Solution structure of the SH3 domain of Src and identification of its ligand-binding site

The Src homology 3 (SH3) region is a protein domain of 55 to 75 amino acids found in many cytoplasmic proteins, including those that participate in signal transduction pathways. The solution structure of the SH3 domain of the tyrosine kinase Src was determined by multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance methods. The molecule is composed of two short three-stranded anti-parallel beta sheets packed together at approximately right angles. Studies of the SH3 domain bound to proline-rich peptide ligands revealed a hydrophobic binding site on the surface of the protein that is lined with the side chains of conserved aromatic amino acids.

Purification and characterization of glutathione transferase from psoriatic skin

The glutathione transferases (GSTs) comprise a family of enzymes that catalyze the conjugation of glutathione with certain hydrophobic compounds, bind various hydrophobic compounds, and have selenium-independent glutathione peroxidase activity. Of the four classes of GST, the pi class is the only one present in keratinocytes, and pi-class GST is elevated in psoriatic epidermis. We have purified and characterized GST from psoriatic scales. Immunoreactivity was observed with pi class antisera, and amino terminal sequencing showed identity with GST from human placenta and cultured human keratinocytes. We conclude that the majority of GST activity in psoriatic skin is due to a pi-class isoenzyme, and pi-class GST may represent an index for hyperproliferation.

Glutathione S-transferases of human lung: characterization and evaluation of the protective role of the alpha-class isozymes against lipid peroxidation

Glutathione S-transferase (GST) isozymes of human lung have been purified, characterized, quantitated, and, based on their structural and immunological profiles, identified with their respective classes. The tau-, mu-, and alpha-class GSTs represented 94, 3, and 3% activities of total human lung GSTs toward CDNB, respectively, and 60, 10, and 30% of total GST protein, respectively. Both the mu- and the alpha-class GSTs of human lung exhibited heterogeneity. The two mu-class GSTs of human lung had pI values of 6.5 and 6.25 and were differentially expressed in humans. Significant differences were seen between the kinetic properties of these two isozymes and also between the lung and liver mu-class GSTs. The alpha-class GST isozymes of lung resolved into three peaks during isoelectric focusing corresponding to pI values of 9.2, 8.95, and 8.8. All three alpha-class GSTs isozymes had blocked N-termini and were immunologically similar to human liver alpha-class GSTs. Peptide fingerprints generated by SV-8 protease digestion and CNBr cleavage indicated minor structural differences between the liver and the lung alpha-class GSTs. The three alpha-class GSTs of lung expressed glutathione peroxidase activities toward the hydroperoxides of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylglycerol, with Km values in the range of 22 to 87 microM and Vmax values in the range of 67-120 mol/mol/min, indicating the involvement of the alpha-class GSTs in the protection mechanisms against peroxidation. All three classes of lung GSTs expressed activities toward leukotriene A4 methyl ester and epoxy stearic acid but the mu-class GSTs had relatively higher activities toward these substrates.

Site-directed mutagenesis of amino acid residues involved in the glutathione binding of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1

The four residues of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 whose counterparts were indicated by X-ray crystallography to reside in the GSH-binding site of pig glutathione S-transferase P1-1 were individually replaced with threonine or alanine by site-directed mutagenesis to obtain mutants R13T, K44T, Q51A, and Q64A. The kinetic parameters, susceptibilities to an inhibitor, S-hexyl-GSH, and affinities for GSH-Sepharose of the latter were compared with those of the wild-type enzyme, and pKa of the thiol group of GSH bound in R13T was shown to be equivalent to that in the wild type. From the results, Lys44, Gln51, and Gln64 were deduced to contribute to the binding of GSH. On the other hand, Arg13 seems to be essential for the enzymatic activity as mainly involved in the construction of a proper structure of the active site.

Photoaffinity labelling of steroid-hormone-binding glutathione S-transferases with [3H]methyltrienolone. Inhibition of steroid-binding activity by the anticarcinogen indole-3-carbinol

The identification and characterization of steroid-hormone-binding glutathione S-transferases (GST) were undertaken using photoaffinity-labelling techniques. Irradiation of mouse liver cytosol, in the presence of 50 nM-[3H]methyltrienolone, resulted in the specific affinity labelling of five proteins. One of these proteins, designated MBP27, had an approximate molecular mass of 27 kDa under denaturing conditions and was induced by treatment of mice with either 2(3)-t-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (BHA) or phenobarbital (PB). An additional affinity-labelled protein, MBP25, which was not detected in untreated mouse cytosol, was induced in the liver cytosols from BHA- and PB-treated mice. The molecular masses of these proteins and their induction by BHA and PB suggested that they may be steroid-hormone-binding GST subunits. Irradiation of mouse liver cytosol in the presence of [3H]methyltrienolone, followed by immunoprecipitation using GST-specific antibodies established that both GST mu and GST alpha bind [3H]methyltrienolone and both contribute to the affinity-labelled protein designated MBP27. GST Ya1 Ya1, an alpha class GST that is not expressed in untreated mouse liver but is induced by BHA and PB, was also found to bind [3H]methyltrienolone and is identical with the affinity-labelled protein designated MBP25. Experiments were undertaken next to assess the effects of the anticarcinogenic plant compound indole-3-carbinol (I3C) on GST-mediated steroid hormone-binding using the photoaffinity labelling techniques. Treatment of mice with I3C resulted in the induction of immunoreactive GST mu and GST Ya1 Ya1. However, the steroid-binding activity of these proteins in vitro was severely inhibited by the acid-condensation products of I3C that are generated in the stomach after ingestion. These results suggest that I3C may inhibit GST-mediated steroid-binding activity which could contribute to the anticarcinogenic activity of this compound.

A subgroup of class alpha glutathione S-transferases. Cloning of cDNA for mouse lung glutathione S-transferase GST 5.7

A full-length cDNA clone encoding the previously purified mouse glutathione S-transferase GST 5.7 [(1991), Biochem. J. 278, 793-799] has been isolated from a mouse lung cDNA library in lambda gt11. Sequencing of the clone revealed the presence of microheterogeneity in GST 5.7. Comparison of the deduced protein sequence with other glutathione S-transferases, together with previous information available on GST 5.7, indicates that the enzyme belongs to a novel subgroup within the alpha class of glutathione S-transferases. Members of the subgroup, which also include the rat GST 8-8 and perhaps chicken GST CL3, show high sequence homology with each other, but only moderate similarity to other alpha class enzymes. They share a substrate specificity profile that resembles pi-class enzymes, and are active in the conjugation of lipid peroxidation products.

Construction of affinity sorbents utilizing glutathione analogs

Solution-phase N-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc) mediated peptide synthesis has been adapted to the synthesis of glutathione (gamma-glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine) analogs. A protecting group strategy has been devised in which all of the masking groups are removed with mild base. This allows for the synthesis of acid-sensitive materials and lessens concerns about the alkylation at sulfur by carbocations known to be present in the trifluoroacetic acid mixtures usually employed for deprotection of peptides made by the Fmoc methodology. A series of structurally varied glutathione analogs were prepared by modifying the peptide in two ways. The first involved C-terminal substitution for glycine by one of several different amino acids. The second involved substitution of one of five alkyl or aryl groups onto the cysteine sulfhydryl. The complete set of all combinations would yield 48 reagents, of which 25 have actually been synthesized. Following confirmation of the structures by FAB mass spectrometry, the peptides were immobilize by conjugation to epoxyfunctionalized Sepharose at pH 11-12. The amount and identity of immobilized peptide was assayed by amino acid analysis of acid-hydrolyzed resin. One of the tripeptides was purified by ion-exchange and preparative HPLC.

Modular mutagenesis of exons 1, 2, and 8 of a glutathione S-transferase from the mu class. Mechanistic and structural consequences for chimeras of isoenzyme 3-3

Exons 1 and 2 and exon 8 of the mu class GSH transferases from rat encode sequence-variable regions 1 and 4 of mu class isoenzymes, respectively. These two of four variable regions are located at the N- and C-termini of this isoenzyme class and impinge on the active site. In order to assess the influence of these variable regions on the catalytic diversity of the class mu isoenzymes, seven chimeric isoenzymes were constructed by transplantation of the variable regions of the sequence of the type 4 subunit into the corresponding regions of the type 3 subunit. The chimeric isoenzymes exhibit unique catalytic properties. Replacement of all, or part, of variable region 4 of the type 3 subunit with that of the type 4 subunit results in chimeric catalysts with higher turnover numbers in nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions. Analysis of the crystal structure of isoenzyme 3-3 [Ji, X., Zhang, P., Armstrong, R. N., & Gilliland, G. L. (1992) Biochemistry (preceding paper in this issue)] suggests that interaction of the flexible C-terminal tail with the N-terminal domain helps limit the rate of product release from the active site of isoenzyme 3-3 in this type of reaction. Substitution of all, or part, of the sequence-variable region 1 of subunit 3 with that of subunit 4 results in chimeric isoenzymes that mimic the high stereoselectivity but not the catalytic efficiency of isoenzyme 4-4 toward alpha,beta-unsaturated ketones.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The three-dimensional structure of a glutathione S-transferase from the mu gene class. Structural analysis of the binary complex of isoenzyme 3-3 and glutathione at 2.2-A resolution

The crystal structure of a mu class glutathione S-transferase (EC 2.5.1.18) from rat liver (isoenzyme 3-3) in complex with the physiological substrate glutathione (GSH) has been solved at 2.2-A resolution by multiple isomorphous replacement methods. The enzyme crystallized in the monoclinic space group C2 with unit cell dimensions of a = 87.98 A, b = 69.41 A, c = 81.34 A, and beta = 106.07 degrees. Oligonucleotide-directed site-specific mutagenesis played an important role in the solution of the structure in that the cysteine mutants C86S, C114S, and C173S were used to help locate the positions of mercuric ion sites in nonisomorphous derivatives with ethylmercuric phosphate and to align the sequence with the model derived from MIR phases. A complete model for the protein was not obtained until part of the solvent structure was interpreted. The dimer in the asymmetric unit refined to a crystallographic R = 0.171 for 19,298 data and I > or = 1.5 sigma (I). The final model consists of 4150 atoms, including all non-hydrogen atoms of 434 amino acid residues, two GSH molecules, and oxygen atoms of 474 water molecules. The dimeric enzyme is globular in shape with dimensions of 53 x 62 x 56 A. Crystal contacts are primarily responsible for conformational differences between the two subunits which are related by a noncrystallographic 2-fold axis. The structure of the type 3 subunit can be divided into two domains separated by a short linker, a smaller alpha/beta domain (domain I, residues 1-82), and a larger alpha domain (domain II, residues 90-217). Domain I contains four beta-strands which form a central mixed beta-sheet and three alpha-helices which are arranged in a beta alpha beta alpha beta beta alpha motif. Domain II is composed of five alpha-helices. Domain I can be considered the glutathione binding domain, while domain II seems to be primarily responsible for xenobiotic substrate binding. The active site is located in a deep (19-A) cavity which is composed of three relatively mobile structural elements: the long loop (residues 33-42) of domain I, the alpha 4/alpha 5 helix-turn-helix segment, and the C-terminal tail. GSH is bound at the active site in an extended conformation at one end of the beta-sheet of domain I with its backbone facing the cavity and the sulfur pointing toward the subunit to which it is bound.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Recombinant polypeptide from the gp48 region of the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) detects serum antibodies in vaccinated and infected cattle

To characterize the immune response of cattle to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) glycoprotein gp48, we have produced a large amount of recombinant glutathione-s-transferase-gp48 (GST-gp48) fusion protein in Escherichia coli. Antibodies to gp48 were present in cattle vaccinated with killed or modified-live virus vaccination, or following natural infection. These results were in agreement with results of serum neutralization (SN) test which detected gp53 of BVDV.

Characterization of a human class-Theta glutathione S-transferase with activity towards 1-menaphthyl sulphate

A purification scheme is described for a glutathione S-transferase (GST) from human liver that catalyses the conjugation of 1-menaphthyl sulphate (MS) with GSH; the method devised results in an approx. 500-fold increase in specific activity towards MS. The human enzyme which metabolizes MS is a homodimer comprising subunits of M(r) 25,100, and immunochemical experiments have shown it to be a member of the class-Theta GSTs. Automated Edman degradation of this enzyme has confirmed that it is a Theta-class GST bu the amino acid sequence obtained differs from that of GST theta described previously [Meyer, Coles, Pemble, Gilmore, Fraser & Ketterer (1991) Biochem. J. 274, 409-414]. We have therefore designated the enzyme that catalyses the conjugation of MS with GSH GST T2-2* (in the absence of complete amino acid sequence data, the T1 and T2 subunits are provisionally designated T1* and T2*); the evidence which indicates that GST theta (which should possibly now be called GST T1-1*) and GST T2-2* represent distinct isoenzymes is discussed.

The oligomeric structure of rat liver microsomal glutathione transferase studied by chemical cross-linking

The oligomeric structure of rat liver microsomal glutathione transferase was investigated using four different chemical cross-linking reagents. Studies were performed with the isolated enzyme, with the enzyme incorporated into phosphatidyl choline liposomes and with rat liver microsomes. Cross-linking was analyzed by use of SDS-PAGE combined with Western blotting. Our results strongly suggest that the microsomal glutathione transferase is a trimer in situ in the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as in the purified state and in proteoliposomes. These results lend strong support to previous studies, involving hydrodynamic characterization and radiation inactivation, indicating that the microsomal glutathione transferase is a trimeric enzyme.

Purification and characterisation of glutathione transferase from the giant African snail, Archachatina marginata

1. Glutathione-S-transferase has been purified from the hepatopancreas of Archachatina marginata to homogeneity. 2. The enzyme was found to be a dimer with a molecular weight of 44,000. The subunits sizes were 22,500 and 23,500 respectively. The isoelectric points of the enzyme were 8.35, 7.95 and 4. The enzyme was most stable at temperature below 40 degrees C. Upon denaturation by 4 M urea, only 56% of the activity could be recovered. 3. The Kms for glutathione and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenze (CDNB) were 0.23 mM and 0.4 mM respectively. The specific activity of the enzyme with CDNB and p-nitrophylacetate as substrates were 47 mumol/mg and 38 mumol/mg respectively. 4. Inhibition studies showed that S-hexylglutathione, Rose Bengal, iodoacetamide, sodium azide and Procion Blue H-B were good inhibitors with I50 values ranging from 18.5 microM to 299 mM. 5. The amino acid composition showed that the enzyme had a relatively high content of hydrophobic and acidic amino acid residues. The peptide maps of the tryptic digests of the native and performic acid-oxidised enzyme indicated that there might be about two disulphide bridges per molecule of the enzyme.

Fasciola hepatica: host responders and nonresponders to parasite glutathione S-transferase

Fasciola hepatica glutathione S-transferase (FhGST) was isolated from adult worms by glutathione agarose affinity chromatography. SDS-PAGE shows three proteins of M(r) ranging from 29-27.8 kDa. Western immunoblot analyses using SDS-PAGE separated adult worm extracts and probed with a rabbit anti-FhGST antiserum reveal two bands in the same M(r) range. Mice and rabbits immunized with purified FhGST develop copious amounts of anti-FhGST antibodies. Moreover, antisera to F. hepatica adult worms and excretion-secretion products also react with FhGST. Cross-reactivity with schistosomes is evidenced in the reactivity with FhGST of anti-Schistosoma mansoni adult worm antisera and, to a lesser extent, antisera to S. mansoni-soluble egg antigens. The time of appearance of anti-FhGST antibodies in different species of animals infected with F. hepatica was determined. Sheep and a New Zealand white rabbit developed anti-FhGST antibodies detectable by ELISA as early as 2 weeks postexposure with F. hepatica. However, neither mice nor calves infected with F. hepatica developed antibodies to FhGST through the 5-10 weeks of infection tested. But mice infected with S. mansoni developed anti-FhGST cross-reacting antibodies by 6 weeks of infection. Calves immunized with a Fasciola/Schistosoma cross-reactive, cross-protective antigen complex in which a 12,000-kDa protein (Fh12) has been shown to contain immunoprophylactic activity, also developed antibodies to FhGST. Since FhGST is a novel potential vaccine, its protection-inducing capability in a multivalent vaccine combined with Fh12 clearly warrants study. In summary, it appears that hosts with fascioliasis are either responders to FhGST (rabbits, sheep) or nonresponders (mice, cattle), offering interesting models for studying the immune response.

A structural role of histidine 15 in human glutathione transferase M1-1, an amino acid residue conserved in class Mu enzymes

His15 is a conserved amino acid residue in all known class Mu glutathione transferases. This His residue in human glutathione transferase M1-1 has been mutated into 17 different amino acid residues by means of site-directed random mutagenesis to determine if any substitutions are compatible with catalytic activity. The majority of the mutant proteins appeared unstable and could not be isolated in reasonable quantities by heterologous expression in Escherichia coli. Five mutant enzymes, H15C, H15K, H15N, H15Q and H15S were purified and more extensively characterized. The mutant proteins shared the same size as that of the wild-type enzyme but could be separated from the parental enzyme by reverse phase HPLC. For all the mutant forms except H15N, the sp. act. with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene was less than 3% of the wild-type value--the H15N mutant enzyme displayed 29% of the wild-type activity. None of the catalytically active mutant enzymes showed any major alteration of the binding affinity for the substrate analog S-hexylglutathione, suggesting that His15 is not part of the active site of the enzyme. The high activity of the mutant H15N, also reflected in the kcat/Km, V and S0.5 values, rules out the possibility that His15 in the native enzyme contributes to catalysis by serving as a base. The role of His15, largely replaceable by Asn in the same position, appears to be structural, probably involving hydrogen bonds that maintain the protein in a stable and catalytically active conformation. A critical structural role of His15 in a buried position may explain the evolutionary conservation of this residue in the class Mu glutathione transferases.

Investigation of the active site of human placenta glutathione transferase pi by means of a spin-labelled glutathione analogue

A spin-labelled analogue of glutathione (sl-glutathione) has been used in order to characterize the active site of human placenta glutathione transferase pi. The sl-glutathione shows a competitive inhibition towards glutathione (Ki = 14 microM). Binding of sl-glutathione to the enzyme, followed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, gives a Kd of 3 microM and two identical binding sites for dimeric unit. Inhibition of the enzyme, by modification of the Cys-47 residue, completely prevents the binding of sl-glutathione. The same results are obtained by monitoring the binding of glutathione by means of fluorescence spectroscopy. It is concluded that integrity of the thiolate of Cys-47 is necessary to maintain an active conformation of the enzyme able to efficiently bind glutathione into the active site.

Activation of rat liver microsomal glutathione S-transferase by hydrogen peroxide: role for protein-dimer formation

The mechanism of oxygen radical-dependent activation of hepatic microsomal glutathione S-transferase by hydrogen peroxide was studied. Glutathione S-transferase activity in liver microsomes was increased 1.5-fold by incubation with 0.75 mM hydrogen peroxide at 37 degrees C for 10 min, and the increase in activity was reversed by incubation with dithiothreitol. Purified glutathione S-transferase was also activated by hydrogen peroxide after incubation at room temperature, and the increase in the activity was also reversed by dithiothreitol. Immunoblotting with anti-microsomal glutathione S-transferase antibodies after sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of hydrogen peroxide-treated microsomes or purified glutathione S-transferase revealed the presence of a glutathione S-transferase dimer. These results indicate that the hydrogen peroxide-dependent activation of the microsomal glutathione S-transferase is associated with the formation of a protein dimer.

Inter-species variation of schistosome 28-kDa glutathione S-transferases

The 28-kDa glutathione S-transferase from Schistosoma mansoni (Sm28GST) is a candidate vaccine antigen. To evaluate the antigenic and phylogenetic variations between the 28-kDa GSTs from 4 species of schistosome, we have cloned and sequenced the 28-kDa GSTs from Schistosoma haematobium (Sh28GST) and Schistosoma bovis (Sb28GST). Sb28GST and Sh28GST are more similar to each other (97%) than to Sm28GST (90%) and particularly to the 28-kDa GST from Schistosoma japonicum (Sj28GST, 77%). Antisera directed against the major Sm28GST epitopes revealed differences in the recognition of the 28-kDa GSTs from the other schistosome species suggesting that these regions have been subjected to evolutionary pressure. The consequences of such species-specific epitopes on the development of a multi-species anti-schistosome vaccine are discussed.

Cloning, sequencing and characterization of the human alpha glutathione S-transferase gene corresponding to the cDNA clone pGTH2

The human Alpha glutathione S-transferase gene corresponding to the human liver cDNA clone pGTH2 was isolated from a cosmid genome library. The gene, represented by the clone cosGTH2, spans nearly 12 kb and contains seven exons. The intron/exon borders conform to the standard rules, and an open reading frame is present, starting at position 67 in exon 2, the double-stop codon being at position 733 in exon 7. Exons 1, 2 and 7 differ in length from the known rat gene coding for the Ya enzyme. A 209 bp 5'-upstream region contains TATA and CAT boxes and, in addition, motifs for Sp1-, NF1- and HNFI-binding factors. Clone cosGTH2 represents the less basic subunit, alpha y, of two Alpha glutathione S-transferase subunits (alpha x and alpha y) expressed in liver, which is identical with the kidney subunit alpha 2.

Dissociation and unfolding of Pi-class glutathione transferase. Evidence for a monomeric inactive intermediate

The dissociation and unfolding of the homodimeric glutathione transferase (GST) Pi from human placenta, using different physicochemical denaturants, have been investigated at equilibrium. The protein transitions were followed by monitoring loss of activity, intrinsic fluorescence, tyrosine exposure, far-u.v. c.d. and gel-filtration retention time of the protein. At low denaturant concentration (less than 1 M for guanidinium chloride and less than 4.5 M for urea), a reversible dissociation step leading to inactivation of the enzyme was observed. At higher denaturant concentrations the monomer unfolds completely. The same unfolding behaviour was also observed with high hydrostatic pressure as denaturant. Our results indicate that the denaturation of GST Pi is a multistep process, i.e. dissociation of the active dimer into structured inactive monomers followed by unfolding.

Bovine erythrocyte glutathione S-transferase: purification, inhibition, and complex formation

Glutathione S-transferase has been purified from bovine erythrocytes by affinity chromatography. The enzyme has an isoelectric point of 7.2, behaves as a 48-kDa protein composed of two identical subunits, and has an N-terminal sequence of PPYTIVYFPVQGR?EAMRMLL. This sequence, the amino acid composition, and the kinetic parameters suggest that the enzyme belongs to the pi-class of transferases. Hemins, porphyrins, and fatty acids form complexes with the enzyme and serve as effective inhibitors. Treatment of the transferase with N-ethylmaleimide, 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole, diethyl pyrocarbonate, or 2,3-butanedione inhibits transferase activity without altering tetrapyrrole binding. The role of the complexation and inhibition of glutathione S-transferase in erythroid metabolism has yet to be elucidated.

A ubiquitous 64-kDa protein is a component of a chloride channel of plasma and intracellular membranes

Chloride channels are present in the plasma and intracellular membranes of most cells. Previously, using the ligand indanyloxyacetic acid (IAA), we purified four major proteins from bovine kidney cortex membrane vesicles. These proteins gave rise to chloride channel activity when reconstituted into phospholipid vesicles. Two of these proteins (97 and 27 kDa) were found to be drug-binding proteins by N-terminal sequence analysis. Antibodies raised to the 64-kDa protein stained only this protein on immunoblots, and only this protein was present after purification on an immunoaffinity column. In addition, these same antibodies were able to deplete IAA-94 inhibitable chloride channel activity from solubilized kidney membranes. Of fractions obtained from the gel filtration of solubilized kidney membranes, only those containing this 64-kDa protein exhibited measurable chloride channel activity. Immunoblots of a variety of species and cell types, both epithelial and nonepithelial, revealed that this protein is ubiquitous and highly conserved. Immunocytochemistry in CFPAC-1 cells revealed staining for this protein on the apical plasma membrane and in the membranes of intracellular organelles. These results demonstrate that the integral membrane protein p64 is a component of chloride channels present in both epithelial plasma membrane and the membranes of intracellular organelles.

Correlation between a hepatic copper accumulation and an altered expression of glutathione S-transferase Ya/Yc subunits in LEC mutant rat

Long-Evans Cinnamon (LEC) rat, an animal model of Wilson's disease, that develops a necrotizing hepatic injury with an abnormally high hepatic copper accumulation exhibits an altered expression of glutathione S-transferase (GST) subunits, that is, a low percentage of the Ya and a high percentage of the Yc subunit expression in males. The altered expression of GST subunits and the abnormal copper accumulation in liver were found to be completely correlated in male LEC mutant rat liver, suggesting that the copper toxicity caused by the anomaly of copper metabolism in LEC rat liver leads to the altered expression of GST subunits.

Mapping the substrate-binding site of a human class mu glutathione transferase using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

The substrate-binding site of a human muscle class mu glutathione transferase has been characterized using high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Isotopic labeling has been used to simplify one-dimensional proton NMR spectra of the Tyr and His residues in the enzyme and two-dimensional carbon-proton spectra of the Ala and Met residues in the enzyme. The resonance lines from 8 of the 12 Tyr residues have been assigned using site-directed mutagenesis. Replacement of Tyr7 with Phe reduced the activity of the enzyme 100-fold. The proximity of His, Tyr, Ala, and Met residues to the active site has been determined using a nitroxide-labeled substrate analogue. This substrate analogue binds with high affinity (Keq = 10(6) M-1) to the enzyme and is a competitive inhibitor. None of the His residues are within 17 A of the active site. Three of the assigned Tyr residues are greater than 17 A from the active site. Quantitative measurement of paramagnetic line broadening of five additional Tyr residues places them within 13-17 A from the active site. Broadening of the Ala and Met resonance lines by the spin-labeled substrate indicates that three Ala residues are 9-16 A from the nitroxide, three Met residues are less than 9 A from the nitroxide, and two Met residues are 9-16 A from the nitroxide.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of a protective cloned 28 kDa glutathione S-transferase from Schistosoma mansoni

Crystals of the recombinant 28 kDa glutathione S-transferase from Schistosoma mansoni have been obtained by the hanging-drop method of vapor diffusion from ammonium sulfate solutions. The successful crystallization of this enzyme required the presence of a reducing agent and S-hexylglutathione. The crystals belong to the cubic space group P4(1)32 (or P4(3)32), with unit cell dimensions a = 122.6 A and contain one molecule in the asymmetric unit. The crystals diffract to at least 2.8 A resolution and are suitable for X-ray crystallographic structure analysis.

Primary sequence heterogeneity and tissue expression of glutathione S-transferases of Fasciola hepatica

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) from Fasciola hepatica have been purified by glutathione affinity chromatography. Two closely migrating species of Mr 26,000 and 26,500 were identified by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and several species resolved by two-dimensional gel analysis, indicating substantial heterogeneity among the GSTs. N-terminal amino acid sequencing revealed one core sequence containing three polymorphisms, whereas the sequence of GST peptides implied a minimum of three different GSTs. The amino acid sequence data assigned the F. hepatica GSTs to the mu class of GSTs with high similarities to these proteins in other helminths and mammals. The native GSTs of F. hepatica appeared to behave as dimers as determined by molecular sieving chromatography. The observation that the GSTs of F. hepatica are heterogeneous in sequence and behave as dimers in the native state suggest that these isoenzymes may exhibit considerable functional heterogeneity which may be of importance to the parasite. Immunocytochemical studies suggest that the main source of GST in F. hepatica are the parenchymal cells and peripheral tissues of the parasite. Some extracellular GST is associated with the lamellae of the intestinal epithelium. The identification of an intestinal GST is unique among trematodes studied to date.

Glutathione S-transferase isozymes in rat lens

Rat lens contains two classes of glutathione S-transferase (GST) isozymes; one is class mu, Yb1-Yb1, and the other is class pi, Yp-Yp, judged from their molecular weights, immunological properties and N-terminal amino acid sequences. The expression pattern of GST isozymes in the rat lens is different from that in pig and bovine lenses which have only class pi and class mu isozymes, respectively.

Induction of glutathione S-transferase P-form in primary cultured rat liver parenchymal cells by co-planar polychlorinated biphenyl congeners

Alterations in protein synthesis in primary cultured rat liver parenchymal cells were examined after their exposure to the potent carcinogens, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners. Co-planar PCB congeners (3,4,5,3',4'-PCB and 3,4,5,3',4',5'-PCB) (10 nM) induced a protein, the Mr of which was 25,000 (25 k protein) under denaturing conditions. However, non-co-planar PCB congeners and several xenobiotics, which induce microsomal proteins, did not induce the 25 k protein. By using immunoblotting, the 25 k protein was identified as glutathione S-transferase P-form (GST-P, 7-7, EC 2.5.1.18).

Cloning and expression of a chick liver glutathione S-transferase CL 3 subunit with the use of a baculovirus expression system

Glutathione S-transferase CL 3 subunits purified from 1-day-old-chick livers were digested with Achromobacter proteinase I and the resulting fragments were isolated for amino acid sequence analysis. An oligonucleotide probe was constructed accordingly for cDNA library screening. A cDNA clone of 1342 bases, pGCL301, encoding a protein of 26209 Da was isolated and sequenced. Including conservative substitutions, this protein has 75-79% sequence similarity to other Alpha family glutathione S-transferases. The coding sequence of pGCL301 was inserted into a baculovirus vector for infection of Spodoptera frugiperda (SF9) cells. The expressed protein has a high relative activity with ethacrynic acid (47% of the specific activity with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene). The enzyme has a subunit molecular mass of 25.2 +/- 1.2 kDa (by SDS/PAGE), a pI of 9.45 and an absorption coefficient A1%1cm of 13.0 +/- 0.5 at 280 nm.

Non-essentiality of cysteine and histidine residues for the activity of human class PI glutathione S-transferase

In order to examine the roles of cysteine and histidine residues in the activity of human class Pi glutathione S-transferase (GST pi), site-directed mutagenesis was used to replace each of the four cysteine residues (at positions 14, 47, 101 and 169) with serine and each of the two histidine residues (at positions 71 and 162) with asparagine using a cDNA for the enzyme (Kano, T. et al. (1987) Cancer Res., 47, 5626-5630) and an E. coli expression system. The replacements of Cys101, Cys169, His71 and His162 did not affect the GSH-conjugating activity toward 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and ethacrynic acid. On the other hand, the activities were partly decreased by the replacements of Cys47 and Cys14. These results indicated that the cysteine and histidine residues in GST pi are not essential for the catalytic activity, although Cys47 and Cys14 may contribute to some extent to the catalytic efficiency.

Cysteine residues are not essential for the catalytic activity of human class Mu glutathione transferase M1a-1a

To investigate the possible involvement of a Cys thiol in the catalysis of the human glutathione transferase M1a-1a, we constructed mutants of this enzyme wherein the four Cys residues present in the native enzyme were replaced by Ala residues. Three mutants, one where all four Cys residues had been replaced and two mutants where three out of four Cys residues were changed into Ala, were characterized regarding their catalytic activities with three different substrates as well as by their binding of three different inhibitors. All three Cys-deficient mutant forms of glutathione transferase M1a-1a were catalytically active with the tested substrates and their binding of inhibitors, measured by I50, were not significantly different from the values previously obtained for the wild-type enzyme. We therefore conclude that none of the Cys residues in this class Mu glutathione transferase are directly involved in the catalysis performed by this enzyme.

Mutation of an evolutionarily conserved tyrosine residue in the active site of a human class Alpha glutathione transferase

Human class Alpha glutathione transferase (GST) A1-1 has been subjected to site-directed mutagenesis of a Tyr residue conserved in all classes of cytosolic GSTs. The change of Tyr8----Phe lowers the specific activities with three substrates to 2-8% of the values for the wild-type enzyme. The changes in the kinetic parameters kcat/KM, Vmax and S0.5 show that the decreased activities are partly due to a reduced affinity for glutathione. The effect is reflected in lowered kcat values, suggesting that the hydroxyl group of Tyr8 is involved in the activation of glutathione. The proposal of such a role for the Tyr residue has support from the 3D structure of a pig lung class Pi GST [Reinemer et al. (1991) EMBO J. 10, 1997-2005]. Thus, Tyr8 appears to be the first active site residue established as participating in the chemical mechanism of a GST.

Purification and characterization of acidic form of glutathione S-transferase in human fetal livers: high similarity to placental form

An acidic form of glutathione S-transferase (GST) was purified from human fetal livers by means of affinity chromatography and chromatofocusing. The major peak of the acidic form of GST was focused between pH 4.8 and 4.9. Judging by SDS-PAGE, the purified acidic GST was apparently homogeneous; the subunit molecular weight was estimated to be 23,000. The acidic GST catalyzed the conjugations of glutathione (GSH) with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and ethacrynic acid (EA). The immunochemical properties of the purified acidic GST were indistinguishable from those of human placental GST-pi. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the acidic GST was identical with that of GST-pi from human placenta. The level of expression of the acidic form of GST was clearly different between human adult and fetal livers as examined on the levels of mRNA and protein.

Purified glutathione S-transferases from parasites as candidate protective antigens

Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity was detected in larvae of the Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina, and in the nematode Haemonchus contortus. A specific inhibitor of the enzyme was shown to affect survival of both species of parasite in vitro. GST from both parasites has been purified and partially characterized. Antisera raised to the purified enzymes were shown to inhibit the enzyme activity in vitro. However, the antisera had no effect on the survival of either parasite.

Equilibrium unfolding of class pi glutathione S-transferase

The equilibrium unfolding transition of class pi glutathione S-transferase, a homodimeric protein, from porcine lung was monitored by spectroscopic methods (fluorescence emission and ultraviolet absorption), and by enzyme activity changes. Solvent (guanidine hydrochloride and urea)-induced denaturation is well described by a two-state model involving significant populations of only the folded dimer and unfolded monomer. Neither a folded, active monomeric form nor stable unfolding intermediates were detected. The conformational stability, delta Gu (H2O), of the native dimer was estimated to be about 25.3 +/- 2 kcal/mol at 20 degrees C and pH6.5.

The single cysteine residue on an alpha family chick liver glutathione S-transferase CL 3-3 is not functionally important

Chick liver glutathione S-transferase CL 3-3, expressed using a baculovirus system in Spodoptera frugiperda (SF9) cells, contains a single cysteine residue per subunit. This enzyme was modified with iodoacetamide. Amino acid analysis indicates that 0.85 +/- 0.10 cysteine residue was modified per enzyme subunit. GST CL 3-3 modified with iodo[14C]acetamide was further digested with trypsin and the isotope-labelled fragments were isolated. The fragment containing the cysteine residue accounts for 53% of the total labels. The S-carbaminomethylated protein retains the glutathione conjugating activity. Therefore, the cysteine residue is not essential for the enzymatic activity of CL 3-3.

Ethoxyquin-induced resistance to aflatoxin B1 in the rat is associated with the expression of a novel alpha-class glutathione S-transferase subunit, Yc2, which possesses high catalytic activity for aflatoxin B1-8,9-epoxide

A purification scheme has been devised for two ethoxyquin-inducible Alpha-class glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) which possess at least 25-fold greater activity towards aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-8,9-epoxide than that exhibited by the GSTs (i.e. F, L, B and AA) that have been described previously. These two enzymes are both heterodimers and both contain a subunit of Mr 25,800. This subunit has been isolated from both of the GST isoenzymes and, after cleavage with CNBr, it has been subjected to automated amino acid sequencing. The primary structure of the Mr 25,800 subunit revealed that it forms part of a subfamily of Alpha-class GSTs which possess closest identity (about 92%) with the Yc subunit of apparent Mr 27,500, which is encoded by the recombinant cDNA clone pGTB42 [Telakowski-Hopkins, Rodkey, Bennett, Lu & Pickett (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 5820-5825]. As these two GSTs possess less than 70% sequence identity with the Ya1 and Ya2 subunits, both of Mr 25,500, the constitutively expressed Yc subunit of Mr 27,500 has been renamed Yc1 and the ethoxyquin-inducible GST of Mr 25,800 has been designated Yc2. Using this nomenclature, the two GSTs with high activity for AFB1-8,9-epoxide are Ya1Yc2 and Yc1Yc2. Although evidence suggests that induction of Yc2 is responsible for the high detoxification capacity of livers from ethoxyquin-treated rats for AFB1-8,9-epoxide, resistance towards AFB1 may be multifactorial in this instance as dietary ethoxyquin also induces the Ya1, Ya2 and Yc1 subunits about 2.2-, 10.9- and 2.7-fold respectively. Besides the induction of GST by ethoxyquin, activity towards AFB1-8,9-epoxide is also elevated in the livers of neonatal rats and in livers that contain preneoplastic nodules. Western blotting experiments show that Yc2 is not present in hepatic cytosol from adult rats fed on normal diets but is expressed in neonatal rat livers and in the livers of adult rats that contain preneoplastic nodules that have arisen as a consequence of consuming diets contaminated with AFB1.

Crystals of isoenzyme 3-3 of rat liver glutathione S-transferase with and without inhibitor

The isoenzyme 3-3 of rat liver glutathione S-transferase (GST 3-3) isolated from a baculovirus expression system has been crystallized with and without inhibitor. The crystals grown in the absence of an inhibitor belong to space group P2(1) with cell dimensions a = 119.7, b = 96.2, c = 136.7 A and beta = 103.3 degrees, and diffract to 3 A resolution. The crystals grown in the presence of an inhibitor belong to space group C2 with cell dimensions a = 88.3, b = 69.7, c = 81.4 A and beta = 105.3 degrees, and diffract to at least 2.5 A resolution. The inhibitor used is either methylmercury chloride or ethylmercury chloride; both are weak inhibitors.

Characterization of a novel glutathione S-transferase isoenzyme from mouse lung and liver having structural similarity to rat glutathione S-transferase 8-8

In mouse lung, glutathione S-transferase (GST, EC 2.5.1.18) isoenzymes belonging to the three major known classes, Alpha, Mu and Pi, have been previously characterized, along with an isoenzyme (pI 5.7) that could not be identified with the Alpha, Mu or Pi classes of GSTs. In the present studies we have demonstrated that this isoenzyme is also expressed in liver. Its structural, kinetic, and immunological properties have been determined and compared with those of the three classes of GSTs. GST 5.7 has a subunit molecular mass of 23 kDa, which is intermediate between that of the previously characterized Alpha (25 kDa) and Pi (22.5 kDa) class GST subunits of mouse lung. Comparison of peptide maps of GST 5.7 with those representative of Alpha, Mu and Pi class GST isoenzymes of mouse lung showed that it had a distinct peptide fragmentation pattern. Kinetic and immunological properties of GST 5.7 were also distinct from other mouse GST isoenzymes belonging to the Alpha, Mu or Pi classes. N-Terminal amino-acid-sequence analysis of a 6 kDa fragment generated by CNBr digestion of mouse lung GST 5.7 revealed a 15-residue sequence that was distinct from sequences of known Alpha, Mu and Pi class mouse GSTs. The sequence, however, matched with the sequence of rat GST 8-8 between amino acid residues 106 and 120 with a 73% identity. The 6 kDa and 12 kDa fragments generated by CNBr digestion of mouse liver GST 5.7 also gave sequences which matched with those of rat GST 8-8 between positions 106 and 120 and 167 and 186, with a high degree of identity. These studies suggest that mouse GST 5.7 structurally corresponds to rat GST 8-8 and belongs to the Alpha class.

Characterization of glutathione S-transferase in cultured human keratinocytes

The glutathione S-transferase activity and isozymic composition of cultured human keratinocytes were characterized. Keratinocytes were grown in culture and harvested at different stages of differentiation. Glutathione S-transferase activity was found in the soluble cell fraction but not in the microsomal cell fraction. The glutathione S-transferase specific activity of the soluble cell fraction was found to increase as the keratinocytes differentiated in culture. All of the enzymatic activity was found to reside with a single isozymic form that was concluded to be the pi form of the enzyme based on substrate specificity, sensitivity to inhibitors, molecular weight, and reactivity towards antibodies raised to alpha, mu, and pi forms of the enzyme. It is concluded that all of the isozymic forms of glutathione S-transferase noted in whole skin, with the exception of pi, are of extra-keratinocyte origin.

Intrinsic fluorescence quenching of glutathione transferase pi by glutathione binding

The binding of the GSH to the GSH transferase pi quenches the protein intrinsic fluorescence more than the binding of GS-Me. The calculated dissociation constants are 38.6 microM and 90.9 microM for GSH and GS-Me, respectively. From the reported data it is evident that the binding of GSH to GSH transferase pi quenches the intrinsic fluorescence with two different mechanisms. The first one is a conformational change induced by the binding of the GSH and it is present also with the GS-Me binding. A second proposed mechanism is a contact quenching between the sulphydryl GSH group and a tryptophan residue. This suggests that at least one of the tryptophan residues is located near the GSH binding site.

Cysteine-86 is not needed for the enzymic activity of glutathione S-transferase 3-3

Recombinant glutathione S-transferase 3-3 expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (SF9) cells with the use of a baculovirus expression system was modified with 1 mM-iodoacetamide. Amino acid analysis indicated that 0.79 +/- 0.15 cysteine residue was modified per enzyme subunit. The S-carbaminomethylated protein retains the GSH-conjugating activity. Glutathione S-transferase 3-3 modified with iodo[14C]acetamide was digested with Achromobacter proteinase I and the resulting peptides were separated by h.p.l.c. The modified peptides were pooled and further digested with Staphylococcus aureus V8 proteinase. Isotope-labelled peptides were isolated and collected for N-terminal sequence analysis. By this procedure, cysteine-86 was identified as the major S-carbaminomethylated residue. Verification of this findings came from the use of site-directed mutagenesis in which this cysteine was replaced by serine (C86S mutant). The C86S mutant is enzymically active. Therefore cysteine-86 is not needed for the conjugation of GSH with electrophilic compounds on glutathione S-transferase 3-3.

A novel glutathione transferase (13-13) isolated from the matrix of rat liver mitochondria having structural similarity to class theta enzymes

A rat liver mitochondrial-matrix fraction was prepared and shown to have 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene(CDNB)-metabolizing glutathione transferase (GST) activity. Further fractionation by sequential gel filtration, isoelectric focusing or chromatofocusing and hydroxyapatite chromatography yielded three GSTs of pI 9.3, 8.9 and 7.5, none of which bound to a GSH-agarose affinity matrix. Most of the activity was associated with the pI-9.3 form, which was selected for further study. Its activity was tested with the following potential substrates in addition to CDNB: 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene, p-nitrobenzyl chloride, trans-4-phenylbut-3-en-2-one, 1,2-epoxy-3-(p-nitrophenoxy)propane, ethacrynic acid, menaphthyl sulphate, cumene hydroperoxide, linoleic acid hydroperoxide and 4-hydroxynon-2-enal. Appreciable activity was obtained only with CDNB and ethacrynic acid (82 and 26 mumol/min per mg of protein respectively). The apparent Km for GSH, using 1 mM-CDNB, was 1.9 mM. The enzyme is a dimer of subunit Mr 26,500. It has a free N-terminus, which has enabled the first 33 amino acids to be sequenced. This portion of primary structure has a sequence in common with members of the Theta class of GSTs (eg. 36% identity with subunit 12) and also a sequence which might function as a mitochondrial import signal. It is novel and has been named 'GST 13-13'.

The three-dimensional structure of class pi glutathione S-transferase in complex with glutathione sulfonate at 2.3 A resolution

The three-dimensional structure of class pi glutathione S-transferase from pig lung, a homodimeric enzyme, has been solved by multiple isomorphous replacement at 3 A resolution and preliminarily refined at 2.3 A resolution (R = 0.24). Each subunit (207 residues) is folded into two domains of different structure. Domain I (residues 1-74) consists of a central four-stranded beta-sheet flanked on one side by two alpha-helices and on the other side, facing the solvent, by a bent, irregular helix structure. The topological pattern resembles the bacteriophage T4 thioredoxin fold, in spite of their dissimilar sequences. Domain II (residues 81-207) contains five alpha-helices. The dimeric molecule is globular with dimensions of about 55 A x 52 A x 45 A. Between the subunits and along the local diad, is a large cavity which could possibly be involved in the transport of nonsubstrate ligands. The binding site of the competitive inhibitor, glutathione sulfonate, is located on domain I, and is part of a cleft formed between intrasubunit domains. Glutathione sulfonate is bound in an extended conformation through multiple interactions. Only three contact residues, namely Tyr7, Gln62 and Asp96 are conserved within the family of cytosolic glutathione S-transferases. The exact location of the binding site(s) of the electrophilic substrate is not clear. Catalytic models are discussed on the basis of the molecular structure.

Non-immunological precipitation of protein-DNA complexes using glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins

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Interaction of glutathione transferase from horse erythrocytes with 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole

7-Chloro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole reacts with two thiol groups of the dimeric horse erythrocyte glutathione transferase at pH 5.0, with strong inactivation reversible on dithiothreitol treatment. The inactivation kinetic follows a biphasic pattern, similar to that caused by other thiol reagents as recently reported. Both S-methylglutathione and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene protect the enzyme from inactivation. Analysis of the reactive SH group-containing peptide gives the sequence Ala-Ser-Cys-Leu-Tyr, identical with that of the peptide that contains the reactive cysteine 47 of the human placental transferase. In the presence of glutathione, the enzyme is not inactivated by this reagent, but it catalyzes its conjugation to glutathione. At higher pH values, 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole reacts with 2 tyrosines/dimer and lysines, as well as with cysteines. Reaction with lysine seems essentially without effect on activity; whether the reactive tyrosines are important for activity could not be determined using this reagent only. However, 2 tyrosines among the 4 that are nitrated by tetranitro-methane are important for activity.