Opposing actions of Fos and Jun on transcription of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene. Dominant negative regulation by Fos

Jun homodimers and Fos/Jun heterodimers bind to the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) (EC 4.1.1.32) (PEPCK) at three sites within the first 350 base pairs of the promoter. These include CRE-1 (-82 to -90), and P3(II) and P4 (-252 to -258 and -268 to -285, respectively). Over-expression of Jun in HepG2 cells resulted in a 10-15-fold increase in the level of transcription of a chimeric PEPCK (-490 to +73)-CAT gene, while expression of Fos decreased transcription and blocked the induction of transcription from the PEPCK promoter by Jun. The action of Fos and Jun on PEPCK gene transcription involved each of the Fos/Jun-binding sites and was modulated by additional transcriptional regulatory elements within the PEPCK promoter. The ability of Fos to inhibit PEPCK transcription was dependent upon P3(I), a region of the promoter which does not bind Fos/Jun heterodimers, but does bind members of the C/EBP family of transcription factors. Stimulation of PEPCK transcription by 8-Br-cAMP or by overexpression of the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A was inhibited by Fos expression. The inhibitory effects of phorbol esters and protein kinase C on PEPCK gene expression may be mediated through the action of Fos and Jun.

Identification of a thyroid hormone response element in the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene. Evidence for synergistic interaction between thyroid hormone and cAMP cis-regulatory elements

Transcription of the gene for the cytosolic form of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) (EC 4.1.1.32) (PEPCK) in the liver is regulated by many hormones including thyroid hormone (T3). In order to identify the elements in the promoter which are required for transcriptional induction by T3, we cotransfected a T3 receptor expression vector with a PEPCK-CAT reporter gene into HepG2 cells. Using vectors with deletions in the PEPCK promoter, we identified a single T3 response element (TRE) between positions -332 and -308. This element binds [125I]T3-labeled T3 receptor contained in nuclear extracts prepared from rat liver. Furthermore, the P3(I) element (-250 to -234), a previously described cis-sequence involved in mediating the induction of PEPCK gene transcription by cAMP, is also required for the T3 responsiveness of the promoter. In the absence of either the TRE or the P3(I) binding sites, no stimulation of transcription from the PEPCK promoter by T3 was observed, indicating that both elements are required for the T3 transcriptional regulation. Finally, a synergistic induction of PEPCK gene transcription by T3 and cAMP is described. This interaction requires both T3- and cAMP-responsive cis-acting elements.

Cyclic AMP induction of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene transcription is mediated by multiple promoter elements

The cis elements involved in the cAMP regulation of transcription of the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) (EC 4.1.1.32) (PEPCK) were studied by introducing a series of block mutations (10-15 base pairs of random sequence) into eight of the protein binding domains in a region of the promoter between -490 and +73. Each mutant promoter was ligated to the structural gene for chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) and transfected into HepG2 cells. Transcription of PEPCK-CAT was stimulated 4-fold by the addition of 8-bromo-cAMP (8-Br-cAMP), whereas overexpression of the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A in these cells increased transcription from the PEPCK promoter 30-fold. Several elements within the PEPCK promoter acted synergistically to mediate this effect. These include CRE-1 (-92 to -82) and a complex unit from -220 to -280 composed of multiple binding sites termed P3(I) (-250 to -234), P3(II) (-260 to -250), and P4 (-286 to -270). Mutation of both CRE-1 and P3(I) resulted in the complete elimination of transcriptional induction by either 8-Br-cAMP or the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A. To examine the proteins involved in this response, we replaced CRE-1, which binds both C/EBP and cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB), with an optimal C/EBP binding sequence which significantly decreased the binding of CREB, but maintained the affinity for C/EBP. Transcription from this modified promoter was induced by 8-Br-cAMP and the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PKA) to a similar extent as noted with the native PEPCK promoter. However, the results of experiments involving cotransfection of PEPCK-CAT with expression vectors for PKA and either C/EBP or CREB suggest that CREB is capable of mediating a greater responsiveness to PKA than C/EBP. Our results indicate that multiple cis elements are involved in the cAMP induction of PEPCK gene transcription and that C/EBP and CREB are potentially involved in this response.

Hormonal control of interacting promoters introduced into cells by retroviruses

The interaction of promoters contained in a Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMLV)-based retroviral vector was studied after infection of FTO-2B rat hepatoma and NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblast cells. Segments of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) promoter-regulatory region, which are known from previous studies to confer responsiveness to hormones, were linked to the structural genes for bovine growth hormone, amino-3'-glycosyl phosphotransferase (neo), and herpes-virus thymidine kinase and inserted into a MoMLV-based retroviral vector. In vectors in which PEPCK was the only internal promoter, it was the major site of gene transcription. This dominant effect was independent of the orientation of the PEPCK promoter relative to the 5' long terminal repeat of the provirus and was noted with as little as -174 base pairs of the 5'-flanking sequence. NIH 3T3 cells, which do not express the endogenous PEPCK gene, transcribed the transduced PEPCK-chimeric genes at the same high levels as was observed in hepatoma cells. When two promoters were present in the provirus, the expression of chimeric structural genes depended on the relative position and orientation of these genes as well as the type of cell infected by the retrovirus. Differential responses of proviral promoters in infected cells were also observed in the presence of hormones. Dibutyryl cyclic AMP increased the expression of genes linked to the PEPCK promoter in FTO-2B and NIH 3T3 cells, whereas glucocorticoids stimulated transcription from both the PEPCK promoter and the long terminal repeat in FTO-2B cells. The effect of these hormones on transcription of proviral promoters depended on their position relative to the 5' long terminal repeat. In contrast, insulin uniformly inhibited transcription from the PEPCK promoter in a position-independent manner but only in hepatoma cells and not in fibroblasts. In clonally isolated FTO-2B cells infected with a retrovirus, the site of proviral integration was also a major factor determining the expression and hormonal regulation from the internal promoters. The data suggest that the hormonal regulation of the expression of genes contained in retroviral vectors depends on the type and position of the regulatory elements present in the provirus and the lineage of the infected cell.

Metabolic effects of developmental, tissue-, and cell-specific expression of a chimeric phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP)/bovine growth hormone gene in transgenic mice

Transgenic mice were used to investigate sequences within the promoter of the gene for the cytosolic form of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) from the rat (EC 4.1.1.32) (PEPCK) which are involved in tissue-specific and developmental regulation of gene expression. Segments of the PEPCK promoter between -2000 and -109 were linked to the structural gene for bovine growth hormone (bGH) and introduced into the germ line of mice by microinjection. Bovine growth hormone mRNA was found in tissues that express the endogenous PEPCK gene, mainly in the liver but to a lesser extent in the kidney, adipose tissue, small intestine, and mammary gland. In the liver the chimeric PEPCK/bGH(460) gene was expressed in periportal cells, which is consistent with the zonation of endogenous PEPCK. The PEPCK/bGH gene was not transcribed in the livers of fetal mice until immediately before birth; at birth the concentration of bGH mRNA increased 200-fold. Our results indicate that the region of the PEPCK promoter from -460 to +73 base pairs contains regulatory sequences required for tissue-specific and developmental regulation of PEPCK gene expression. Mice transgenic for PEPCK/bGH(460) were not hyperglycemic or hyperinsulinemic in response to elevated bGH, as were transgenic mice with the MT/bGH gene. The number of insulin receptors in skeletal muscle was no different in mice transgenic for MT/bGH when compared with mice transgenic for PEPCK/bGH(460) and control animals. However, mRNA abundance for the insulin-sensitive glucose transporter in skeletal muscle was decreased in mice transgenic for the MT/bGH gene. The differences in glucose homeostasis noted with the two types of transgenic mice may be the result of the relative site of expression, the different developmental pattern, or hormonal regulation of expression of the bGH gene.

The role of the CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein in the transcriptional regulation of the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP)

Previous studies have identified a region in the promoter of the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) (PEPCK) (positions -460 to +73) containing the regulatory elements which respond to cyclic AMP, glucocorticoids, and insulin and confer the tissue- and developmental stage-specific properties to the gene. We report that CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) binds to the cyclic AMP-responsive element CRE-1 as well as to two regions which have been previously shown to bind proteins enriched in liver nuclei. The DNase I footprint pattern provided by the recombinant C/EBP was identical to that produced by a 43-kDa protein purified from rat liver nuclear extracts, using a CRE oligonucleotide affinity column, which was originally thought to be the CRE-binding protein CREB. Transient contransfection experiments using a C/EBP expression vector demonstrated that C/EBP could trans activate the PEPCK promoter. The trans activation occurred through both the upstream, liver-specific protein-binding domains and the CRE. The CRE-binding protein bound only to CRE-1 and not to the upstream C/EBP-binding sites. The results of this study, along with physiological properties of C/EBP, indicate an important role for this transcription factor in providing the PEPCK gene with several of its regulatory characteristics.

Modulation of hormone response elements by promoter environment

Hormone response elements (HREs) are nucleotide sequences that confer onto promoters the ability to alter their transcriptional pace in response to hormones. Growing evidence indicates that the functional activity of HREs can be significantly modulated by their promoter environment, making it possible for genes containing the same HRE to display diversity in their responsiveness to a given hormone signal.

Vanadate inhibits expression of the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) in rat hepatoma cells

Vanadate, at concentrations between 0.5 and 2 mM, rapidly decreased the basal level of P-enolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) (EC 4.1.1.32) mRNA and blocked the dibutyryl cyclic AMP (Bt2cAMP)-induced increase in enzyme mRNA in both FTO-2B and H4IIE rat hepatoma cells. The concentration of vanadate necessary to inhibit the expression of this gene was similar to that required for the vanadate-mediated activation of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. To determine whether vanadate could inhibit PEPCK gene transcription, a series of chimeric genes containing several deletions in the P-enolypyruvate carboxykinase promoter between -550 and -68 was linked to the structural genes for either amino-3-glycosyl phosphotransferase (neo) or chloramphenicol acetyltransferase and introduced into hepatoma cells using three methods: (a) infection with a Moloney murine leukemia virus-based retrovirus, (b) transfection and stable selection for neo expression, or (c) transient expression of chloroamphenicol acetyltransferase. In FTO-2B hepatoma cells infected with retrovirus, vanadate rapidly (within 1 h) inhibited transcription of the PEPCK-neo gene and blocked induction of gene expression caused by the addition of either Bt2cAMP or dexamethasone to the cells. Vanadate was not a general transcription inhibitor since, it like insulin, stimulated the expression of the c-fos gene. Also, the inhibitory effect of vanadate was rapidly reversible in FTO-2B cells since PEPCK gene expression could be stimulated by Bt2cAMP and dexamethasone after removal of vanadate. A series of 5' deletions in the P-enolpyruvate carboxykinase promoter (-550 to +73) was ligated to the structural gene for neo and stably transfected into hepatoma cells. Sequences responsive to vanadate were detected between -109 and -68. This result was confirmed using H4IIE hepatoma cells transiently expressing the PEPCK-CAT gene. The most likely target for vanadate in that region of the P-enolpyruvate carboxykinase promoter is cAMP regulatory element 1 which maps from -91 to -84. A comparison of the inhibitory effects of insulin and vanadate in this system indicated a major difference in the site of action of these two compounds on PEPCK gene transcription.

In vitro analysis of promoter elements regulating transcription of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene

A cell-free system for the study of transcription from the promoter of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene by using nuclear extracts from rat tissues was developed. The level of basal transcription from the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) promoter between -490 and +73 was highest when extracts from liver nuclei, rather than kidney, spleen, and HeLa nuclear extracts, were used. A series of 5' deletions and block mutations were also tested for their effects on basal transcription in vitro. The promoter truncated to -355 had the highest rate of basal transcription, while subsequent deletion to -277 markedly decreased the rate of transcription. Further deletion of the promoter to -134 resulted in a twofold increase in the basal level of transcription compared with that of the promoter deleted to -277. However, subsequent deletion of the NF-1-CCAAT-binding transcription factor binding site or the proximal cyclic AMP (cAMP) regulatory element caused a decrease in basal transcription. Block mutations were inserted into nine specific protein-binding regions of the PEPCK promoter previously shown to be of functional significance or to bind nuclear proteins. Mutation of the TATA box resulted in a 94% decrease in the level of transcription noted with the intact promoter, while sequence substitutions within the proximal cAMP regulatory element decreased the transcription rate to 25%. The addition of the catalytic subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase to the in vitro system stimulated transcription from the intact promoter or from a promoter deletion to -109. However, a promoter deletion to -68, which removes the proximal cAMP regulatory element, was unresponsive to added protein kinase catalytic subunit. These findings indicate that the PEPCK promoter between -490 and +73 contains sequences responsive to hormonal and tissue-specific factors in nuclei from rat tissues. The sensitivity of this in vitro transcription system closely mimics the process regulating PEPCK transcription in rat tissues and should make it ideal for testing the function of purified transcription factors.

Energy dependence of RNA degradation in rabbit reticulocytes

RNA degradation in rabbit reticulocytes was partially energy dependent. Reticulocytes were incubated for 10 h in Krebs-Henseleit bicarbonate buffer that was gassed with 95% O2-5% CO2 and contained glucose (30 mM) or 2-deoxyglucose (20 mM) and 2,4-dinitrophenol (0.2 mM). The rate of RNA degradation was reduced 41% in the presence of the metabolic inhibitors. When the buffer was gassed with 95% N2-5% CO2 and no substrate was added, the disappearance of RNA was decreased 55%. The cellular ATP content was depleted either by addition of the metabolic inhibitors or by incubation under anoxic conditions. ATP depletion did not modify the ratio of ribosomal subunits + monomers to polysomes. Puromycin and cycloheximide, which increased or decreased, respectively, the proportion of ribosomal RNA in subunits + monomers, blocked protein synthesis but did not alter the rate of RNA degradation. These experiments indicated that energy depletion inhibited RNA degradation by a mechanism that did not depend on the inhibition of protein synthesis. No evidence was obtained to indicate that the ratio of subunits + monomers to polysomes affected RNA degradation.

Observations on the Pathology of Rickets with Particular Reference to the Changes at the Cartilage-shaft Junctions of the Growing Bones: Harvey Lecture, February 16, 1939

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The Blackader Lecture on Some Aspects of Rickets

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