine 2% with epinephrine 1:400,000 and sufentanil 10 microg. Assessment of sensory block was done in each dermatomal level bilaterally for loss to pinprick, cold and light touch sensation and the density of the block was evaluated on an ordinal scale every 5 min for 20 min and thereafter at 30 and 40 min.

RESULTS

We observed a two dermatomes differential block between the complete loss of cold sensation being cephalad and the complete loss of both pinprick and light touch sensation being caudal. We established a significant correlation between the scores used to assess the density of the block in the three different modalities by considering the pinprick score as reference (Spearman's rank correlation is 0.94, P<0.001 for pinprick vs. cold, 0.97, P<0.001 for pinprick vs. light touch).

CONCLUSIONS

By scoring the density of the block on an ordinal scale, knowing the level of the block to pinprick allows one to predict the level of the block to touch and vice versa.

Tactile allodynia initiated by local subcutaneous endothelin-1 is prolonged by activation of TRPV-1 receptors

Subcutaneous endothelin-1 (ET-1; 200 microM, 2 nmoles/paw) injected into the rat hind paw, has been shown to cause robust hind paw flinching (HPF) and paw licking, and to induce impulses selectively in primary nociceptors. Here we report that a much lower [ET-1] sensitizes the paw to a nocifensive withdrawal response to tactile stimulation (by von Frey hairs, VFH), a sensitization that involves local TRPV1 receptors. Injection of 10 microM ET-1 (0.1 nmole/paw) causes only marginal HPF but rapidly (20 mins after injection) lowers the force threshold for paw withdrawal (PWT) to VFH, to approximately 30% of pre-injection baseline. Such tactile allodynia persists for 3 hrs. In rats pre-injected with the TRPV1-antagonists capsazepine (CPZ; 1.33 mM) or 5'-iodoresiniferatoxin (I-RTX; 0.13 microM), 15 min before ET-1, a fast initial drop in PWT, as with ET-1 alone, occurs (to 40% or to 19% of baseline, respectively), but this earliest reduction then regresses back to the pre-injection PWT value more rapidly than with ET-1 alone. The recovery of allodynia from the maximum value is about two times faster for ET-1+CPZ and about 4 times faster for ET-1+ I-RTX, compared with that from ET-1 +vehicle (t(1/2) = 130, 60, and 250 mins, respectively). In contrast, spontaneous pain indicated by overt HPF from ET-1 is not attenuated by TRPV1 antagonists. Tactile allodynia is similarly abbreviated by antagonists of both ET(A) (BQ-123, 32 nmoles/paw) and ET(B) (BQ-788, 30 nmoles/paw) receptors, whereas HPF is abolished by this ET(A) antagonist but enhanced by the ET(B) antagonist. We conclude that low ET-1 causes tactile allodynia, which is characterized by a different time-course and pharmacology than ET-1-induced nociception, and that local TRPV1 receptors are involved in the maintenance of this ET-1-induced allodynia but not in the overt algesic action of ET-1.

Changes in pain behavior and histologic changes caused by application of tumor necrosis factor-alpha to the dorsal root ganglion in rats

STUDY DESIGN

Histologic changes in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and the nociceptive stimulation thresholds were studied in rats.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) with special reference to pain behavior and histology of the DRG.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Recently, it was reported that local application of nucleus pulposus induces a characteristic tissue reaction at the surface of the DRG. However, to our knowledge, there have been no previous reports about the relationship between the histologic changes and pain behavior caused by cytokines.

METHODS

Recombinant TNF was applied to the L4 DRG. Mechanical and thermal nociceptive thresholds were tested. The L4 DRG was sectioned and observed by light microscopy.

RESULTS

After the application of 5 ng/microL TNF, significant differences were observed in mechanical and thermal stimulation thresholds. At the site of application of TNF, a characteristic a semilunar-shaped enlargement was observed. The average width of the part was significantly larger in the 5 ng/microL TNF application, as compared to the 0.5-ng/microL TNF application.

CONCLUSIONS

The higher concentration of TNF used induced allodynia and hyperalgesia responses. Because the region showing the histologic changes was significantly larger after application of the higher concentration of TNF, the reaction of the DRG may be related to pain.

A behavioural and functional neuroimaging investigation into the effects of nicotine on sensorimotor gating in healthy subjects and persons with schizophrenia

RATIONALE

Schizophrenia patients display an excessive rate of smoking compared to the general population. Nicotine increases acoustic prepulse inhibition (PPI) in animals as well as healthy humans, suggesting that smoking may provide a way of restoring deficient sensorimotor gating in schizophrenia. No previous study has examined the neural mechanisms of the effect of nicotine on PPI in humans.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether nicotine enhances tactile PPI in healthy subjects and patients with schizophrenia employing a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over design and, if so, what are the neural correlates of nicotine-induced modulation of PPI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In experiment 1, 12 healthy smokers, 12 healthy non-smokers and nine smoking schizophrenia patients underwent testing for tactile PPI on two occasions, 14 days apart, once after receiving (subcutaneously) 12 microg/kg body weight of nicotine and once after receiving saline (placebo). In experiment 2, six healthy subjects and five schizophrenia patients of the original sample (all male smokers) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) under the same drug conditions and the same tactile PPI paradigm as in experiment 1.

RESULTS

Nicotine enhanced PPI in both groups. A comparison of patterns of brain activation on nicotine vs placebo conditions showed increased activation of limbic regions and striatum in both groups after nicotine administration. Subsequent correlational analyses demonstrated that the PPI-enhancing effect of nicotine was related to increased hippocampal activity in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Nicotine enhances tactile PPI in both healthy and schizophrenia groups. Our preliminary fMRI findings reveal that this effect is modulated by increased limbic activity.

Progesterone mediates gonadal hormone differences in tactile and thermal hypersensitivity following L5 nerve root ligation in female rats

Sex differences in the magnitude of response to thermal and tactile stimuli have been demonstrated in both clinical and animal studies. Female rats typically display lower thresholds to painful stimuli and display more robust responses following nerve injury as compared with males. There is a body of evidence implicating the sex hormones in mediating this sex difference. In the present study, we sought to determine which gonadal hormones were involved in mediating the observed female hypersensitivity in female rats both prior to and following experimental nerve root injury using a chronic hormone replacement paradigm. Female rats were ovariectomized and hormone pellets containing 17beta-estradiol, progesterone (P), 17beta-estradiol+progesterone or placebo were implanted s.c. Our results demonstrate that only the group of female rats that received progesterone alone maintained the hypersensitive phenotype following ovariectomy, compared with gonadally intact male rats. This result was observed both in response to thermal stimuli in non-injured female rats and to thermal and tactile stimuli following L5 nerve root ligation, a model of low back pain associated with lumbar radiculopathy. Postmortem analysis of serum gonadal hormone concentrations demonstrates that the hormonal manipulations were successful and the exogenous hormones were similar to physiological levels observed in the sham-ovariectomized controls. Taken together, these results demonstrate the critical role for progesterone in mediating enhanced female tactile and thermal hypersensitivity following L5 nerve root ligation.

The organizational and activational effects of sex hormones on tactile and thermal hypersensitivity following lumbar nerve root injury in male and female rats

Considerable evidence exists for sex differences in human pain sensitivity. Women typically report a higher incidence of various painful conditions and report that the conditions are more painful when compared to men. In the present study, we sought to determine whether sex differences in pain sensitivity are observed using a lumbar radiculopathy model of low back pain in the rat and whether removal or alteration of gonadal hormones at specific timepoints can modulate these sex differences. Pubertal and adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were castrated 2 or 6 weeks prior to L5 nerve root injury to determine the activational hormonal effects. In a separate study, neonatal male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were either castrated or injected with testosterone, respectively, on postnatal day one to determine the organizational effects of gonadal hormones on L5 nerve root injury-induced behavioral hypersensitivity. Our results demonstrate that there was a statistically significant sex difference in the magnitude of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia following experimentally induced radiculopathy in the rat: females demonstrated decreased thresholds to tactile and thermal stimuli as compared to males. Furthermore, the enhanced female hypersensitivity was reversed in pubertal and adult animals ovariectomized 6 weeks, but not 2 weeks prior to L5 nerve root injury. Our results demonstrate that the activational effects of gonadal hormones mediate the enhanced female tactile and thermal hypersensitivity following L5 nerve root injury. These results suggest that manipulation of gonadal hormones may be a potential source for novel therapies for chronic pain in women.

Effect of testosterone on functional recovery in a castrate male rat stroke model

Both increased and decreased testosterone levels have been reported to correlate with poor outcome after acute ischemic stroke. The present study focused on the role of testosterone during recovery from neurological deficits in a rat focal ischemia model. Castrate male rats were subjected to behavioral tests after 90 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). On day 7 post-MCAO, neurological deficit-matched rats were assigned to a treatment group implanted with subcutaneous testosterone pellets or a control group implanted with sham cholesterol pellets. After 4 weeks post-MCAO, the average infarct volume was not significantly different between the two groups. Rats in the testosterone group demonstrated significantly earlier improvement in neurological deficits and shortened latency of adhesive tape removal compared with the control group as analyzed by Wilcoxon signed ranks test. Walking on parallel bars improved in both groups with a trend towards early recovery observed in the testosterone group. Biased left body swings persisted during the test period in both groups post-MCAO. Serum testosterone was within physiological levels in the treatment group but was not detectable in the control group by radioimmunoassay. GAP-43 and synaptophysin expression did not differ between groups. Less GFAP expression and reactive astrocyte hypertrophy were found around the infarct area in testosterone-treated rats compared with control rats. In conclusion, testosterone replacement post-MCAO accelerated functional recovery in castrate rats, suggesting a potential therapeutic role for testosterone replacement in stroke recovery.

Prenatal alcohol exposure alters the size, but not the pattern, of the whisker representation in neonatal rat barrel cortex

Maternal alcohol exposure results in a variety of neurodevelopmental abnormalities that include cognitive and sensorimotor dysfunctions that often persist into adulthood. Many reports of central nervous system disturbances associated within a clinical diagnosis of fetal alcohol syndrome point toward disturbances in central information processing. In this study, we used the rat barrel field cortex as a model system to examine the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) on the organization and size of the large whisker representation in layer IV of the posteromedial barrel subfield (PMBSF) in somatosensory cortex. Pregnant rats (Sprague-Dawley) were intragastrically gavaged daily with alcohol doses (6 gm/kg body weight) from gestational day 1 to day 20 in a chronic binge pattern which produced blood alcohol levels ranging between 260 mg/dl and 324 mg/dl. Chow-fed (CF), pair-fed (PF), and cross-foster (XF) groups served as normal, nutritionally matched, and maternal controls, respectively, for the ethanol-exposed (EtOH) treatment group. All pups were examined on gestational day 32 corresponding approximately to postnatal day 9. EtOH and control group pups were weighed, anesthetized, and perfused. Brains were removed and weighed, with and without cerebellum and olfactory bulbs, and the neocortex was removed and weighed. Cortices were then flattened, sectioned tangentially, and stained with a metabolic marker-cytochrome oxidase-to reveal the barrel field. A subset of 27 cortical barrels, associated with the representation of the large whisker pad, was selected to examine in detail. The major results were: (i) the total barrel field area comprising the PMBSF was significantly reduced in EtOH (by 17%) and XF (by 16%) pups compared with CF pups, (ii) the sizes of individual barrels within the PMBSF were also significantly reduced in EtOH (16%) and XF (18%) pups, (iii) the septal region between barrels was also significantly reduced in EtOH (18%) and XF (12%) pups, (iv) anteriorly located barrels underwent greater reduction in size relative to the posteriorly located barrels, (v) body weights were also significantly reduced in EtOH (21%) and XF (27%) pups, (vi) total brain weight [with and without (forebrain) cerebellum/olfactory bulbs] and cortical weights were also significantly reduced in EtOH (total brain weight 15%, forebrain weight 16%, cortical weight 15%) and XF (18%, 19%, 20%) pups, and in contrast (vi) neither the overall barrel field pattern nor the pattern of individual barrels in the PMBSF was altered. These findings suggest that PAE reduces body and brain weight as well as the central cortical representation of the whisker pad, while leaving the overall barrel field pattern unperturbed. While these results might appear to support a miniaturization hypothesis (smaller PMBSF, smaller brain, smaller body weight), PAE also shows regional vulnerability within the PMBSF whereby anteriorly located barrels are most affected.

Effect of systemic and intrathecal gabapentin on allodynia in a new rat model of postherpetic neuralgia

Patients with postherpetic neuralgia often have an increased sensitivity to a tactile stimulus but impaired thermal sensitivity in the same affected dermatomes. We recently found that depletion of capsaicin-sensitive afferents by systemic treatment with a potent TRPV1 agonist, resiniferotoxin, in adult rats produces long-lasting paradoxical changes in mechanical and thermal sensitivities, which resemble the unique clinical features of postherpetic neuralgia. The anticonvulsant gabapentin is effective in reducing the subjective pain score in patients with postherpetic neuralgia. In this study, we quantified the potential effect of systemic and intrathecal gabapentin on tactile allodynia induced by resiniferotoxin in rats. Intraperitoneal injection of 200 microg/kg resiniferotoxin produced a rapid and sustained increase in the paw withdrawal latency to a radiant heat stimulus. Profound tactile allodynia developed in all the resiniferotoxin-treated rats within 3 weeks. Intraperitoneal injection of 30-60 mg/kg of gabapentin in resiniferotoxin-treated rats significantly increased the withdrawal threshold in response to von Frey filaments. Furthermore, intrathecal administration of 10-30 microg of gabapentin also produced a significant effect on the mechanical withdrawal threshold in all resiniferotoxin-treated rats. These data provide complementary new information that gabapentin administered systemically and spinally can effectively relieve tactile allodynia in this animal model of postherpetic neuralgia.