TRPC3 ion channel subunit immunolocalization in the cochlea

Canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) subunits assemble as tetramers to form ion channels with high calcium (Ca(2+)) permeability. Here, we investigated the possibility that TRPC3 ion channels are broadly expressed in the adult guinea pig and mouse cochleae. Using immunofluorescence, pronounced labeling occurred in the spiral ganglion (SG) neurons, inner hair cells (IHC), outer hair cells (OHC) and epithelial cells lining scala media. TRPC3 expression was homogeneous in the SG throughout the cochlea. In contrast, there was marked spatial variation in the immunolabeling in the cochlear hair cells with respect to location. This likely relates to the tonotopy of these cells. TRPC3 immunolabeling was more pronounced in the IHC than OHC. Both basal region IHC and OHC had higher TRPC3 expression levels than the corresponding cells from the apical region of the cochlea. These data suggest that TRPC3 ion channels contribute to Ca(2+) homeostasis associated with the hair cells, with higher ion fluxes in more basal regions of the cochlea, and may also be a significant pathway for Ca(2+) entry associated with auditory neurotransmission via the SG neurons. TRPC3 expression was also identified within the spiral limbus region, inner and outer sulcus, but without evidence for spatial variation in expression level. Expression in these gap junction-coupled epithelial cells lining scala media is indicative of a contribution of TRPC3 channels to cochlear electrochemical homeostasis.

Preservation of cochlear function in Cd39 deficient mice

Signalling actions of extracellular nucleotides via P2 receptors influence cellular function in most tissues. In the inner ear, P2 receptor signaling is involved in many processes including the regulation of hearing sensitivity and the cochlea's response to noise stress. CD39 (NTPDase1/ENTPD1) is an ectonucleotidase (ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase) that can hydrolyse purine and pyrimidine nucleoside tri- and di-phosphates to generate monophosphate nucleosides. Mice null for Cd39 exhibit major alterations in haemostasis and profound alterations in inflammatory and thrombotic reactions. Studies in the cochlea have suggested the involvement of purinergic-type signals that could be modulated by CD39 in regulation of cochlear blood flow and also auditory neurotransmission. This study aimed to determine the auditory phenotype of adult Cd39 null mice on the C57BL6 background. Auditory brainstem responses (ABR) and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAE) were unaffected in Cd39-deficient mice across the range of test frequencies, suggesting normal neural and outer hair cell function. Mutant mice also showed little difference to wild type mice in vulnerability to acoustic trauma. Gene expression analysis of other membrane-bound NTPDases with comparable hydrolytic activity demonstrated an up-regulation of Entpd2 and Entpd8 in the cochleae of Cd39 deficient mice. These findings suggest that Cd39 deletion alone does not adversely affect cochlear function, possibly as compensatory up-regulation of other surface located NTPDases may offset predicted alterations in cochlear homeostasis.

Regulation of P2X2 receptors by the neuronal calcium sensor VILIP1

Extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) activates P2X receptors, which are involved in diverse physiological functions. Using a proteomic approach, we identified the neuronal calcium sensor VILIP1 as interacting with P2X2 receptors. We found that VILIP1 forms a signaling complex in vitro and in vivo with P2X2 receptors and regulates P2X2 receptor sensitivity to ATP, peak response, surface expression, and diffusion. VILIP1 constitutively binds to P2X2 receptors and displays enhanced interactions in an activation- and calcium-dependent manner owing to exposure of its binding segment in P2X2 receptors. VILIP1-P2X2 interactions are also enhanced in hippocampal neurons during conditions of action potential firing known to trigger P2X2 receptor activation. Our data thus reveal a previously unrecognized function for the neuronal calcium sensor protein VILIP1 and a mechanism for regulation of ATP-dependent P2X receptor signaling by neuronal calcium sensors.

Ca2+ entry via AMPA-type glutamate receptors triggers Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release from ryanodine receptors in rat spiral ganglion neurons

Ryanodine receptor (RyR)-gated Ca2+ stores have recently been identified in cochlear spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) and likely contribute to Ca2+ signalling associated with auditory neurotransmission. Here, we identify an ionotropic glutamate receptor signal transduction pathway which invokes RyR-gated Ca2+ stores in SGN via Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR). Ca2+ levels were recorded in SGN in situ within rat cochlear slices (postnatal day 0-17) using the Ca2+ indicator fluo-4. RyR-gated Ca2+ stores were confirmed by caffeine-induced increases in intracellular Ca2+ which were blocked by ryanodine (100 microM) and were independent of external Ca2+. Glutamate evoked comparable increases in intracellular Ca2+, but required the presence of external Ca2+. Ca2+ influx via the glutamate receptor was found to elicit CICR via RyR-gated Ca2+ stores, as shown by the inhibition of the response by prior depletion of the Ca2+ stores with caffeine, the SERCA inhibitor thapsigargin, or ryanodine. The glutamate analogue AMPA (alpha-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid) elicited Ca2+ responses that could be inhibited by caffeine. Glutamate- and AMPA-mediated Ca2+ responses were eliminated with the AMPA/Kainate receptor antagonist DNQX (6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione). These data demonstrate functional coupling between somatic AMPA-type glutamate receptors and intracellular Ca(2+) stores via RyR-dependent CICR in primary auditory neurons.

ATP sensitivity of preBötzinger complex neurones in neonatal rat in vitro: mechanism underlying a P2 receptor-mediated increase in inspiratory frequency

P2 receptor (R) signalling plays an important role in the central ventilatory response to hypoxia. The frequency increase that results from activation of P2Y(1)Rs in the preBötzinger complex (preBötC; putative site of inspiratory rhythm generation) may contribute, but neither the cellular nor ionic mechanism(s) underlying these effects are known. We applied whole-cell recording to rhythmically-active medullary slices from neonatal rat to define, in preBötC neurones, the candidate cellular and ionic mechanisms through which ATP influences rhythm, and tested the hypothesis that putative rhythmogenic preBötC neurones are uniquely sensitive to ATP. ATP (1 mm) evoked inward currents in all non-respiratory neurones and the majority of respiratory neurons, which included inspiratory, expiratory and putative rhythmogenic inspiratory neurones identified by sensitivity to substance P (1 microM) and DAMGO (50 microM) or by voltage-dependent pacemaker-like activity. ATP current densities were similar in all classes of preBötC respiratory neurone. Reversal potentials and input resistance changes for ATP currents in respiratory neurones suggested they resulted from either inhibition of a K(+) channel or activation of a mixed cationic conductance. The P2YR agonist 2MeSADP (1 mm) evoked only the latter type of current in inspiratory and pacemaker-like neurones. In summary, putative rhythmogenic preBötC neurones were sensitive to ATP. However, this sensitivity was not unique; ATP evoked similar currents in all types of preBötC respiratory neurone. The P2Y(1)R-mediated frequency increase is therefore more likely to reflect activation of a mixed cationic conductance in multiple types of preBötC neurone than excitation of one, highly sensitive group.

Neuronal expression of peripherin, a type III intermediate filament protein, in the mouse hindbrain

Peripherin is a 57 kDa Type III intermediate filament protein associated with neurite extension, neuropathies such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and cranial nerve and dorsal root projections. However, knowledge of peripherin expression in the CNS is limited. We have used immunoperoxidase histochemistry to characterise peripherin expression in the mouse hindbrain, including the inferior colliculus, pons, medulla and cerebellum. Peripherin immunolabelling was observed in the nerve fibres and nuclei that are associated with all cranial nerves [(CN) V-XII] in the hindbrain. Peripherin expression was prominent in the cell bodies and axons of the mesenchephalic trigeminal nucleus and the pars compacta region of nucleus ambiguus, and in the fibres that comprise the solitary tract, the descending spinal trigeminal tract and the trigeminal and facial nerves. A small proportion of peripherin positive fibres in CN VIII likely arise from cochlear type II spiral ganglion neurons. Peripherin positive fibres were also observed in the inferior cerebellar peduncle and folia in the intermediate zone of the cerebellum. Antibody specificity was confirmed by absence of labelling in hindbrain tissue from peripherin knockout mice. This study shows that in the adult mouse hindbrain, peripherin is expressed in discrete neuronal subpopulations that have sensory, motor and autonomic functions.

Spatiotemporal definition of neurite outgrowth, refinement and retraction in the developing mouse cochlea

The adult mammalian cochlea receives dual afferent innervation: the inner sensory hair cells are innervated exclusively by type I spiral ganglion neurons (SGN), whereas the sensory outer hair cells are innervated by type II SGN. We have characterized the spatiotemporal reorganization of the dual afferent innervation pattern as it is established in the developing mouse cochlea. This reorganization occurs during the first postnatal week just before the onset of hearing. Our data reveal three distinct phases in the development of the afferent innervation of the organ of Corti: (1) neurite growth and extension of both classes of afferents to all hair cells (E18-P0); (2) neurite refinement, with formation of the outer spiral bundles innervating outer hair cells (P0-P3); (3) neurite retraction and synaptic pruning to eliminate type I SGN innervation of outer hair cells, while retaining their innervation of inner hair cells (P3-P6). The characterization of this developmental innervation pattern was made possible by the finding that tetramethylrhodamine-conjugated dextran (TMRD) specifically labeled type I SGN. Peripherin and choline-acetyltransferase immunofluorescence confirmed the type II and efferent innervation patterns, respectively, and verified the specificity of the type I SGN neurites labeled by TMRD. These findings define the precise spatiotemporal neurite reorganization of the two afferent nerve fiber populations in the cochlea, which is crucial for auditory neurotransmission. This reorganization also establishes the cochlea as a model system for studying CNS synapse development, plasticity and elimination.

N-glycolylneuraminic acid deficiency in mice: implications for human biology and evolution

Humans and chimpanzees share >99% identity in most proteins. One rare difference is a human-specific inactivating deletion in the CMAH gene, which determines biosynthesis of the sialic acid N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc). Since Neu5Gc is prominent on most chimpanzee cell surfaces, this mutation could have affected multiple systems. However, Neu5Gc is found in human cancers and fetuses and in trace amounts in normal human tissues, suggesting an alternate biosynthetic pathway. We inactivated the mouse Cmah gene and studied the in vivo consequences. There was no evidence for an alternate pathway in normal, fetal, or malignant tissue. Rather, null fetuses accumulated Neu5Gc from heterozygous mothers and dietary Neu5Gc was incorporated into oncogene-induced tumors. As with humans, there were accumulation of the precursor N-acetylneuraminic acid and increases in sialic acid O acetylation. Null mice showed other abnormalities reminiscent of the human condition. Adult mice showed a diminished acoustic startle response and required higher acoustic stimuli to increase responses above the baseline level. In this regard, histological abnormalities of the inner ear occurred in older mice, which had impaired hearing. Adult animals also showed delayed skin wound healing. Loss of Neu5Gc in hominid ancestors approximately 2 to 3 million years ago likely had immediate and long-term consequences for human biology.

A forward genetics screen in mice identifies recessive deafness traits and reveals that pejvakin is essential for outer hair cell function

Deafness is the most common form of sensory impairment in the human population and is frequently caused by recessive mutations. To obtain animal models for recessive forms of deafness and to identify genes that control the development and function of the auditory sense organs, we performed a forward genetics screen in mice. We identified 13 mouse lines with defects in auditory function and six lines with auditory and vestibular defects. We mapped several of the affected genetic loci and identified point mutations in four genes. Interestingly, all identified genes are expressed in mechanosensory hair cells and required for their function. One mutation maps to the pejvakin gene, which encodes a new member of the gasdermin protein family. Previous studies have described two missense mutations in the human pejvakin gene that cause nonsyndromic recessive deafness (DFNB59) by affecting the function of auditory neurons. In contrast, the pejvakin allele described here introduces a premature stop codon, causes outer hair cell defects, and leads to progressive hearing loss. We also identified a novel allele of the human pejvakin gene in an Iranian pedigree that is afflicted with progressive hearing loss. Our findings suggest that the mechanisms of pathogenesis associated with pejvakin mutations are more diverse than previously appreciated. More generally, our findings demonstrate that recessive screens in mice are powerful tools for identifying genes that control the development and function of mechanosensory hair cells and cause deafness in humans, as well as generating animal models for disease.

P2Y1 receptor modulation of the pre-Bötzinger complex inspiratory rhythm generating network in vitro

ATP is released during hypoxia from the ventrolateral medulla (VLM) and activates purinergic P2 receptors (P2Rs) at unknown loci to offset the secondary hypoxic depression of breathing. In this study, we used rhythmically active medullary slices from neonatal rat to map, in relation to anatomical and molecular markers of the pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) (a proposed site of rhythm generation), the effects of ATP on respiratory rhythm and identify the P2R subtypes responsible for these actions. Unilateral microinjections of ATP in a three-dimensional grid within the VLM revealed a "hotspot" where ATP (0.1 mM) evoked a rapid 2.2 +/- 0.1-fold increase in inspiratory frequency followed by a brief reduction to 0.83 +/- 0.02 of baseline. The hotspot was identified as the preBötC based on histology, overlap of injection sites with NK1R immunolabeling, and potentiation or inhibition of respiratory frequency by SP ([Sar9-Met(O2)11]-substance P) or DAMGO ([D-Ala2,N-MePhe4,Gly-ol5]-enkephalin), respectively. The relative potency of P2R agonists [2MeSADP (2-methylthioadenosine 5'-diphosphate) approximately = 2MeSATP (2-methylthioadenosine 5'-triphosphate) approximately = ATPgammas (adenosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate tetralithium salt) approximately = ATP >> UTP approximately = alphabeta meATP (alpha,beta-methylene-adenosine 5'-triphosphate)] and attenuation of the ATP response by MRS2179 (2'-deoxy-N6-methyladenosine-3',5'-bisphosphate) (P2Y1 antagonist) indicate that the excitation is mediated by P2Y1Rs. The post-ATP inhibition, which was never observed in response to ATPgammas, is dependent on ATP hydrolysis. These data establish in neonatal rats that respiratory rhythm generating networks in the preBötC are exquisitely sensitive to P2Y1R activation, and suggest a role for P2Y1Rs in respiratory motor control, particularly in the P2R excitation of rhythm that occurs during hypoxia.

P2X receptor signaling inhibits BDNF-mediated spiral ganglion neuron development in the neonatal rat cochlea

Type I and type II spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) innervate the inner and outer hair cells of the cochlea, respectively. This neural system is established by reorganization of promiscuous innervation of the hair cells, immediately before hearing is established. The mechanism for this synaptic reorganization is unresolved but probably includes regulation of trophic support between the hair cells and the neurons. We provide evidence that P2X receptors (ATP-gated ion channels) contribute such a mechanism in the neonatal rat cochlea. Single-cell quantitative RT-PCR identified the differential expression of two P2X receptor subunits, splice variant P2X(2)(-3) and P2X(3), in a 1:2 transcript ratio. Downregulation of this P2X(2-3/3) receptor coincided with maturation of the SGN innervation of the hair cells. When the P2X(2-3) and P2X(3) subunits were co-expressed in Xenopus oocytes, the resultant P2X receptor properties corresponded to the SGN phenotype. This included enhanced sensitivity to ATP and extended agonist action. In P4 spiral ganglion explants, activation of the P2X receptor signaling pathway by ATPgammaS or alpha,betaMeATP inhibited BDNF-induced neurite outgrowth and branching. These findings indicate that P2X receptor signaling provides a mechanism for inhibiting neurotrophin support of SGN neurites when synaptic reorganization is occurring in the cochlea.

Nucleoside transporter expression and adenosine uptake in the rat cochlea

Even though extracellular adenosine plays multiple roles in the cochlea, the mechanisms that control extracellular adenosine concentrations in this organ are unclear. This study investigated the expression of nucleoside transporters and adenosine uptake in the rat cochlea. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction revealed the expression of mRNA transcripts for two equilibrative (ENT1 and ENT2) and two concentrative (CNT1 and CNT2) nucleoside transporters. Exogenous adenosine perfused through the cochlear perilymphatic compartment was taken up by cells lining the compartment. Adenosine uptake was sensitive to changes in extracellular Na concentrations and inhibited by nitrobenzylthioinosine (an adenosine uptake blocker). The study suggests that the bi-directional nucleoside transport supports the uptake and recycling of purines and regulates the activation of adenosine receptors by altering adenosine concentrations in cochlear fluid spaces.

Differential distribution of adenosine receptors in rat cochlea

Adenosine is a constitutive cell metabolite that can be released from cells via specific bi-directional transporters and is an end-point for nucleotide hydrolysis. In the extracellular space, adenosine becomes a signalling molecule for P1 (adenosine) receptors that modulate physiological responses in a wide range of mammalian tissues. Whereas adenosine signalling has been implicated in the regulation of cochlear blood flow and in cochlear protection from oxidative damage, the potential roles for adenosine signalling in the modulation of sound transduction and auditory neurotransmission have not been established. We have characterised the expression and distribution of adenosine receptors in the rat cochlea. mRNA transcripts for all four subtypes of adenosine receptors (A(1), A(2A), A(2B) and A(3)) were detected in dissected cochlear tissue by using reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction analysis. The protein distribution for the A(1), A(2A) and A(3) receptor subtypes was identified by immunoperoxidase histochemistry and confocal immunofluorescence labelling. These receptors were differentially expressed in the organ of Corti, spiral ganglion neurones, lateral wall tissues and cochlear blood vessels. The distribution of adenosine receptors in sensory and neural tissues and in the vasculature coincided with other elements of purinergic signalling (P2X and P2Y receptors, ectonucleotidases), consistent with the integrative regulation of many physiological processes in the cochlea by extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides. Our study provides a framework for further investigation of adenosine signalling in the inner ear, including putative roles in oxidative stress responses.

Activation-dependent trafficking of NTPDase2 in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Membrane-bound NTPDase2 is a member of the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) enzyme family involved in the regulation of P2 receptor signaling. NTPDase2 has broad substrate specificity for extracellular nucleotides, but hydrolyses nucleoside 5'-triphosphates with high preference over nucleoside 5'-diphosphates. In this study, we have sought to determine how enzyme substrates acting on P2 receptors affect intracellular NTPDase2 trafficking. To achieve this, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were transiently transfected with rat-specific NTPDase2 cDNA tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP), to allow direct visualisation of subcellular localisation and trafficking of NTPDase2. Cells were superfused with NTPDase2 substrates (ATP and UTP) and synthetic nucleotide analogues (ATPgammaS and ADPbetaS), and confocal image stacks were acquired at regular time intervals. NTPDase2 incorporation into the plasma membrane was determined by comparative analysis of fluorescence intensity in the cytosolic and membrane compartments. GFP-tagged NTPDase2 was fully functional and ATP and ATPgammaS induced membrane incorporation of GFP-NTPDase2 from putative intracellular stores, whilst UTP and ADPbetaS were ineffective. The increased ATP hydrolysis rate correlated with increased NTPDase2 trafficking to the plasma membrane. ATP-induced NTPDase2 trafficking was mediated by activation of endogenous P2X receptors involving Ca2+ entry rather than by P2Y receptor-induced release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Our results suggest that P2X receptor activation stimulates insertion of latent NTPDase2 into the plasma membrane. The increase in surface-located NTPDase2 may reflect a regulatory mechanism counteracting excessive stimulation and desensitisation of P2 receptors.

TRPC-like conductance mediates restoration of intracellular Ca2+ in cochlear outer hair cells in the guinea pig and rat

Ca2+ signalling is central to cochlear sensory hair cell physiology through its influence on sound transduction, membrane filter properties and neurotransmission. However, the mechanism for establishing Ca2+ homeostasis in these cells remains unresolved. Canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) Ca2+ entry channels provide an important pathway for maintaining intracellular Ca2+ levels. TRPC3 subunit expression was detected in guinea pig and rat organ of Corti by RT-PCR, and localized to the sensory and neural poles of the inner and outer hair cells (OHCs) by confocal immunofluorescence imaging. A cation entry current with a TRPC-like phenotype was identified in guinea pig and rat OHCs by whole-cell voltage clamp. This slowly activating current was induced by the lowering of cytosolic Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]i) following a period in nominally Ca2+-free solution. Activation was dependent upon the [Ca2+]o and was sustained until [Ca(2+)]i was restored. Ca2+ entry was confirmed by confocal fluorescence imaging, and rapidly recruited secondary charybdotoxin- and apamin-sensitive K(Ca) currents. Dual activation by the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-phospholipase C-diacylglycerol (DAG) second messenger pathway was confirmed using the analogue 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG). Ion substitution experiments showed that the putative TRPC Ca2+ entry current was selective for Na+ > K+ with a ratio of 1: 0.6. The Ca2+ entry current was inhibited by the TRPC channel blocker 2-aminoethyl diphenylborate (2APB) and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, erbstatin analogue. We conclude that TRPC Ca2+ entry channels, most likely incorporating TRPC3 subunits, support cochlear hair cell Ca2+ homeostasis and GPCR signalling.

Noise-induced up-regulation of NTPDase3 expression in the rat cochlea: Implications for auditory transmission and cochlear protection

Stimuli such as noise or hypoxia can induce a release of ATP into the cochlear fluid spaces. At nanomolar concentrations, ATP affects neurotransmission and electrochemical regulation of sound transduction. At higher concentrations, ATP may exert cytotoxicity acting on specific P2X(7) receptor subunits, thus contributing to the pathophysiology of noise-induced cochlear injury. Ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDases) are pivotal to regulation of extracellular nucleotide concentrations and therefore P2 receptor signaling in the cochlea. Here, we characterize the distribution of NTPDase3 ectonucleotidase (preferentially hydrolyzes ATP over ADP) in cochlear tissues and investigate the effect of noise exposure on NTPDase3 expression. Marked NTPDase3 immunoreactivity in the primary afferent neurones of the spiral ganglion, extending in the distal neurite processes to the synapses beneath the inner and outer hair cells, suggests involvement in auditory neurotransmission. Immunolabeling in the lateral wall and epithelial cells lining the cochlear partition was also evident. Semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry revealed increased NTPDase3 immunolabeling in the synaptic regions of the inner and outer hair cells at sound intensities that induce temporary threshold shift. The results suggest a role for NTPDase3 in regulating ATP signaling associated primarily with auditory neurotransmission, and the potential neuroprotective nature of noise-induced up-regulation of this ectonucleotidase in the cochlea.

Hair Cells – Beyond the Transducer

OVERVIEW

This review considers the "tween twixt and twain" of hair cell physiology, specifically the signaling elements and membrane conductances which underpin forward and reverse transduction at the input stage of hair cell function and neurotransmitter release at the output stage. Other sections of this review series outline the advances which have been made in understanding the molecular physiology of mechanoelectrical transduction and outer hair cell electromotility. Here we outline the contributions of a considerable array of ion channels and receptor signaling pathways that define the biophysical status of the sensory hair cells, contributing to hair cell development and subsequently defining the operational condition of the hair cells across the broad dynamic range of physiological function.

Differential expression of ryanodine receptors in the rat cochlea

This study examined the localization and functional expression of ryanodine receptors (RyR) within the cochlea using a combination of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, immunolabeling techniques, and confocal Ca2+ imaging. All three RyR isoform mRNA transcripts were detected in the adult rat cochlea. Immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescence labeling showed that the three isoforms were differentially expressed. The most pronounced RyR protein expression, involving all three isoforms, occurred in the cell bodies of the spiral ganglion neurons. RyR3 labeling extended to the synaptic terminals innervating the inner and outer hair cells. RyR2 expression also occurred in the inner hair cells and supporting cells of the organ of Corti, while cells associated with ion homeostasis in the cochlea, such as the interdental cells of the spiral limbus (RyR1), and the epithelial cells of the spiral prominence and basal cells of the stria vascularis (RyR2 and RyR3), were also immunopositive. The functionality of RyR-gated Ca2+ stores in the spiral ganglion neurons was shown by confocal calcium imaging of fluo-4 fluorescence in rat cochlear slices. Caffeine (5 mM) evoked an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in the cell bodies of the spiral ganglion neurons which occurred inthe absence of external Ca2+. Ryanodine (50 nm-1 microM) evoked comparable increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. These findings suggest that RyR-mediated Ca2+ release may be involved in auditory neurotransmission, sound transduction, and cochlear electrochemical homeostasis.

Developmentally regulated expression of the P2X3 receptor in the mouse cochlea

ATP-gated non-selective cation channels assembled from P2X(3) receptor subunits contribute to transduction and neurotransmitter signaling in peripheral sensory systems and also feature prominently in the development of the central nervous system. In this study, P2X(3) receptor expression was characterized in the mouse cochlea from embryonic day 18 (E18) using confocal immunofluorescence. From E18 to P6, spiral ganglion neuron cell bodies and peripheral neurites projecting to the inner and outer hair cells were labeled. The inner spiral plexus associated with the inner hair cell synapses had a stronger fluorescence signal than outer spiral bundle fibers which provide the afferent innervation to the outer hair cells. Labeling in the cell bodies and peripheral neurites diminished around P6, and was no longer detected after the onset of hearing (P11, P17, adult). In opposition to the axiom that P2X(3) expression is neuron-specific, inner and outer sensory hair cells were labeled in the base and mid turn region at E18, but at P3 only the outer hair cells in the most apical region of the cochlea continued to express the protein. These data suggest a role for P2X(3) receptor-mediated purinergic signaling in cochlear synaptic reorganization, and establishment of neurotransmission, which occurs just prior to the onset of hearing function.

Developmental downregulation of P2X3 receptors in motoneurons of the compact formation of the nucleus ambiguus

Motoneurons of the compact division of the nucleus ambiguus (cNA) are the final output neurons of the swallowing pattern generator. Thus, their normal function is critical to neonatal survival. To explore the role of purinergic signaling in modulating the excitability of these motoneurons during development, immunohistochemical and whole-cell recording techniques were used to characterize expression patterns of ionotropic P2X receptors and the effects of ATP on cNA motoneurons. Medullary slices containing the cNA were prepared from neonatal (P0-4) and juvenile (P15-21) rats. In neonatal cNA motoneurons, local application of 1 mM ATP produced a large (-133 +/- 17 pA; n = 78), desensitizing, inward current that was mimicked by 1 mM alpha,beta meATP and 2meSATP, and inhibited by the P2 antagonist, PPADS (5 microM), and the P2X3 antagonist, A-317481 (0.1-1 mM). In juvenile cNA motoneurons, 1 mM ATP produced negligible currents, while 10 mM ATP produced small (-59 +/- 14 pA; n = 42), primarily non-desensitizing currents. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that in the neonate, the expression of P2X3 was robust, P2X2 and P2X5 moderate, P2X4 and P2X6 weak, and P2X1 absent. In the juvenile cNA, only low levels of P2X5 and P2X6 labeling were detected. These data indicate that P2X receptors in cNA motoneurons are profoundly downregulated during the first two postnatal weeks, and suggest a role for the purinoceptor system, particularly P2X3 receptors, in the control of esophageal motor networks during early postnatal periods.

Developmental regulation of neuron-specific P2X3 receptor expression in the rat cochlea

ATP-gated ion channels assembled from P2X3 receptor (P2X3R) subunits contribute to neurotransmission and neurotrophic signaling, associated with neurite development and synaptogenesis, particularly in peripheral sensory neurons. Here, P2X3R expression was characterized in the rat cochlea from embryonic day 16 (E16) to adult (P49-56), using RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. P2X3R mRNA was strongly expressed in the cochlea prior to birth, declined to a minimal level at P14, and was absent in adult tissue. P2X3R protein expression was confined to spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) within Rosenthal's canal of the cochlea. At E16, immunolabeling was detected in the SGN neurites, but not the distal neurite projection within the developing sensory epithelium (greater epithelial ridge). From E18, the immunolabeling was observed in the peripheral neurites innervating the inner hair cells but was reduced by P6. However, from P2-8, immunolabeling of the SGN neurites extended to include the outer spiral bundle fiber tract beneath the outer hair cells. This labeling of type II SGN afferent fiber declined after P8. By P14, all synaptic terminal immunolabeling in the organ of Corti was absent, and SGN cell body labeling was minimal. In adult cochlear tissue, P2X3R immunolabeling was not detected. Noise exposure did not induce P2X3R expression in the adult cochlea. These data indicate that ATP-gated ion channels incorporating P2X3R subunit expression are specifically targeted to the afferent terminals just prior to the onset of hearing, and likely contribute to the neurotrophic signaling which establishes functional auditory neurotransmission.

P2 receptors modulate respiratory rhythm but do not contribute to central CO2 sensitivity in vitro

Multiple brainstem sites are proposed to contribute to central respiratory chemosensitivity, however, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unknown. P2X2 subunit-containing ATP receptors, which mediate pH-sensitive currents, appear to contribute to central chemosensitivity in vivo [J. Physiol. 523 (2000) 441]. However, recent data from P2X2 knockout mice [J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 11315] indicate that they are not essential. To further explore the role of P2 receptors in central chemosensitivity, we examined the effects of P2 receptor agonists/antagonists on respiratory-related activity and CO2-sensitivity of rhythmically-active in vitro preparations from neonatal rat. Our main findings: (i) that putative chemosensitive regions of the ventrolateral medulla are immunoreactive for the P2X2 subunit; (ii) that ATP potentiates respiratory frequency in a dose-dependent, and PPADS-sensitive (P2 receptor antagonist), manner; and (iii) that the increase in burst frequency produced by increasing CO2 is unaffected by PPADS, indicate that ATP is a potent modulator of respiratory activity, but that P2 receptors do not contribute to central chemosensitivity in vitro.

Noise exposure induces up-regulation of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases 1 and 2 in rat cochlea

Extracellular ATP acting via P2 receptors in the inner ear initiates a variety of signaling pathways that may be involved in noise-induced cochlear injury. Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase)1/CD39 and NTPDase2/CD39L1 are key elements for regulation of extracellular nucleotide concentrations and P2 receptor signaling in the cochlea. This study characterized the effect of noise exposure on regulation of NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 expression in the cochlea using a combination of real-time RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and functional studies. Adult Wistar rats were exposed to broad band noise at 90 dB and 110 dB sound pressure level (SPL) for 72 h. Exposure to 90 dB SPL induced a small and temporary change of auditory thresholds (temporary threshold shift), while exposure to 110 dB SPL induced a robust and permanent change of auditory thresholds (permanent threshold shift). NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 mRNA transcripts were upregulated in the cochlea exposed to 110 dB SPL, while mild noise (90 dB SPL) altered only NTPDase1 mRNA expression levels. Changes in NTPDases expression did not correlate with levels of circulating corticosterone, implying that the up-regulation of NTPDases expression was not stress-related. Semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry in the cochlea exposed to 110 dB SPL localized the increased NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 immunostaining in the stria vascularis and up-regulation of NTPDase2 in the intraganglionic spiral bundle. In contrast, NTPDase1 was down-regulated in the cell bodies of the spiral ganglion neurones. Distribution of NTPDases was not altered in the cochlea exposed to 90 dB SPL. Functional studies revealed increased ectonucleotidase activities in the cochlea after exposure to 110 dB SPL, consistent with up-regulation of NTPDases. The changes in NTPDases expression may reflect adaptive response of cochlear tissues to limit ATP signaling during noise exposure.