Systems Genetic Analyses Highlight a TGFβ-FOXO3 Dependent Striatal Astrocyte Network Conserved across Species and Associated with Stress, Sleep, and Huntington's Disease

Recent systems-based analyses have demonstrated that sleep and stress traits emerge from shared genetic and transcriptional networks, and clinical work has elucidated the emergence of sleep dysfunction and stress susceptibility as early symptoms of Huntington's disease. Understanding the biological bases of these early non-motor symptoms may reveal therapeutic targets that prevent disease onset or slow disease progression, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this complex clinical presentation remain largely unknown. In the present work, we specifically examine the relationship between these psychiatric traits and Huntington's disease (HD) by identifying striatal transcriptional networks shared by HD, stress, and sleep phenotypes. First, we utilize a systems-based approach to examine a large publicly available human transcriptomic dataset for HD (GSE3790 from GEO) in a novel way. We use weighted gene coexpression network analysis and differential connectivity analyses to identify transcriptional networks dysregulated in HD, and we use an unbiased ranking scheme that leverages both gene- and network-level information to identify a novel astrocyte-specific network as most relevant to HD caudate. We validate this result in an independent HD cohort. Next, we computationally predict FOXO3 as a regulator of this network, and use multiple publicly available in vitro and in vivo experimental datasets to validate that this astrocyte HD network is downstream of a signaling pathway important in adult neurogenesis (TGFβ-FOXO3). We also map this HD-relevant caudate subnetwork to striatal transcriptional networks in a large (n = 100) chronically stressed (B6xA/J)F2 mouse population that has been extensively phenotyped (328 stress- and sleep-related measurements), and we show that this striatal astrocyte network is correlated to sleep and stress traits, many of which are known to be altered in HD cohorts. We identify causal regulators of this network through Bayesian network analysis, and we highlight their relevance to motor, mood, and sleep traits through multiple in silico approaches, including an examination of their protein binding partners. Finally, we show that these causal regulators may be therapeutically viable for HD because their downstream network was partially modulated by deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus, a medical intervention thought to confer some therapeutic benefit to HD patients. In conclusion, we show that an astrocyte transcriptional network is primarily associated to HD in the caudate and provide evidence for its relationship to molecular mechanisms of neural stem cell homeostasis. Furthermore, we present a unified systems-based framework for identifying gene networks that are associated with complex non-motor traits that manifest in the earliest phases of HD. By analyzing and integrating multiple independent datasets, we identify a point of molecular convergence between sleep, stress, and HD that reflects their phenotypic comorbidity and reveals a molecular pathway involved in HD progression.

Transforming Growth Factor-β Messenger RNA and Protein in Murine Colitis

Using a CD4+ T-cell-transplanted SCID mouse model of colitis, we have analyzed TGF-β transcription and translation in advanced disease. By in situ hybridization, the epithelium of both control and inflamed tissues transcribed TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 mRNAs, but both were expressed significantly farther along the crypt axis in disease. Control lamina propria cells transcribed little TGF-β1 or TGF-β3 mRNA, but in inflamed tissues many cells expressed mRNA for both isoforms. No TGF-β2 message was detected in either control or inflamed tissues. Immunohistochemistry for latent and active TGF-β1 showed that all cells produced perinuclear latent TGF-β1. The epithelial cell basal latent protein resulted in only low levels of subepithelial active protein, which co-localized with collagen IV and laminin in diseased and control tissue. Infiltrating cells expressed very low levels of active TGF-β. By ELISA, very low levels (0–69 pg/mg) of soluble total or active TGF-β were detected in hypotonic tissue lysates. TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 are produced by SCID mouse colon and transcription is increased in the colitis caused by transplantation of CD4+ T-cells, but this does not result in high levels of soluble active protein. Low levels of active TGF-β may be a factor contributing to unresolved inflammation.

Fingolimod therapy modulates circulating B cell composition, increases B regulatory subsets and production of IL-10 and TGFβ in patients with Multiple Sclerosis

Fingolimod, an oral therapeutic agent approved for patients with relapsing-remitting Multiple Sclerosis (MS), has been shown to prevent lymphocyte egress from secondary lymphoid tissues; however the specific drug effect on B cells in fingolimod-treated patients remains to be fully elucidated. We present here a comprehensive analysis on the proportions of B cell subsets in the periphery, and the levels of activation, functional surface markers and cytokine profile of B cells in MS patients, following initiation of fingolimod therapy, using flow cytometry and cytokine bead array. Fingolimod therapy increased the ratio of naïve to memory cells, elevated the percentage of plasma cells and highly increased the proportion of transitional B cells as well as additional regulatory subsets, including: IL10(+), CD25(+) and CD5(+) B cells. The percentage of activated CD69(+) cells was highly elevated in the remaining circulating B cells, which produced increased levels of IL10, TGFβ, IL6, IL4, LTα, TNFα and IFNγ cytokines, with an overall increased ratio of TGFβ to pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, fingolimod therapy reduced ICAM-1(+) cells, suggesting a possible reduction in antigen-presenting capacity. Phosphorylated-fingolimod was shown in vitro to reduce S1PR1 RNA and protein, to slightly increase viability and to activate anti-apoptotic Bcl2 in transformed B cells of patients with MS. In conclusion, fingolimod therapy modulates significantly the composition of circulating B cells, promoting regulatory subsets and an anti-inflammatory cytokine repertoire.

Whole-transcriptome analysis of mouse adipose tissue in response to short-term caloric restriction

Caloric restriction (CR) has been shown to extend the lifespan of many species by improving cellular function and organismal health. Additionally, fat reduction by CR may play an important role in lengthening lifespan and preventing severe age-related diseases. Interestingly, CR induced the greatest transcriptome change in the epididymal fat of mice in our study. In this transcriptome analysis, we identified and categorized 446 genes that correlated with CR level. We observed down-regulation of several signaling pathways, including insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 (insulin/IGF-1), epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), and canonical wingless-type mouse mammary tumor virus integration site (Wnt). Many genes related to structural features, including extracellular matrix structure, cell adhesion, and the cytoskeleton, were down-regulated, with a strong correlation to the degree of CR. Furthermore, genes related to the cell cycle and adipogenesis were down-regulated. These biological processes are well-identified targets of insulin/IGF-1, EGF, TGF-β, and Wnt signaling. In contrast, genes involved in specific metabolic processes, including the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the electron transport chain were up-regulated. We performed in silico analysis of the promoter sequences of CR-responsive genes and identified two associated transcription factors, Paired-like homeodomain 2 (Pitx2) and Paired box gene 6 (Pax6). Our results suggest that strict regulation of signaling pathways is critical for creating the optimal energy homeostasis to extend lifespan.

aPKC alters the TGFβ response in NSCLC cells through both Smad-dependent and Smad-independent pathways

Transforming growth factor b (TGFb) signaling controls many cellular responses including proliferation, epithelial to mesenchymal transition and apoptosis, through the activation of canonical (Smad) as well as non-canonical (e.g., Par6) pathways. Previous studies from our lab have demonstrated that aPKC inhibition regulates TGFb receptor trafficking and signaling. Here, we report that downstream TGFb-dependent transcriptional responses in aPKC-silenced NSCLC cells were reduced compared with those of control cells, despite a temporal extension of Smad2 phosphorylation. We assessed SARA–Smad2–Smad4 association and observed that knockdown of aPKC increased SARA (also known as ZFYVE9) levels and SARA–Smad2 complex formation, increased cytoplasmic retention of Smad2 and reduced Smad2–Smad4 complex formation, which correlated with reduced Smad2 nuclear translocation. Interestingly, we also detected an increase in p38 MAPK phosphorylation and apoptosis in aPKC-silenced cells, which were found to be TRAF6-dependent. Taken together, our results suggest that aPKC isoforms regulate Smad and non-Smad TGFb pathways and that aPKC inhibition sensitizes NSCLC cells to undergo TGFb dependent apoptosis.

Production, Isolation, and Structural Analysis of Ligands and Receptors of the TGF-β Superfamily

The ability to understand the molecular mechanisms by which secreted signaling proteins of the TGF-β superfamily assemble their cell surface receptors into complexes to initiate downstream signaling is dependent upon the ability to determine atomic-resolution structures of the signaling proteins, the ectodomains of the receptors, and the complexes that they form. The structures determined to date have revealed major differences in the overall architecture of the signaling complexes formed by the TGF-βs and BMPs, which has provided insights as to how they have evolved to fulfill their distinct functions. Such studies, have however, only been applied to a few members of the TGF-β superfamily, which is largely due to the difficulty of obtaining milligram-scale quantities of highly homogenous preparations of the disulfide-rich signaling proteins and receptor ectodomains of the superfamily. Here we describe methods used to produce signaling proteins and receptor ectodomains of the TGF-β superfamily using bacterial and mammalian expression systems and procedures to purify them to homogeneity.

Multi-walled nanotubes for cellular reprogramming of cancer

Triple negative breast cancer is exceptionally difficult to treat due to the lack of distinguishing biomarkers for drug targeting. An alternative approach based on recent data indicates that these cells may be more susceptible to mechanical influences, such as alterations in the tumor stroma. Three dimensional collagen gels containing co-cultures of mesenchymal cells and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells were utilized to explore the effects of multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) on cell contraction, invasion, viability, MMP-9 expression, and migration of breast cancer cells. MWNT were able to restrict each of these features for the cancer cells without impeding the associated mesenchymal cells. MWNT-collagen gels are useful tools for cellular reprogramming of cancer cells and should be considered in greater detail as a potential agent for therapeutic treatment of triple-negative breast cancer.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

Breast cancer is still a leading cause of death for women worldwide. One subtype of this cancer which is very aggressive is the triple negative breast cancer. The behavior of tumors may be affected by the tumor stromal environment. In this study, the authors investigated the effects of multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) on tumor cell biology. The positive findings may point a new way in using this modality for treatment of triple-negative breast cancer in the future.

dbl-1/TGF-β and daf-12/NHR Signaling Mediate Cell-Nonautonomous Effects of daf-16/FOXO on Starvation-Induced Developmental Arrest

Nutrient availability has profound influence on development. In the nematode C. elegans, nutrient availability governs post-embryonic development. L1-stage larvae remain in a state of developmental arrest after hatching until they feed. This “L1 arrest” (or "L1 diapause") is associated with increased stress resistance, supporting starvation survival. Loss of the transcription factor daf-16/FOXO, an effector of insulin/IGF signaling, results in arrest-defective and starvation-sensitive phenotypes. We show that daf-16/FOXO regulates L1 arrest cell-nonautonomously, suggesting that insulin/IGF signaling regulates at least one additional signaling pathway. We used mRNA-seq to identify candidate signaling molecules affected by daf-16/FOXO during L1 arrest. dbl-1/TGF-β, a ligand for the Sma/Mab pathway, daf-12/NHR and daf-36/oxygenase, an upstream component of the daf-12 steroid hormone signaling pathway, were up-regulated during L1 arrest in a daf-16/FOXO mutant. Using genetic epistasis analysis, we show that dbl-1/TGF-β and daf-12/NHR steroid hormone signaling pathways are required for the daf-16/FOXO arrest-defective phenotype, suggesting that daf-16/FOXO represses dbl-1/TGF-β, daf-12/NHR and daf-36/oxygenase. The dbl-1/TGF-β and daf-12/NHR pathways have not previously been shown to affect L1 development, but we found that disruption of these pathways delayed L1 development in fed larvae, consistent with these pathways promoting development in starved daf-16/FOXO mutants. Though the dbl-1/TGF-β and daf-12/NHR pathways are epistatic to daf-16/FOXO for the arrest-defective phenotype, disruption of these pathways does not suppress starvation sensitivity of daf-16/FOXO mutants. This observation uncouples starvation survival from developmental arrest, indicating that DAF-16/FOXO targets distinct effectors for each phenotype and revealing that inappropriate development during starvation does not cause the early demise of daf-16/FOXO mutants. Overall, this study shows that daf-16/FOXO promotes developmental arrest cell-nonautonomously by repressing pathways that promote larval development.

Animals must cope with feast and famine in the wild. Environmental fluctuations require a balancing act between development in favorable conditions and survival during starvation. Disruption of the pathways that govern this balance can lead to cancer, where cells proliferate when they should not, and metabolic diseases, where nutrient sensing is impaired. In the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, larval development is controlled by nutrient availability. Larvae are able to survive starvation by stopping development and starting again after feeding. Stopping and starting development in this multicellular animal requires signaling to coordinate development across tissues and organs. How such coordination is accomplished is poorly understood. Insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling governs larval development in response to nutrient availability. Here we show that insulin/IGF signaling activity in one tissue can affect the development of other tissues, suggesting regulation of additional signaling pathways. We identified two pathways that promote development in fed larvae and are repressed by lack of insulin/IGF signaling in starved larvae. Repression of these pathways is crucial to stopping development throughout the animal during starvation. These three pathways are widely conserved and associated with disease, suggesting the nutrient-dependent regulatory network they comprise is important to human health.

Dopamine D2 Receptor Is Involved in Alleviation of Type II Collagen-Induced Arthritis in Mice

Human and murine lymphocytes express dopamine (DA) D2-like receptors including DRD2, DRD3, and DRD4. However, their roles in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are less clear. Here we showed that lymphocyte DRD2 activation alleviates both imbalance of T-helper (Th)17/T-regulatory (Treg) cells and inflamed symptoms in a mouse arthritis model of RA. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) was prepared by intradermal injection of chicken collagen type II (CII) in tail base of DBA/1 mice or Drd2 (-/-) C57BL/6 mice. D2-like receptor agonist quinpirole downregulated expression of proinflammatory Th17-related cytokines interleukin- (IL-) 17 and IL-22 but further upregulated expression of anti-inflammatory Treg-related cytokines transforming growth factor- (TGF-) β and IL-10 in lymphocytes in vitro and in ankle joints in vivo in CIA mice. Quinpirole intraperitoneal administration reduced both clinical arthritis score and serum anti-CII IgG level in CIA mice. However, Drd2 (-/-) CIA mice manifested more severe limb inflammation and higher serum anti-CII IgG level and further upregulated IL-17 and IL-22 expression and downregulated TGF-β and IL-10 expression than wild-type CIA mice. In contrast, Drd1 (-/-) CIA mice did not alter limb inflammation or anti-CII IgG level compared with wild-type CIA mice. These results suggest that DRD2 activation is involved in alleviation of CIA symptoms by amelioration of Th17/Treg imbalance.

Neutrophil-derived microvesicles enter cartilage and protect the joint in inflammatory arthritis

Microvesicles (MVs) are emerging as a new mechanism of intercellular communication by transferring cellular lipid and protein components to target cells, yet their function in disease is only now being explored. We found that neutrophil-derived MVs were increased in concentration in synovial fluid from rheumatoid arthritis patients compared to paired plasma. Synovial MVs overexpressed the proresolving, anti-inflammatory protein annexin A1 (AnxA1). Mice deficient in TMEM16F, a lipid scramblase required for microvesiculation, exhibited exacerbated cartilage damage when subjected to inflammatory arthritis. To determine the function of MVs in inflammatory arthritis, toward the possibility of MV-based therapeutics, we examined the role of immune cell-derived MVs in rodent models and in human primary chondrocytes. In vitro, exogenous neutrophil-derived AnxA1(+) MVs activated anabolic gene expression in chondrocytes, leading to extracellular matrix accumulation and cartilage protection through the reduction in stress-adaptive homeostatic mediators interleukin-8 and prostaglandin E2. In vivo, intra-articular injection of AnxA1(+) MV lessened cartilage degradation caused by inflammatory arthritis. Arthritic mice receiving adoptive transfer of whole neutrophils displayed abundant MVs within cartilage matrix and revealed that MVs, but not neutrophils themselves, can penetrate cartilage. Mechanistic studies support a model whereby MV-associated AnxA1 interacts with its receptor FPR2 (formyl peptide receptor 2)/ALX, increasing transforming growth factor-β production by chondrocytes, ultimately leading to cartilage protection. We envisage that MVs, either directly or loaded with therapeutics, can be harnessed as a unique therapeutic strategy for protection in diseases associated with cartilage degeneration.

Myt3 Mediates Laminin-V/Integrin-β1-Induced Islet-Cell Migration via Tgfbi

Myt3 is a prosurvival factor in pancreatic islets; however, its role in islet-cell development is not known. Here, we demonstrate that myelin transcription factor 3 (Myt3) is expressed in migrating islet cells in the developing and neonatal pancreas and thus sought to determine whether Myt3 plays a role in this process. Using an ex vivo model of islet-cell migration, we demonstrate that Myt3 suppression significantly inhibits laminin-V/integrin-β1-dependent α- and β-cell migration onto 804G, and impaired 804G-induced F-actin and E-cadherin redistribution. Exposure of islets to proinflammatory cytokines, which suppress Myt3 expression, had a similar effect, whereas Myt3 overexpression partially rescued the migratory ability of the islet cells. We show that loss of islet-cell migration, due to Myt3 suppression or cytokine exposure, is independent of effects on islet-cell survival or proliferation. Myt3 suppression also had no effect on glucose-induced calcium influx, F-actin remodeling or insulin secretion by β-cells. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of transduced islets showed that Myt3 suppression results in the up-regulation of Tgfbi, a secreted diabetogenic factor thought to impair cellular adhesion. Exposure of islets to exogenous transforming growth factor β-induced (Tgfbi) impaired islet-cell migration similar to Myt3 suppression. Taken together, these data suggest a model by which cytokine-induced Myt3 suppression leads to Tgfbi de-repression and subsequently to impaired islet-cell migration, revealing a novel role for Myt3 in regulating islet-cell migration.

Invasion of ovarian cancer cells is induced byPITX2-mediated activation of TGF-β and Activin-A

BACKGROUND

Most ovarian cancers are highly invasive in nature and the high burden of metastatic disease make them a leading cause of mortality among all gynaecological malignancies. The homeodomain transcription factor, PITX2 is associated with cancer in different tissues. Our previous studies demonstrated increased PITX2 expression in human ovarian tumours. Growing evidence linking activation of TGF-β pathway by homeodomain proteins prompted us to look for the possible involvement of this signalling pathway in PITX2-mediated progression of ovarian cancer.

METHODS

The status of TGF-β signalling in human ovarian tissues was assessed by immunohistochemistry. The expression level of TGFB/INHBA and other invasion-associated genes was measured by quantitative-PCR (Q-PCR) and Western Blot after transfection/treatments with clones/reagents in normal/cancer cells. The physiological effect of PITX2 on invasion/motility was checked by matrigel invasion and wound healing assay. The PITX2- and activin-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was evaluated by Q-PCR of respective markers and confocal/phase-contrast imaging of cells.

RESULTS

Human ovarian tumours showed enhanced TGF-β signalling. Our study uncovers the PITX2-induced expression of TGFB1/2/3 as well as INHBA genes (p < 0.01) followed by SMAD2/3-dependent TGF-β signalling pathway. PITX2-induced TGF-β pathway regulated the expression of invasion-associated genes, SNAI1, CDH1 and MMP9 (p < 0.01) that accounted for enhanced motility/invasion of ovarian cancers. Snail and MMP9 acted as important mediators of PITX2-induced invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells. PITX2 over-expression resulted in loss of epithelial markers (p < 0.01) and gain of mesenchymal markers (p < 0.01) that contributed significantly to ovarian oncogenesis. PITX2-induced INHBA expression (p < 0.01) contributed to EMT in both normal and ovarian cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our findings suggest a significant contributory role of PITX2 in promoting invasive behaviour of ovarian cancer cells through up-regulation of TGFB/INHBA. We have also identified the previously unknown involvement of activin-A in promoting EMT. Our work provides novel mechanistic insights into the invasive behavior of ovarian cancer cells. The extension of this study have the potential for therapeutic applications in future.

Molecular Response of Human Monocytes Following Interaction with Colon Cancer Cells by Pre-treatment with Low-dose Lipopolysaccharide

BACKGROUND/AIM

The increased mRNA expression of chemotaxis- and angiogenesis-related factors in human monocytes following interaction with colon cancer cells has been shown to be suppressed by pre-treatment with low-dose lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (100 pg/ml). It has been demonstrated that low-dose LPS reduced the expression of RelB, a member of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB transcription factor family, in mouse macrophages and the NF-κB signaling pathway was important for tumor initiation and growth in tumor-associated macrophages. In addition, the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) regulated innate immunity via Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 signaling. In the present study, the mRNA expression of signaling pathway- and suppression-related genes in human monocytes following a low-dose LPS treatment and subsequent interaction with colon cancer cells was investigated, in order to assess the molecular response.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The human monocyte cell line THP-1 was treated with LPS and, subsequently, co-cultured with the human colon cancer cell line DLD-1. The mRNA expression of various genes was then analyzed using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

RESULTS

The mRNA expression of RelB, STAT3, interleukin (IL)-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in THP-1 cells following interaction with DLD-1 cells was suppressed by pre-treatment with low-dose LPS (100 pg/ml).

CONCLUSION

Treating human monocytes with low-dose LPS may be useful for suppressing tumor progression and may be valuable for maintaining homeostasis.

Bone Conditioned Medium: Preparation and Bioassay

Autologous bone grafts are widely used in oral and maxillofacial surgery, orthopedics, and traumatology. Autologous bone grafts not only replace missing bone, they also support the complex process of bone regeneration. This favorable behavior of autografts is attributed to the three characteristics: osteoconductivity, osteogenicity, and osteoinductivity. However, there is another aspect: Bone grafts release a myriad of molecules, including growth factors, which can target mesenchymal cells involved in bone regeneration. The paracrine properties of bone grafts can be studied in vitro by the use of bone-conditioned medium (BCM). Here we present a protocol on how to prepare bone-conditioned medium from native pig cortical bone, and bone that underwent thermal processing or demineralization. Cells can be directly exposed to BCM or seeded onto biomaterials, such as collagen membranes, previously soaked with BCM. We give examples for in vitro bioassays with mesenchymal cells on the expression of TGF-β regulated genes. The presented protocols should encourage to further reveal the paracrine effects of bone grafts during bone regeneration and open a path for translational research in the broad field of reconstructive surgery.

Direct Interaction of CD40 on Tumor Cells with CD40L on T Cells Increases the Proliferation of Tumor Cells by Enhancing TGF-β Production and Th17 Differentiation

It has recently been reported that the CD40-CD40 ligand (CD40L) interaction is important in Th17 development. In addition, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) promotes tumorigenesis as an immunosuppressive cytokine and is crucial in the development of Th17 cells. This study investigated the role of CD40 in breast cancer cells and its role in immunosuppressive function and tumor progression. CD40 was highly expressed in the breast cancer cell line MDA-MB231, and its stimulation with CD40 antibodies caused the up-regulation of TGF-β. Direct CD40-CD40L interaction between MDA-MB231 cells and activated T cells also increased TGF-β production and induced the production of IL-17, which accelerated the proliferation of MDA-MB231 cells through the activation of STAT3. Taken together, the direct CD40-CD40L interaction of breast tumor cells and activated T cells increases TGF-β production and the differentiation of Th17 cells, which promotes the proliferation of breast cancer cells.

Modelling circulating tumour cells for personalised survival prediction in metastatic breast cancer

Ductal carcinoma is one of the most common cancers among women, and the main cause of death is the formation of metastases. The development of metastases is caused by cancer cells that migrate from the primary tumour site (the mammary duct) through the blood vessels and extravasating they initiate metastasis. Here, we propose a multi-compartment model which mimics the dynamics of tumoural cells in the mammary duct, in the circulatory system and in the bone. Through a branching process model, we describe the relation between the survival times and the four markers mainly involved in metastatic breast cancer (EPCAM, CD47, CD44 and MET). In particular, the model takes into account the gene expression profile of circulating tumour cells to predict personalised survival probability. We also include the administration of drugs as bisphosphonates, which reduce the formation of circulating tumour cells and their survival in the blood vessels, in order to analyse the dynamic changes induced by the therapy. We analyse the effects of circulating tumour cells on the progression of the disease providing a quantitative measure of the cell driver mutations needed for invading the bone tissue. Our model allows to design intervention scenarios that alter the patient-specific survival probability by modifying the populations of circulating tumour cells and it could be extended to other cancer metastasis dynamics.

Inhibition of Tanshinone IIA, salvianolic acid A and salvianolic acid B on Areca nut extract-induced oral submucous fibrosis in vitro

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge has been reported to possess excellent antifibrotic activity. In this study, we have investigated the effect and mechanism of tanshinone IIA (Tan-IIA), salvianolic acid A (Sal-A) and salvianolic acid B (Sal-B), the important active compounds of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, on areca nut extract (ANE)-induced oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) in vitro. Through human procollagen gene promoter luciferase reporter plasmid assay, hydroxyproline assay, gelatin zymography assay, qRT-PCR, ELISA and Western blot assay, the influence of these three compounds on ANE-stimulated cell viability, collagen accumulation, procollagen gene transcription, MMP-2/-9 activity, MMP-1/-13 and TIMP-1/-2 expression, cytokine secretion and the activation of PI3K/AKT, ERK/JNK/p38 MAPK and TGF-β/Smads pathways were detected. The results showed that Tan-IIA, Sal-A and Sal-B could significantly inhibit the ANE-stimulated abnormal viability and collagen accumulation of mice oral mucosal fibroblasts (MOMFs), inhibit the transcription of procollagen gene COL1A1 and COL3A1, increase MMP-2/-9 activity, decrease TIMP-1/-2 expression and inhibit the transcription and release of CTGF, TGF-β1, IL-6 and TNF-α; Tan-IIA, Sal-A and Sal-B also inhibited the ANE-induced activation of AKT and ERK MAPK pathways in MOMFs and the activation of TGF-β/Smads pathway in HaCaT cells. In conclusion, Tan-IIA, Sal-A and Sal-B possess excellent antifibrotic activity in vitro and can possibly be used to promote the rehabilitation of OSF patients.

Bicluster and pathway enrichment analysis related to tumor progression of hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most aggressive cancers with poor prognosis worldwide. Tumor progression remains a significant cause of high mortality in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the molecular mechanism underlying tumor progression of hepatocellular carcinoma has not been completely unraveled currently. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms of tumor progression of hepatocellular carcinoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed microarray analysis on 24 tissue specimens obtained at the time of surgical resection or liver transplantation from 24 patients with hepatocellular carcinoma downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database.

RESULTS

Our analysis indicated that several differentially expressed genes might play crucial roles in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma, such as GADD45G, SPTBN1, CDC27, TPD52 and INSIG1. GADD45G and SPTBN1 not only contribute to tumor progression in hepatocellular carcinoma, but also correlate with poor prognosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and pancreatic cancer respectively. Futhermore, we performed pathway enrichment analysis and found enriched pathways, including "Proteasome", "Alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism", "TGF-beta signaling pathway", "Wnt signaling pathway", and so on.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings confirmed the presence of multiple molecular alterations during tumor progression and indicated the differentially expressed genes might be involved in tumor progression though multiple pathways. Genes GADD45G and SPTBN1 might correlate with poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma as has already been shown for other malignancies of the gastrointestinal tract.

Differentially expressed gene profiles of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and combined hepatocellular-cholangiocarcinoma by integrated microarray analysis

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are common primary liver cancers worldwide. However, the survival and prognosis of ICC are much poorer than those of HCC, indicating the different molecular characteristics and mechanisms between ICC and HCC. To identify differentially expressed (DE) genes between ICC and HCC or combined hepatocellular-cholangiocarcinoma (CHC), we performed integrated analysis of publicly available microarray Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets by MetaOmics. Three GEO datasets comprising 32 ICC biochips, 77 HCC biochips, and 34 CHC biochips were available for the data integration. We identified 7313 DE genes between ICC and HCC, including 3650 upregulated genes and 3663 downregulated genes. The S100 family members on chromosome 1q21 were extensively upregulated in ICC, and S100A11 had the greatest degree of upregulation in ICC. Based on the DE genes, combined gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis showed the enhanced pathways of local adhesion, ECM-receptor interaction, and regulation of action cytoskeleton, suggesting the enhanced communication between ICC and the microenvironment. Additionally, development-related genes and development-related pathways, including the Notch, Wnt, and TGF-β signaling pathways, were shown to be active prominently in ICC. Taken together, we identified the characteristically upregulated or downregulated DE genes and pathways in ICC compared with HCC or CHC. These DE genes and pathways supply new transcriptomics evidence for ICC and could help identify new therapeutic targets.

The involvement of TLR2 and TLR4 in cytokine and nitric oxide production in visceral leishmaniasis patients before and after treatment with anti-leishmanial drugs

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have significant involvement in Leishmania infection, although little is known about the relationship between these receptors, cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) in patients with visceral leishmaniasis (VL) before or after treatment with anti-leishmanial drugs. The goal of this study was to evaluate the expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in CD3+ and CD14+ cells and the production of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-10, TGF-β and NO in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from VL patients pre- and post-treatment with anti-leishmanial drugs. In addition, we investigated whether these receptors were involved in the production of these cytokines and NO. In the active VL patients, increased TLR2 and TLR4 expression in lymphocytes and monocytes, increased production of TNF-α, IL-10 and TGF-β and decreased production of IFN-γ, IL-17 and NO were observed. After treatment, TLR2 and TLR4 were still expressed in lymphocytes and monocytes, the TNF-α and IL-10 levels were lower, the production of IFN-γ, IL-17 and NO was higher, and the TGF-β level remained high. Before treatment, the production of TNF-α and NO was associated with TLR2 and TLR4 expression, while IL-10 production was only associated with TLR2 expression. After treatment, both receptors were associated with the production of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-10 and NO, while the production of IL-17 was associated only with TLR4 expression. The results presented in this study suggest that both TLR2 and TLR4 participate in the modulation of cytokine and NO production in VL patients, contributing to the pathogenesis of VL prior to treatment and the protective immune response after treatment.

Investigating the impact of Echinococcus multilocularis vesicular fluid on human cells from healthy blood donors

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a severe chronic helminthic disease that mimics slow-growing liver cancer. Previous studies using murine models suggest that Echinococcus multilocularis (Em) metacestodes have developed mechanisms which impair the natural inflammatory host response. The aim of this study was to investigate in vitro the impact of Em vesicular fluid (VF) on monocytes, monocytes derived dendritic cells and lymphocytes from healthy blood donors.

METHODS

First, assays were performed to investigate whether or not Em-VF influences monocyte-derived dendritic cell (MoDC) differentiation and maturation. Monocytes during differentiation and immature MoDCs were exposed to Em-VF. The effect of Em-VF was assessed using flow cytometry (CD86, CD83, CD80) and immune assays (IL-10 and TGFβ). Second, assays were performed to investigate the interaction between Em-VF, peripheral blood monocyte cells (PBMC) and Toll-like Receptor (TLR) agonists (LPS, PolyIC, R848 and CpG). PBMC were stimulated by each of the TLR agonists with and without Em-VF. The subsequent TGFβ production was assessed.

RESULTS

Exposure to Em-VF had bearing on both differentiation and maturation of MoDC, but only partially. A decrease in the expression of co-stimulatory molecules was observed; however, levels of immune-regulatory cytokines were stable. PBMC exposed simultaneously to Em-VF and LPS induced a significant increase of TGFβ (p<0.05, Wilcoxon signed-rank test). Further experiments showed that TGFβ production was lymphocyte-dependent.

CONCLUSION

The assays performed confirmed that Em-VF influences the host immune response. However, only minor changes were observed when investigating the Em-VF impact on cells from healthy blood donors. Assays with TLR agonists suggested that co-stimulation with LPS reinforces the response of healthy blood donors exposed to Em-VF.

TGFBI protein high expression predicts poor prognosis in colorectal cancer patients

Transforming growth factor-beta-induced (TGFBI) serves as a linker protein and plays a role in the activation of morphogenesis, cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, differentiation and inflammation. High expression levels of the human TGFBI gene are correlated with numerous human malignancies. In order to explore the roles of TGFBI in the tumor progression of colorectal cancer, colorectal cancer specimens from 115 patients with strict follow-up were selected for the analysis of TGFBI by immunohistochemistry. The correlations between TGFBI expression and the clinicopathological features of colorectal cancers were evaluated. In the colorectal cancer tissues, TGFBI was mainly localized in the cytoplasm and stroma and scarcely in the nucleus. TGFBI expression in the cytoplasm and stroma was not found to be associated with age, gender, tumor histopathological grading, PT category and tumor location (P > 0.05 for each). However, high TGFBI expression in the cytoplasm and stroma correlated with lymph node metastasis, distant metastasis and Dukes stage (P < 0.05 for each). The survival rate was significantly lower in patients with high TGFBI expression than in those with low TGFBI expression. Furthermore, we found that tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging (HR: 2.963; 95% CI: 1.573-1.664; P = 0.000), differentiation (HR: 1.574; 95% CI: 1.001-2.476; P = 0.049) and high TGFBI cytoplasmic expression (HR: 3.332; 95% CI: 1.410-7.873; P = 0.000) proved to be independent prognostic factors for survival in colorectal cancer. In conclusion, TGFBI plays an important role in the progression of colorectal cancers and it is an independent poor prognostic factor for colorectal cancer patients.

Signatures of resistance to Lepeophtheirus salmonis include a TH2-type response at the louse-salmon interface

Disease outbreaks with the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis cause significant economic losses in mariculture operations worldwide. Variable innate immune responses at the louse-attachment site contribute to differences in susceptibility among species such that members of Salmo spp. are more susceptible to infection than those of some Oncorhynchus spp. Relatively little is known about the mechanisms that contribute to disease resistance or susceptibility to L. salmonis in salmon. Here, we utilize histochemistry and transcriptomics in a comparative infection model with susceptible (Atlantic, sockeye) and resistant (coho) salmon. At least three cell populations (MHIIβ+, IL1β+, TNFα+) were activated in coho salmon skin during L. salmonis infection. Locally elevated expression of several pro-inflammatory mediators (e.g. IL1β, IL8, TNFα, COX2, C/EBPβ), and tissue repair enzymes (MMP9, MMP13) were detected in susceptible and resistant species. However, responses specific to coho salmon (e.g. IL4, IL6, TGFβ) or responses shared among susceptible salmon (e.g. SAP, TRF, Cath in Atlantic and sockeye salmon) provide evidence for species-specific pathways contributing to resistance or susceptibility, respectively. Our results confirm the importance of an early pro-inflammatory TH1-type pathway as an initial host response during infection with Pacific sea lice, and demonstrate subsequent regulatory TH2-type processes as candidate defense mechanisms in the skin of resistant coho salmon.

Cardioprotective effects of melatonin against myocardial injuries induced by chronic intermittent hypoxia in rats

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) associated with chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) increases the morbidity and mortality of ischemic heart disease in patients. Yet, there is a paucity of preventive measures targeting the pathogenesis of CIH-induced myocardial injury. We examined the cardioprotective effect of melatonin against the inflammation, fibrosis and the deteriorated sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) homeostasis, and ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced injury exacerbated by CIH. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats that had received a daily injection of melatonin (10 mg/kg) or vehicle were exposed to CIH treatment mimicking a severe OSA condition for 4 wk. Systolic pressure, heart weights, and malondialdehyde were significantly increased in hypoxic rats but not in the melatonin-treated group, when compared with the normoxic control. Levels of the expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and COX-2) and fibrotic markers (PC1 and TGF-β) were significantly elevated in the hypoxic group but were normalized by melatonin. Additionally, infarct size of isolated hearts with regional I/R was substantial in the hypoxic group treated with vehicle but not in the melatonin-treated group. Moreover, melatonin treatment mitigated the SR-Ca(2+) homeostasis in the cardiomyocyte during I/R with (i) Ca(2+) overloading, (ii) decreased SR-Ca(2+) content, (iii) lowered expression and activity of Ca(2+) -handling proteins (SERCA2a and NCX1),and (iv) decreased expressions of CAMKII and phosphorylated eNOS(ser1177). Furthermore, melatonin ameliorated the level of expression of antioxidant enzymes (CAT and MnSOD) and NADPH oxidase (p22 and NOX2). Results support a prophylactic usage of melatonin in OSA patients, which protects against CIH-induced myocardial inflammation and fibrosis with impaired SR-Ca(2+) handling and exacerbated I/R injury.