Unpacking Public Attitudes to the Police: Contrasting Perceptions of Misconduct with Traditional Measures of Satisfaction

Much research on public attitudes to the police in the United States has focused on perceptions of police effectiveness and responsiveness rather than police misconduct. This research has also tended to rely primarily on experiences of direct personal contacts with police and, more recently, neighbourhood to explain demographic differences in public opinion. This article uses data from a five-neighbourhood community survey to extend this focus. It tests four hypotheses: (1) public attitudes about police misconduct are distinct from their attitudes about police effectiveness and responsiveness; (2) determinants of attitudes about police misconduct are different from those relating to police effectiveness and responsiveness; (3) negative experiences of police among friends, family and associates impact on personal attitudes to the police; (4) attitudes toward the police are affected by the character of news coverage to which members of the public are exposed. Using principal components analysis and ANCOVA models, the research finds support for all four hypotheses. The research underscores how perceptions of police misconduct are more sensitive to media influences, race and neighbourhood factors and police-initiated contacts, than traditional measures of public confidence.

Does Judicial Monitoring Deter Domestic Violence Recidivism?

A growing number of courts mandate convicted domestic violence offenders to ongoing judicial monitoring. However, the effectiveness of monitoring has barely been examined with this population. Accordingly, matched samples were created between 387 offenders sentenced to judicial monitoring in the Bronx and 219 otherwise similar offenders whose sentences did not include monitoring. Propensity score matching techniques were used to balance the samples on arrest charges, criminal history, relationship to victim, and other case characteristics. The study found that judicial monitoring failed to reduce the re-arrest rate for any offense, for domestic violence, or for domestic violence with the same victim.

A genome segment on mouse chromosome 12 determines maxillary growth

The primary and modifier genes that regulate normal maxillofacial development are unknown. Previous quantitative trait locus (QTL) analyses using the F2 progeny of 2 mouse strains, DBA/2J (short snout/wide face) and C57BL/6J (long snout/narrow face), revealed a significant logarithm-of-odds (LOD) score for snout length on mouse chromosome 12 at 44 centimorgan (cM). We further sought to validate this locus contributing to anterior-posterior dimensions of the upper mid-face at the D12Mit7 marker in a 44-centimorgan portion of chromosome 12. Congenic mice carrying introgressed DNA from DBA/2J on a C57BL/6J background were selected for submental vertex cephalometric imaging. Results confirmed QTLs, determining that short snout length (P < 0.05) and face width relative to snout length (P < 0.01) were present in the 44-cM region of chromosome 12. We conclude that one or more genes contributing to the shape of the maxillary complex are located near 44 cM of mouse chromosome 12.

Synthesis and characterization of photoluminescent In-doped CdSe nanoparticles

Indium-doped CdSe nanoparticles have been synthesized and characterized. Their light absorption, photoluminescence, and structure are similar to undoped CdSe nanoparticles. The greater part of the In associated with the nanoparticles is removed when the nanoparticles undergo ligand exchange by pyridine. As observed with undoped nanoparticles, a ZnS capping layer on the indium-doped nanoparticles results in enhanced nanocrystal photoluminescence. Also, the ZnS cap enhances the retention of In by the nanoparticles. Elemental analysis shows ligand exchange causes CdSe to be lost and capping with ZnS results in the loss of Se. We conclude that In-doped nanoparticles have most of the In on their surface, capping helps the nanoparticles retain the In, and they do not have altered electronic properties.

Chemomechanical nanolithography: nanografting on silicon and factors impacting linewidth

We present a two-fold extension of previous work on Atomic Force Microscope-based chemomechanical functionalization: (1) chemomechanical nanografting, which extends chemomechanical functionalization to a more stable initial surface, and (2) linewidth studies that show the impact of force and Atomic Force Microscope probe tip wear on patterning resolution. Alkene, alcohol, and alkyl halide molecules were nanografted to silicon and imaged with in situ atomic force microscopy, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry with Automated eXpert Spectrum Image Analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. Chemomechanical nanografting demonstrated linewidths down to 50 nm. Lines written on hydrogen-terminated silicon were used to explore the impact of tip radius and tip wear on linewidth when using Si3N4 coated tips.

Measurement of the adhesion force between carbon nanotubes and a silicon dioxide substrate

Carbon nanotube adhesion force measurements were performed on single-walled nanotubes grown over lithographically defined trenches. An applied vertical force from an atomic force microscope (AFM), in force distance mode, caused the tubes to slip across the 250-nm-wide silicon dioxide trench tops at an axial tension of 8 nN. The nanotubes slipped at an axial tension of 10 nN after being selectively coated with a silicon dioxide layer.

Electron Exchange between Fe(II)-Horse Spleen Ferritin and Co(III)/Mn(III) Reconstituted Horse Spleen and Azotobacter vinelandii Ferritins

Azotobacter vinelandii bacterioferritin (AvBF) containing 800-1500 Co or Mn atoms as Co(III) and Mn(III) oxyhydroxide cores (Co-AvBF, Mn-AvBF) was synthesized by the same procedure used previously for horse spleen ferritin (HoSF). The kinetics of reduction of Co-AvBF and Mn-AvBF by ascorbic acid are first-order in each reactant. The rate constant for the reduction of Mn-AvBF (8.52 M(-1) min(-1)) is approximately 12 times larger than that for Co-AvBF (0.72 M(-1) min(-1)), which is consistent with a previous observation that Mn-HoSF is reduced approximately 10-fold faster than Co-HoSF [Zhang, B. et al. (2005) Inorg. Chem. 44, 3738-3745]. The rates of reduction of M-AvBF (M = Co and Mn) are more than twice that for the reduction of the corresponding M-HoSF. HoSF containing reduced Fe(II) cores (Fe(II)-HoSF), prepared by methyl viologen and CO, also reduces M-HoSF and M-AvBF species, with both cores remaining within ferritin, suggesting that electrons transfer through the ferritin shell. Electron transfer from Fe(II)-HoSF to Co-AvBF occurs at a rate approximately 3 times faster than that to Co-HoSF, indicating that the Co cores in AvBF are more accessible to reduction than the Co cores in HoSF. The presence of nonconductive (SiO2) or conductive (gold) surfaces known to bind ferritins enhances the rate of electron transfer. A more than approximately 4-fold increase in the apparent reaction rate is observed in the presence of gold. Although both surfaces (SiO2 and gold) enhance reaction by providing binding sites for molecular interaction, results show that ferritins with different mineral cores bound to a gold surface transfer electrons through the gold substrate so that direct contact of the reacting molecules is not required.

Polyelectrolytes as new matrices for secondary ion mass spectrometry

Significant enhancements in ion yields in time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) are observed when water-soluble analytes are mixed with a polyelectrolyte, e.g., poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) or poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate), and then deposited in the layer-by-layer method on a surface. This previously unobserved effect is demonstrated for 5-chloro-8-methoxyquinoline appended diaza-18-crown-6, 5-(2-aminoethoxy)methyl-5-chloro-8-methoxyquinoline appended diaza-18-crown-6, acridine, 9-anthracenecarboxylic acid, and ferrocenecarboxylic acid. By optical ellipsometry film thicknesses range from ca. 5-20 angstroms. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy shows significantly less analyte in the polyelectrolyte-analyte films than in the neat analytes. However, TOF-SIMS generally shows significant enhancements in ion yields from the polyelectrolyte films compared with either the neat compounds or the compounds solubilized with acid or base and then dried on a surface. These significant enhancements in ion yields also appear to extend to analyte fragments and cationized molecular species. Some enhancement is also observed for dried droplets of analytes mixed with a polyelectrolyte on surfaces.

Kinetic and Thermodynamic Characterization of the Cobalt and Manganese Oxyhydroxide Cores Formed in Horse Spleen Ferritin

Horse spleen ferritin (HoSF) containing 800-1500 cobalt or 250-1200 manganese atoms as Co(O)OH and Mn(O)OH mineral cores within the HoSF interior (Co-HoSF and Mn-HoSF) was synthesized, and the chemical reactivity, kinetics of reduction, and the reduction potentials were measured. Microcoulometric and chemical reduction of HoSF containing the M(O)OH mineral core (M = Co or Mn) was rapid and quantitative with a reduction stoichiometry of 1.05 +/- 0.10 e/M forming a stable M(OH)(2) mineral core. At pH 9.0, ascorbic acid (AH(2)), a two-electron reductant, effectively reduced the mineral cores; however, the reaction was incomplete and rapidly reached equilibrium. The addition of excess AH(2) shifted the reaction to completion with a M(3+)/AH(2) stoichiometry of 1.9-2.1, consistent with a single electron per metal atom reduction. The rate of reaction between M(O)OH and excess AH(2) was measured by monitoring the decrease in mineral core absorbance with time. The reaction was first order in each reactant with second-order rate constants of 0.53 and 4.74 M(-1) min(-1), respectively, for Co- and Mn-HoSF at pH 9.0. From the variation of absorbance with increasing AH(2) concentration, equilibrium constants at pH 9.0 of 5.0 +/- 1.9 for Co-HoSF and 2.9 +/- 0.9 for Mn-HoSF were calculated for 2M(O)OH + AH(2) = 2M(OH)(2) + D, where AH(2) and D are ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid, respectively. Consistent with these equilibrium constants, the standard potential for the reduction of Co(III)-HoSF is 42 mV more positive than that of the ascorbic acid reaction, while the standard potential of Mn(III)-HoSF is 27 mV positive relative to AH(2). Fe(2+) in solution with Co- and Mn-HoSF under anaerobic conditions was oxidized to form Fe(O)OH within the HoSF interior, resulting in partial displacement of the Co or Mn by iron.

Electrical conductivity of ferritin proteins by conductive AFM

Electrical conductivity measurements were performed on single apoferritin and holoferritin molecules by conductive atomic force microscopy. Conductivity of self-assembled monolayer films of ferritin molecules on gold surfaces was also measured. Holoferritin was 5-15 times more conductive than apoferritin, indicating that for holoferritin most electron-transfer goes through the ferrihydrite core. With 1 V applied, the average electrical currents through single holoferritin and apoferritin molecules were 2.6 pA and 0.19 pA, respectively.

DNA-Templated Three-Branched Nanostructures for Nanoelectronic Devices

Three-branched DNA molecules have been designed and assembled from oligonucleotide components. These nucleic acid constructs contain double- and single-stranded regions that control the hybridization behavior of the assembly. Specific localization of a single streptavidin molecule at the center of the DNA complex has been investigated as a model system for the directed placement of nanostructures. Highly selective silver and copper metallization of the DNA template has also been characterized. Specific hybridization of these DNA complexes to oligonucleotide-coupled nanostructures followed by metallization should provide a bottom-up self-assembly route for the fabrication and characterization of discrete three-terminal nanodevices.

Automated, controlled deposition of nanoparticles on polyelectrolyte-coated silicon from chemomechanically patterned droplet arrays

This paper describes three advances in lab on a chip technology. First, it is shown that chemomechanical surface patterning can be performed using a commercially available liquid handler that has undergone only minor modifications. These capabilities are demonstrated by making and then characterizing smaller hydrophobic corrals, made with a diamond tip, than have previously been reported. Hydrophobic corrals are small enclosures on a surface that are ringed by hydrophobic lines. They hold droplets of high surface tension solutions. They allow a surface to be subdivided into individually addressable elements, thus providing a platform for conducting many simultaneous surface experiments with small (down to ca. 1 microL) liquid volumes. An important consequence of this work is that it makes chemomechanical surface patterning, which is a valuable and straightforward method for surface modification, much more accessible to the technical community. Second, it is shown that an entire array of hydrophobic corrals can be simultaneously coated with polyelectrolyte multilayers, but that the hydrophobic corrals still retain the ability to hold liquids after this deposition. The robotic arm of the liquid handler is again employed to manufacture this ultrathin film. Finally, as a demonstration of the capability of this technology to create complex patterned arrays on surfaces from solution for biological or nanostructured materials applications, and again employing the liquid handler, polyelectrolyte-coated hydrophobic corrals are individually addressed and loaded with a solution containing gold nanoparticles for independently specified times. The density and morphology of deposited nanoparticle monolayers were studied by scanning electron microscopy. The deposition of gold nanoparticles onto a chip occurred at a constant rate (0.5% min(-1)) over the range of times studied.

Reliability of N-terminal proBNP assay in diagnosis of left ventricular systolic dysfunction within representative and high risk populations

OBJECTIVE

To determine the performance of a new NT-proBNP assay in comparison with brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) in identifying left ventricular systolic dysfunction (LVSD) in randomly selected community populations.

METHODS

Blood samples were taken prospectively in the community from 591 randomly sampled individuals over the age of 45 years, stratified for age and socioeconomic status and divided into four cohorts (general population; clinically diagnosed heart failure; patients on diuretics; and patients deemed at high risk of heart failure). Definite heart failure (left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) < 40%) was identified in 33 people. Samples were handled as though in routine clinical practice. The laboratories undertaking the assays were blinded.

RESULTS

Using NT-proBNP to diagnose LVEF < 40% in the general population, a level of > 40 pmol/l had 80% sensitivity, 73% specificity, 5% positive predictive value (PPV), 100% negative predictive value (NPV), and an area under the receiver-operator characteristic curve (AUC) of 76% (95% confidence interval (CI) 46% to 100%). For BNP to diagnose LVSD, a cut off level of > 33 pmol/l had 80% sensitivity, 88% specificity, 10% PPV, 100% NPV, and AUC of 88% (95% CI 75% to 100%). Similar NPVs were found for patients randomly screened from the three other populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Both NT-proBNP and BNP have value in diagnosing LVSD in a community setting, with similar sensitivities and specificities. Using a high cut off for positivity will confirm the diagnosis of LVSD but will miss cases. At lower cut off values, positive results will require cardiac imaging to confirm LVSD.

AFM visualization of mobile influenza A M2 molecules in planar bilayers

We report the observation of influenza A M2 (M2) incorporated in a dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) supported planar bilayer on mica, formed by use of a modified vesicle fusion method from proteoliposomes and visualized with contact mode atomic force microscopy. Incubation of proteoliposomes in a hyperosmotic solution and increased DPPC/M2 weight ratios improved supported planar bilayer formation by M2/DPPC proteoliposomes. M2's extra-bilayer domains were observed as particles estimated to protrude 1-1.5 nm above the bilayer surface and <4 nm in diameter. Particle density was 5-18% of the nominal tetramer density. Movement of observable M2 particles was independent of the probe tip. The mean lateral diffusion coefficient (D) of M2 was 4.4 +/- 1.0 x 10(-14) cm(2)/s. Eighty-two percent of observable particles were mobile on the observable timescale (D > 6 x 10(-15) cm(2)/s). Protein-protein interactions were also observed directly.

Impact of heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction on quality of life: a cross-sectional study comparing common chronic cardiac and medical disorders and a representative adult population

BACKGROUND

Heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction (LVSD) are increasingly common disorders, with outcomes worse than many cancers. Evidence-based therapies, such as ACE inhibitors and beta-blockers, improve prognosis and symptoms, and reduce healthcare expenditure. However, despite the high prevalence and malignant prognosis, few studies have reported the impact of heart failure and LVSD on overall quality of life and, more crucially, have not researched the elderly or those in the community.

METHODS

All patients attending the Echocardiographic Heart of England Screening (ECHOES) study of the prevalence of heart failure and LVSD in the community were assessed by clinical history and examination, electrocardiogram and echocardiography, and also completed the SF36 health status questionnaire. Quality of life in patients found to have heart failure, LVSD, and other cardiac and medical conditions are compared with the randomly selected general population sample. Data are generalisable to the UK.

RESULTS

6162 people in the community were screened in the ECHOES study, of whom 5961 (97%) completed the SF36. The health perceptions of 3850 people aged 45 years or older selected randomly from the population were compared with those of 426 patients diagnosed as having definite heart failure. Those with heart failure had significant impairment of all the measured aspects of physical and mental health, in addition to declines in physical functioning. Significantly worse impairment was found in those with more severe heart failure by NYHA class: indeed, NYHA functional class was closely correlated to SF36 score. Patients with asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction and patients rendered asymptomatic by treatment had similar scores to the random population sample. Those with heart failure reported more severe physical impairment of quality of life than people giving a history of chronic lung disease or arthritis, with less impact on mental health than patients reporting depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with heart failure have statistically significant impairment of all aspects of quality of life, not simply physical functioning. The physical (role and functioning) health burden was significantly greater than that suffered in other serious common chronic disorders, whether cardiac or other systems. Optimising treatment to improve NYHA class appears to improve perceptions of quality of life for patients with heart failure. Given the dramatic decline in quality of life with heart failure, this end-point should be a much more important target for healthcare interventions, especially treatments such as ACE inhibitors and beta-blockers that are shown to improve quality of life.

Prevalence of left ventricular systolic dysfunction and heart failure in high risk patients: community based epidemiological study

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of left ventricular systolic dysfunction, and of heart failure due to different causes, in patients with risk factors for these conditions.

DESIGN

Epidemiological study, including detailed clinical assessment, electrocardiography, and echocardiography.

SETTING

16 English general practices, representative for socioeconomic status and practice type.

PARTICIPANTS

1062 patients (66% response rate) with previous myocardial infarction, angina, hypertension, or diabetes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Prevalence of systolic dysfunction, both with and without symptoms, and of heart failure, in groups of patients with each of the risk factors.

RESULTS

Definite systolic dysfunction (ejection fraction <40%) was found in 54/244 (22.1%, 95% confidence interval 17.1% to 27.9%) patients with previous myocardial infarction, 26/321 (8.1%, 5.4% to 11.6%) with angina, 7/388 (1.8%, 0.7% to 3.7%) with hypertension, and 12/208 (5.8%, 3.0% to 9.9%) with diabetes. In each group, approximately half of these patients had symptoms of dyspnoea, and therefore had heart failure. Overall rates of heart failure, defined as symptoms of dyspnoea plus objective evidence of cardiac dysfunction (systolic dysfunction, atrial fibrillation, or clinically significant valve disease) were 16.0% (11.6% to 21.2%) in patients with previous myocardial infarction, 8.4% (5.6% to 12.0%) in those with angina, 2.8% (1.4% to 5.0%) in those with hypertension, and 7.7% (4.5% to 12.2%) in those with diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Many people with ischaemic heart disease or diabetes have systolic dysfunction or heart failure. The data support the need for trials of targeted echocardiographic screening, in view of the major benefits of modern treatment. In contrast, patients with uncomplicated hypertension have similar rates to the general population.

Reliability of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide assay in diagnosis of heart failure: cohort study in representative and high risk community populations

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the performance of a novel assay for N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in diagnosing heart failure in various randomly selected general and high risk community populations.

DESIGN

Community cohort study (substudy of the echocardiographic heart of England screening study).

SETTING

Four randomly selected general practices in the West Midlands of England.

PARTICIPANTS

591 randomly sampled patients over the age of 45, stratified for age and socioeconomic status and falling into four cohorts (general population, patients with an existing clinical label of heart failure, patients prescribed diuretics, and patients deemed at high risk of heart failure).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, likelihood ratios, and area under receiver operating characteristic curve for NT-proBNP assay in the diagnosis of heart failure.

RESULTS

For NT-proBNP in the diagnosis of heart failure in the general population (population screen), a level of >36 pmol/l had a sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 70%, a positive predictive value of 7%, a negative predictive value of 100%, and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.92 (95% confidence interval 0.82 to 1.0). Similar negative predictive values were found for patients from the three other populations screened.

CONCLUSIONS

This NT-proBNP assay seems to have value in the diagnosis of heart failure in the community. High negative predictive values indicate that the assay's chief use would be to rule out heart failure in patients with suspected heart failure with normal concentrations of NT-proBNP. Positive results may identify patients who need cardiac imaging.

A systematic review of the evidence for rapid access chest pain clinics

To determine the impact of rapid access chest pain clinics (RACPC) on patient management, a systematic search (1966-2000) was performed of electronic databases, recent conference abstracts, citations of all identified studies, and by contact with other researchers. Studies of any design were included. Assessment of eligibility, methodological quality of studies and data abstraction was conducted independently by two reviewers. Outcome measures were sought in terms of admission rate of patients without acute coronary syndrome detection rate of acute coronary syndrome unrecognised by the GP, timing of specialist assessment of patients with stable angina and speed and accuracy of detection of those with non-cardiac chest pain. Nine relevant studies were found, but all had methodological flaws when considered as evaluative studies. All clinics described reviewed patients within 24 hours of referral. Only three studies made comparisons with control groups, none of which were randomised, and a further three provided follow-up data only. Limited data were found for all four outcome measures, indicating possible benefits of RACPCs. However, all findings could be explained by potential biases in the original studies. In conclusion, the evidence base for the introduction of rapid access chest pain clinics is poor. The introduction of these clinics should include a randomised prospective evaluation of their worth.

Coincident linkage of fasting plasma insulin and blood pressure to chromosome 7q in hypertensive hispanic families

BACKGROUND

Insulin resistance (IR) and hyperinsulinemia are phenotypically associated with hypertension. We have previously provided evidence that blood pressure (BP) and IR cosegregate in Hispanic families, suggesting that this association has a genetic component. In the present study, we provide further support for the hypothesis of a genetic basis for the BP-IR relationship from a genetic linkage study.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A 10-cM genome scan was conducted in 390 Hispanic family members of 77 hypertensive probands. Detailed measurements of BP, glucose, insulin levels, and insulin sensitivity (euglycemic clamp) were performed in adult offspring of probands. Multipoint variance component linkage analysis was used. A region on chromosome 7q seemed to influence both IR and BP. The greatest evidence for linkage was found for fasting insulin (lod score=3.36 at 128 cM), followed by systolic BP (lod score=2.06 at 120 cM). Fine mapping with greater marker density in this region increased the maximum lod score for fasting insulin to 3.94 at 125 cM (P=0.00002); lod score for systolic BP was 2.51 at 112 cM. Coincident mapping at this locus also included insulin sensitivity measured by the homeostasis assessment model (HOMA) and serum leptin concentrations. Insulin sensitivity by euglycemic clamp did not map to the same locus.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that a major gene determining fasting insulin is located on chromosome 7q. Linkage of BP, HOMA, and leptin levels to the same region suggests this locus may broadly influence traits associated with IR and supports a genetic basis for phenotypic associations in IR syndrome.

Optical dipole model for photodetection in the near field

Near-field photodetection optical microscopy (NPOM) is a scanning probe technique that has been developed to perform nanometer-scale optical intensity mapping and spectroscopy. In NPOM a nanometer-scale photodiode detector absorbs power directly as it is scanned in the near field of an illuminated sample surface. A model of photodetection in the near and intermediate fields is presented. A brief review of far-field absorption is given for comparison. Far-field absorption measurements measure the imaginary part of the polarizability to first order. In contrast, photodetection in the near field measures the real part of the polarizability. Other aspects of near-field photodetection are also examined, including contrast mechanisms and lateral resolution. NPOM measurements performed on isolated 300-nm spheres show good agreement with the theory.