Human γδ T cell sensing of AMPK-dependent metabolic tumor reprogramming through TCR recognition of EphA2

Human γδ T cells contribute to tissue homeostasis and participate in epithelial stress surveillance through mechanisms that are not well understood. Here, we identified ephrin type-A receptor 2 (EphA2) as a stress antigen recognized by a human Vγ9Vδ1 TCR. EphA2 is recognized coordinately by ephrin A to enable γδ TCR activation. We identified a putative TCR binding site on the ligand-binding domain of EphA2 that was distinct from the ephrin A binding site. Expression of EphA2 was up-regulated upon AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells, and coexpression of EphA2 and active AMPK in tumors was associated with higher CD3 T cell infiltration in human colorectal cancer tissue. These results highlight the potential of the human γδ TCR to cooperate with a co-receptor to recognize non-MHC-encoded proteins as signals of cellular dysregulation, potentially allowing γδ T cells to sense metabolic energy changes associated with either viral infection or cancer.

γδ T Cells May Aggravate Acute Graft-Versus-Host Disease Through CXCR4 Signaling After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Transplantation

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a pathology in which chemokines and their receptors play essential roles in directing the migration of alloreactive donor T cells into GVHD organs, thereby leading to further target tissue damage. Currently, acute GVHD (aGVHD) remains a major cause of high morbidity and mortality in patients who underwent allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (alloHCT). The identification of immune cells that correlate with aGVHD is important and intriguing. To date, the involvement of innate-like γδ T cells in the pathogenesis of aGVHD is unclear. Herein, we found that primary human γδ T cells did not directly trigger allogeneic reactions. Instead, we revealed that γδ T cells facilitated the migration of CD4 T cells via the SDF-1-CXCR4 axis. These results indicate indirect regulation of γδ T cells in the development of aGVHD rather than a direct mechanism. Furthermore, we showed that the expression of CXCR4 was significantly elevated in γδ T cells and CD4 and CD8 T cells in recipients who experienced grades II-IV aGVHD after alloHCT. Consistently, CXCR4-expressing γδ T cells and CD4 T cells were induced in the target organs of mice suffering aGVHD. The depletion of γδ T cells in transplant grafts and treatment with AMD3100, an inhibitor of CXCR4 signaling, delayed the onset of aGVHD and prolonged survival in mice. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for γδ T cells in recruiting alloreactive CD4 T cells to target tissues through the expression of CXCR4. Our findings may help in understanding the mechanism of aGVHD and provide novel therapeutic targets.

Circulating PD1+Vδ1+γδ T Cell Predicts Fertility in Endometrial Polyp Patients of Reproductive-Age

Clinically, immune cell function is correlated with pathogenesis of endometrial polyp (EP) and infertility of women of reproductive-age. However, the underlying immune cell hallmark in EP patients remains unclear. Here, we focused on analyzing circulating immune cells, and attempted to reveal the correlation between peripheral immune cell functional phenotypes and fertility in EP patients. Through comparison of circulating CD4+/CD8+ T cells, NK cells, and γδ T cells between 64 EP patients and 68 healthy females, we found that γδ T cells, but not CD4+/CD8+ T cells and NK cells, were immunologically correlated with conception rate and conception interval time. Specifically, total γδ T cells and the Vδ1+PD1+ γδ T subpopulation decreased whereas the Vδ1/Vδ2 ratio increased in EP patients compared to healthy controls. Moreover, the patients with the higher Vδ1/Vδ2 ratio (median value equals 1.04) had a poorer fertility and longer interval time of conception (210 days versus 158 days for control). Meanwhile, higher Vδ1+PD1+ γδ T cell proportion (median equals 15.7) was positively correlative with both higher conception rate and shortened median conception interval time (130 days for Vδ1+PD1high group versus 194 days for Vδ1+PD1low group). Notably, in healthy controls, both Vδ1/Vδ2 ratio and Vδ1+PD1+ γδ T cell proportion correlated with pregnancy rate oppositely, comparing to EP patients. Together, our results suggested that imbalanced γδ T cell population occurred in EP patients, and that Vδ1/Vδ2 ratio and PD-1 expression of Vδ1+ γδ T cells could be potentially developed into valuable predictors for fertility in EP patients.

Intraepithelial Lymphocyte Cytometric Pattern Is a Useful Diagnostic Tool for Coeliac Disease Diagnosis Irrespective of Degree of Mucosal Damage and Age-A Validation Cohort

Introduction: The study of intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) by flow cytometry is a useful tool in the diagnosis of coeliac disease (CD). Previous data showed that an increase in %TCRγδ⁺ and decrease of %CD3⁻ IEL constitute a typical CD cytometric pattern with a specificity of 100%. However, there are no data regarding whether there are differences in the %TCRγδ⁺ related to sex, age, titers of serology, and degree of histological lesion. Study aims: To confirm the high diagnostic accuracy of the coeliac cytometric patterns. To determine if there are differences between sex, age, serology titers, and histological lesion grade. Results: We selected all patients who fulfilled “4 of 5” rule for CD diagnosis (n = 169). There were no differences in %TCRγδ⁺ between sexes (p = 0.909), age groups (p = 0.986), serology titers (p = 0.53) and histological lesion grades (p = 0.41). The diagnostic accuracy of complete CD cytometric pattern was: specificity 100%, sensitivity 82%, PPV 100%, NPV 47%. Conclusion: We confirmed, in a validation cohort, the high diagnostic accuracy of complete CD pattern irrespective of sex, age, serology titers, and grade of mucosal lesion.

Hyperforin Ameliorates Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis-Like Murine Skin Inflammation by Modulating IL-17A-Producing γδ T Cells

Hyperforin is a major active constituent of Hypericum perforatum L. extract, which is widely used for the treatment of depressive disorders. Recent studies have reported that hyperforin reduced inflammation in stroke and suppressed proliferation and differentiation in keratinocytes. Psoriasis is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory skin disease in which the IL-23/IL-17 axis plays an important role. To investigate the underlying inflammatory mechanisms and response of hyperforin in psoriasis, we use imiquimod (IMQ)-induced mice model, in vitro cultured murine splenic γδ T cells, and HaCaT cells in this study. Data showed that hyperforin reduced epidermal thickness and decreased IMQ-induced pathological scores of cutaneous skin lesions in mice. Meanwhile we proved that hyperforin suppressed infiltration of CD3+ T cells and downregulated expression of Il1, Il6, Il23, Il17a, Il22, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in the skin lesion. Hyperforin significantly inhibited imiquimod-induced splenomegaly, reduced serum levels of TNF-α and IL-6, and IL-17A in splenocytes and draining lymph nodes. Our study also suggested that hyperforin lessened the infiltration of γδ T cell and CCR6+ γδ T cells in spleen and lymph nodes. Hyperforin also suppressed the typical psoriasis-like inflammatory responses and the infiltration of IL-17A+ cells in dermal γδ T cells of IMQ treated Tcrd-/- mice transferred with γδ T cells. In vitro studies, hyperforin reduced the expression and secretion of IL-17A in γδ T cells, and suppressed the activation of MAPK/STAT3 pathways in human keratinocyte HaCaT cells and γδ T cells. In conclusion, hyperforin alleviates IMQ-induced inflammation in psoriasis through suppressing the immune responses exerted by IL-17 A-producing γδ T cells and related cytokines by modulating MAPK/STAT3 pathways. Our study provided a novel therapeutic tragedy for psoriasis by which hyperforin attenuates psoriasis-related inflammatory responses.

Dichotomous and stable gamma delta T-cell number and function in healthy individuals

BACKGROUND

Gamma-delta (γδ) T lymphocytes are primed to potently respond to pathogens and transformed cells by recognizing a broad range of antigens. However, adoptive immunotherapy with γδT cells has exhibited mixed treatment responses. Better understanding of γδT cell biology and stratifying healthy donors for allogeneic adoptive therapy is clinically needed to fully realize the therapeutic potential of γδT cells.

METHODS

We examine 98 blood samples from healthy donors and measure their expansion capacity after zoledronate stimulation, and test the migration and cytotoxic effector function of expanded γδT cells in 2D culture, 3D tumor spheroid and patient-derived melanoma organoid assays.

RESULTS

We find that γδT cell expansion capacity is independent of expansion methods, gender, age and HLA type. Basal γδT cell levels in Peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) correlate well with their expansion, migration and cytotoxic effector capacity in vitro. Circulating γδT cells with lower expression of PD-1, CTLA-4, Eomes, T-bet and CD69, or higher IFN-γ production expand better. γδT cells with central memory and effector memory phenotypes are significantly more abundant in good expanders. A cut-off level of 0.82% γδT cells in PBMC stratifies good versus poor γδT cell expansion with a sensitivity of 97.78%, specificity of 90.48% and area under the curve of 0.968 in a healthy individual. Donors with higher Vδ2 Index Score in PBMC have greater anti-tumor functions including migratory function and cytotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that the interindividual γδT cell functions correlate with their circulating levels in healthy donors. Examination of circulating γδT cell level may be used to select healthy donors to participate in γδT-based immunotherapies.

Potent ex vivo armed T cells using recombinant bispecific antibodies for adoptive immunotherapy with reduced cytokine release

BACKGROUND

T cell-based immunotherapies using chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) or bispecific antibodies (BsAb) have produced impressive responses in hematological malignancies. However, major hurdles remained, including cytokine release syndrome, neurotoxicity, on-target off-tumor effects, reliance on autologous T cells, and failure in most solid tumors. BsAb armed T cells offer a safe alternative.

METHODS

We generated ex vivo armed T cells (EATs) using IgG-[L]-scFv-platformed BsAb, where the anti-CD3 (huOKT3) scFv was attached to the light chain of a tumor-binding IgG. BsAb density on EAT, in vitro cytotoxicity, cytokine release, in vivo trafficking into tumors, and their antitumor activities were evaluated in multiple cancer cell lines and patient-derived xenograft mouse models. The efficacy of EATs after cryopreservation was studied, and gamma delta (γδ) T cells were investigated as unrelated alternative effector T cells.

RESULTS

The antitumor potency of BsAb armed T cells was substantially improved using the IgG-[L]-scFv BsAb platform. When compared with separate BsAb and T cell injection, EATs released less TNF-α, and infiltrated tumors faster, while achieving robust antitumor responses. The in vivo potency of EAT therapy depended on BsAb dose for arming, EAT cell number per injection, total number of EAT doses, and treatment schedule intensity. The antitumor efficacy of EATs was preserved following cryopreservation, and EATs using γδ T cells were safe and as effective as αβ T cell-EATs.

CONCLUSIONS

EATs exerted potent antitumor activities against a broad spectrum of human cancer targets with remarkable safety. The antitumor potency of EATs depended on BsAb dose, cell number and total dose, and schedule. EATs were equally effective after cryopreservation, and the feasibility of third-party γδ-EATs offered an alternative for autologous T cell sources.

Goat γδ T cell subpopulations defined by WC1 expression, responses to pathogens and cytokine production

The major functions of γδ T cells in mammals overlap with those of αβ T cells but differ in that γδ T cells are rapid responders and see different types of antigens. While γδ T cells have been shown to be a major population of circulating lymphocytes in artiodactyl species such as cattle, sheep, and pigs, less is known about these cells in goats, an important agricultural species. We have recently shown that WC1, a γδ T cell-specific family of hybrid pattern recognition receptors/co-receptors, is a multigenic family in goats expanded beyond what occurs in cattle. This study was conducted to address some of the limitations of previous studies in determining the proportions of γδ T cells, WC1⁺ γδ T cells as well as the WC1.1⁺ and WC1.2⁺ subpopulations in blood and to evaluate their responses to various pathogens. Previously, the proportion of caprine γδ T cells was determined using a monoclonal antibody (mAb) 86D that we show here does not react with all γδ T cells thereby underestimating their contribution to the lymphocyte population. Using a mAb reactive with the TCRδ constant region we found the proportion of γδ T cells in blood was not significantly less than that of either CD4 or CD8 T cells and did not decrease with age after 6 months. γδ T cells that expressed WC1 ranged from ~20 to 85% of the total γδ T cells. Less than half of those were classified as WC1.1⁺ or WC1.2⁺ by mAb staining thus indicating a third major WC1⁺ population. We found that naïve γδ T cells proliferated in cultures of PBMC stimulated with antigens of Leptospira or Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (MAP) more than they did in control medium cultures or in those stimulated with M. bovis BCG antigens and that the responding γδ T cells included both WC1⁺ and WC1^- cells. In ex vivo PMA/ionomycin-stimulated cultures of WC1^- γδ T cells but not WC1⁺ cells produced both IL-17 and IFNγ. In longterm cultures with Leptospira or MAP both WC1^- and WC1⁺ cells proliferated but only WC1^- γδ T cells produced IL-17. In conclusion, goats have a substantial number of WC1^- and WC1⁺ γδ T cells in PBMC that do not decrease with animal age after 6 months; both populations respond to bacterial antigens as naïve cells but in these cultures only the WC1^- γδ cells produc IL-17 and IFNγ .

Stepwise chromatin and transcriptional acquisition of an intraepithelial lymphocyte program

Mesenteric lymph node (mLN) T cells undergo tissue adaptation upon migrating to intestinal lamina propria and epithelium, ensuring appropriate balance between tolerance and resistance. By combining mouse genetics with single-cell and chromatin analyses, we uncovered the molecular imprinting of gut epithelium on T cells. Transcriptionally, conventional and regulatory (Treg) CD4+ T cells from mLN, lamina propria and intestinal epithelium segregate based on the gut layer they occupy; trajectory analysis suggests a stepwise loss of CD4 programming and acquisition of an intraepithelial profile. Treg cell fate mapping coupled with RNA sequencing and assay for transposase-accessible chromatin followed by sequencing revealed that the Treg cell program shuts down before an intraepithelial program becomes fully accessible at the epithelium. Ablation of CD4-lineage-defining transcription factor ThPOK results in premature acquisition of an intraepithelial lymphocyte profile by mLN Treg cells, partially recapitulating epithelium imprinting. Thus, coordinated replacement of the circulating lymphocyte program with site-specific transcriptional and chromatin changes is necessary for tissue imprinting.

CD122-directed interleukin-2 treatment mechanisms in bladder cancer differ from αPD-L1 and include tissue-selective γδ T cell activation

BACKGROUND

Anti-programmed death-ligand 1 (αPD-L1) immunotherapy is approved to treat bladder cancer (BC) but is effective in <30% of patients. Interleukin (IL)-2/αIL-2 complexes (IL-2c) that preferentially target IL-2 receptor β (CD122) augment CD8+ antitumor T cells known to improve αPD-L1 efficacy. We hypothesized that the tumor microenvironment, including local immune cells in primary versus metastatic BC, differentially affects immunotherapy responses and that IL-2c effects could differ from, and thus complement αPD-L1.

METHODS

We studied mechanisms of IL-2c and αPD-L1 efficacy using PD-L1+ mouse BC cell lines MB49 and MBT-2 in orthotopic (bladder) and metastatic (lung) sites.

RESULTS

IL-2c reduced orthotopic tumor burden and extended survival in MB49 and MBT-2 BC models, similar to αPD-L1. Using antibody-mediated cell depletions and genetically T cell-deficient mice, we unexpectedly found that CD8+ T cells were not necessary for IL-2c efficacy against tumors in bladder, whereas γδ T cells, not reported to contribute to αPD-L1 efficacy, were indispensable for IL-2c efficacy there. αPD-L1 responsiveness in bladder required conventional T cells as expected, but not γδ T cells, altogether defining distinct mechanisms for IL-2c and αPD-L1 efficacy. γδ T cells did not improve IL-2c treatment of subcutaneously challenged BC or orthotopic (peritoneal) ovarian cancer, consistent with tissue-specific and/or tumor-specific γδ T cell contributions to IL-2c efficacy. IL-2c significantly altered bladder intratumoral γδ T cell content, activation status, and specific γδ T cell subsets with antitumor or protumor effector functions. Neither IL-2c nor αPD-L1 alone treated lung metastatic MB49 or MBT-2 BC, but their combination improved survival in both models. Combination treatment efficacy in lungs required CD8+ T cells but not γδ T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Mechanistic insights into differential IL-2c and αPD-L1 treatment and tissue-dependent effects could help develop rational combination treatment strategies to improve treatment efficacy in distinct cancers. These studies also provide insights into γδ T cell contributions to immunotherapy in bladder and engagement of adaptive immunity by IL-2c plus αPD-L1 to treat refractory lung metastases.

Tumor hypoxia represses γδ T cell-mediated antitumor immunity against brain tumors

The anatomic location and immunologic characteristics of brain tumors result in strong lymphocyte suppression. Consequently, conventional immunotherapies targeting CD8 T cells are ineffective against brain tumors. Tumor cells escape immunosurveillance by various mechanisms and tumor cell metabolism can affect the metabolic states and functions of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. Here, we discovered that brain tumor cells had a particularly high demand for oxygen, which affected γδ T cell-mediated antitumor immune responses but not those of conventional T cells. Specifically, tumor hypoxia activated the γδ T cell protein kinase A pathway at a transcriptional level, resulting in repression of the activatory receptor NKG2D. Alleviating tumor hypoxia reinvigorated NKG2D expression and the antitumor function of γδ T cells. These results reveal a hypoxia-mediated mechanism through which brain tumors and γδ T cells interact and emphasize the importance of γδ T cells for antitumor immunity against brain tumors.

Dysregulation of IL-17/IL-22 Effector Functions in Blood and Gut Mucosal Gamma Delta T Cells Correlates With Increase in Circulating Leaky Gut and Inflammatory Markers During cART-Treated Chronic SIV Infection in Macaques

HIV-associated inflammation has been implicated in the premature aging and increased risk of age-associated comorbidities in cART-treated individuals. However, the immune mechanisms underlying the chronic inflammatory state of cART-suppressed HIV infection remain unclear. Here, we investigated the role of γδT cells, a group of innate IL-17 producing T lymphocytes, in the development of systemic inflammation and leaky gut phenotype during cART-suppressed SIV infection of macaques. Plasma levels of inflammatory mediators, intestinal epithelial barrier disruption (IEBD) and microbial translocation (MT) biomarkers, and Th1/Th17-type cytokine functions were longitudinally assessed in blood and gut mucosa of SIV-infected, cART-suppressed macaques. Among the various gut mucosal IL-17/IL-22-producing T lymphocyte subsets including Th17, γδT, CD161+ CD8+ T, and MAIT cells, a specific decline in the Vδ2 subset of γδT cells and impaired IL-17/IL-22 production in γδT cells significantly correlated with the subsequent increase in plasma IEBD/MT markers (IFABP, LPS-binding protein, and sCD14) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, IP10, etc.) despite continued viral suppression during long-term cART. Further, the plasma inflammatory cytokine signature during long-term cART was distinct from acute SIV infection and resembled the inflammatory cytokine profile of uninfected aging (inflammaging) macaques. Overall, our data suggest that during cART-suppressed chronic SIV infection, dysregulation of IL-17/IL-22 cytokine effector functions and decline of Vδ2 γδT cell subsets may contribute to gut epithelial barrier disruption and development of a distinct plasma inflammatory signature characteristic of inflammaging. Our results advance the current understanding of the impact of chronic HIV/SIV infection on γδT cell functions and demonstrate that in the setting of long-term cART, the loss of epithelial barrier-protective functions of Vδ2 T cells and ensuing IEBD/MT occurs before the hallmark expansion of Vδ1 subsets and skewed Vδ2/Vδ1 ratio. Thus, our work suggests that novel therapeutic approaches toward restoring IL-17/IL-22 cytokine functions of intestinal Vδ2 T cells may be beneficial in preserving gut epithelial barrier function and reducing chronic inflammation in HIV-infected individuals.

Understanding the effects of CMV on γδ T-cell populations in HIV patients starting antiretroviral therapy

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) affects γδ T-cell profiles in healthy individuals and transplant recipients, but the effects of HIV and CMV have not been distinguished in HIV patients. CMV-seropositive Indonesian HIV patients (n = 40) were studied before ART and after six months, alongside healthy controls (n = 20). 50% of patients started ART with detectable CMV DNA. Proportions of Vδ2^- γδ T-cells were high in patients and declined on ART, whilst proportions of Vδ2⁺ γδ T-cells were uniformly low, and correlated inversely with levels of CMV DNA and CMV-reactive antibody. Residual Vδ2⁺ cells were enriched for markers of terminal differentiation, but this did not associate with CMV metrics. Patients with CMV DNA at baseline showed a direct correlation between CMV reactive-antibody and CD8⁺ γδ T-cells. Our data are consistent with a role for CMV in the depletion of Vδ2⁺ γδ T-cells in HIV patients beginning ART, with no consistent evidence of a role for CMV in γδ T-cell activation or differentiation.

Lactobacillus acidipiscis Induced Regulatory Gamma Delta T Cells and Attenuated Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic autoimmune disease involving the central nervous system, and shows a high disability rate. Its pathogenesis is complicated, and there is no good treatment. In recent years, with in-depth studies on the regulation of gastrointestinal flora, the relationship between the mammalian immune system and the intestinal flora has been extensively explored. Changes in the composition and structure of the gastrointestinal flora can affect the characteristics and development of the host immune system and even induce a series of central nervous system inflammation events. The occurrence and development of multiple sclerosis are closely related to the continuous destruction of the intestinal barrier caused by intestinal dysbacteriosis. In this study, we analyzed Lactobacillus acidipiscis in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). We found that the amount of L. acidipiscis in the intestinal tract was inversely proportional to the progress of EAE development. In addition, the number of CD4+ FOXP3+ regulatory T cells in the mesenteric lymph nodes of mice increased significantly after the mice were fed with L. acidipiscis, and the differentiation of CD4+ T cells to Th1 and Th17 cells was inhibited. However, the protective effect of L. acidipiscis was lost in γδ T cell-deficient mice and hence was concluded to depend on the presence of regulatory γδ T cells in the intestinal epithelium. Moreover, including L. acidipiscis enhanced the development of Vγ1+γδ T cells but suppressed that of Vγ4+γδ T cells. In summary, our results demonstrated the ability of L. acidipiscis to induce generation of regulatory γδ T cells that suppress the development of the encephalomyelitic Th1 and Th17 cells and the progress of EAE.

Tissue Resident Memory γδT Cells in Murine Uterus Expressed High Levels of IL-17 Promoting the Invasion of Trophocytes

γδT cells are non-conventional T cells and serve as the bridge for connecting the innate and adaptive immune systems. γδT cells form a substantial population at barrier sites and play an important role in the development of physiology, inflammation, autoimmune diseases and tumors. γδT cells not only distribute in the maternal-fetal interface during pregnancy but also in non-pregnant uterus. However, the phenotypes and functions of γδT cells in uterus were not clear. In the current study, we found that the percentages of γδT cells were significantly higher in uterus than peripheral blood and most of γδT cells in uterus were distributed in endometrium. Further studies indicated that the majority of γδT cells in uterus were memory cells with higher expression of CD44 and CD27 but lower expression of CD62L and CCR7 compared to those in blood. In addition, we found that γδT cells in uterus were tissue resident memory γδT cells expressing CD69, expressed high levels of CCR6, GranzymeB and CD107a. Moreover, γδT cells in uterus were activated and fully expressed transcription factor RORγt. After short time of activation, γδT cells in uterus significantly expressed high levels of IL-17 but not IFN-γ, which promotes the invasion of murine trophocytes. Taken together, our study will lay the foundation for future research on uterine γδT cells in pregnancy and autoimmune disease.

Factors that influence the thymic selection of CD8αα intraepithelial lymphocytes

Thymocytes bearing αβ T cell receptors (TCRαβ) with high affinity for self-peptide-MHC complexes undergo negative selection or are diverted to alternate T cell lineages, a process termed agonist selection. Among thymocytes bearing TCRs restricted to MHC class I, agonist selection can lead to the development of precursors that can home to the gut and give rise to CD8αα-expressing intraepithelial lymphocytes (CD8αα IELs). The factors that influence the choice between negative selection versus CD8αα IEL development remain largely unknown. Using a synchronized thymic tissue slice model that supports both negative selection and CD8αα IEL development, we show that the affinity threshold for CD8αα IEL development is higher than for negative selection. We also investigate the impact of peptide presenting cells and cytokines, and the migration patterns associated with these alternative cell fates. Our data highlight the roles of TCR affinity and the thymic microenvironments on T cell fate.

Functional and metabolic dichotomy of murine γδ T cell subsets in cancer immunity

γδ T cells can display a plethora of immune functions, but recent studies have highlighted their importance, in multiple disease models, as sources of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-17A (IL-17), and IFN-γ. These are produced by distinct murine effector γδ T cell subsets that diverge during thymic γδ T cell development. Among the multiple roles these subsets play in peripheral tissues, a striking dichotomy has emerged at tumor sites: whereas IFN-γ+ γδ T cells inhibit tumor cell growth, IL-17+ γδ T cells promote tumor progression and metastasis formation. In this review, we discuss the main lines of evidence, mostly from preclinical studies in mouse models, for this functional dichotomy in cancer immunity. We further highlight very recent advances in our understanding how metabolic sources and pathways can impact on the balance between IFN-γ+ and IL-17+ γδ T cells in the tumor microenvironment, which opens a new exciting avenue to explore toward the application of γδ T cells in cancer immunotherapy.

Analysis of chicken intestinal natural killer cells, a major IEL subset during embryonic and early life

Restrictions on antimicrobials demand alternative strategies to improve broiler health, such as supplying feed additives which stimulate innate immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells. The main objective of this study was to characterize intestinal NK cells in broiler chickens during embryonic and early life and compare these to NK cells in spleen, blood and bone marrow. Also T-cell subsets were determined. The majority of intestinal NK cells expressed IL-2Rα rather than 20E5 and 5C7, and showed low level of activation. Within intestinal NK cells the activation marker CD107 was mostly expressed on IL-2Rα⁺ cells while in spleen and blood 20E5⁺ NK cells primarily expressed CD107. High percentages of intestinal CD8αα⁺, CD8αβ⁺ and from 2 weeks onward also gamma delta T cells were found. Taken together, we observed several intestinal NK subsets in broiler chickens. Differences in NK subsets were mostly observed between organs, rather than differences over time. Targeting these intestinal NK subsets may be a strategy to improve immune-mediated resistance in broiler chickens.

Epidermal resident γδ T cell development and function in skin

Epidermal resident γδ T cells, or dendritic epidermal T cells (DETCs) in mice, are a unique and conserved population of γδ T cells enriched in the epidermis, where they serve as the regulators of immune responses and sense skin injury. Despite the great advances in the understanding of the development, homeostasis, and function of DETCs in the past decades, the origin and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we reviewed the recent research progress on DETCs, including their origin and homeostasis in the skin, especially at transcriptional and epigenetic levels, and discuss the involvement of DETCs in skin diseases.

The Unknown Unknowns: Recovering Gamma-Delta T Cells for Control of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Recent advances in γδ T cell biology have focused on the unique attributes of these cells and their role in regulating innate and adaptive immunity, promoting tissue homeostasis, and providing resistance to various disorders. Numerous bacterial and viral pathogens, including human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV), greatly alter the composition of γδ T cells in vivo. Despite the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in controlling HIV and restoring health in those affected, γδ T cells are dramatically impacted during HIV infection and fail to reconstitute to normal levels in HIV-infected individuals during ART for reasons that are not clearly understood. Importantly, their role in controlling HIV infection, and the implications of their failure to rebound during ART are also largely unknown and understudied. Here, we review important aspects of human γδ T cell biology, the effector and immunomodulatory properties of these cells, their prevalence and function in HIV, and their immunotherapeutic potential.

Differences in circulating γδ T cells in patients with primary colon cancer and relation with prognostic factors

Downregulation of the T cell system has been proposed as a mechanism to block immunity in colonic cancer (CC). However, little has been studied about circulating αβ and γδ T cells and their immunological status in newly diagnosed patients. The aim of this study was to characterize the αβ and γδ T cell subsets in peripheral blood of patients with CC matched with healthy volunteers. In this prospective case-control study, blood samples were obtained from 96 patients with newly diagnosed treatment-naïve infiltrating colonic adenocarcinoma and 48 healthy volunteers. Pathological report at surgery was obtained from all CC patients. A significant decrease in CD3+ γδ T cells and CD3+CD8+ γδ T cells (p<0.001) were observed in CC patients. Apoptosis was significantly increased in all conventional and both αβ and γδ T cell subsets in patients with CC vs healthy subjects. γδ T cells were decreased in peripheral blood of patients with microscopic infiltration in tissues, history of cancer and synchronous colon cancer (p < 0.05). IFN-γ was significantly reduced in CC patients compared to controls. Cytotoxic effector γδ T cells TEMRA (CD8 and CD56) are the proportionally most abundant T cells in peripheral blood of CC patients. Patients with CC present a deep downregulation in the systemic T-cell immunity. These variations are evident through all tumor stages and suggest that a deficiency in γδ T cell populations could be preventing control of tumor progression. This fact prove the role of immunomodulation on CC carcinogenesis.

Gamma-delta T cells stimulate IL-6 production by pancreatic stellate cells in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

INTRODUCTION

The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment promotes progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). γδ T cells infiltrate the pancreatic tumor stroma and support tumorigenesis through αβ T cell inhibition. Pancreatic stellate cell (PSC) activation contributes to pancreatic fibrosis in PDAC, limiting the delivery and efficacy of therapeutic agents. Whether γδ T cells have direct effects on PSC activation is unknown.

METHODS

In this study, we analyzed tumor tissue from 68 patients with PDAC and determined the frequency and location of γδ T cells using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. PDAC samples from the TCGA database with low and high TRGC2 expression were correlated with the expression of extracellular matrix genes. Further, PSCs were isolated from pancreatic tumor tissue and co-cultured with γδ T cells for 48 hours and cytokine production was measured using a cytometric bead array.

RESULTS

γδ T cells infiltrated the pancreatic tumor stroma and were located in proximity to PSCs. A high infiltration of γδ T cells was associated with increased expression of several extracellular matrix genes in human PDAC. In vitro, γδ T cells stimulated IL-6 production by PDAC-derived PSCs.

CONCLUSION

γδ T cells activated PSCs and modulation of this interaction may enhance the efficacy of combinational therapies in human PDAC.

Differential Requirement for CCR6 in IL-23-Mediated Skin and Joint Inflammation

CCR6 is important for the trafficking of IL-17A-producing γδ T cells and required for the development of psoriasiform dermatitis in an IL-23 intradermal injection model. The role of CCR6, however, in IL-23-mediated joint inflammation is unclear. We herein hydrodynamically delivered IL-23 minicircle DNA into wild-type and CCR6-deficient (CCR6-knockout) mice to induce overexpression of IL-23 systemically. After IL-23 gene transfer, wild-type mice exhibited concurrent skin and joint changes that recapitulate some features found in human psoriatic skin and joints. CCR6-knockout mice were resistant to IL-23-induced skin inflammation but exhibited no changes in joint inflammation compared with wild-type mice. Depletion of neutrophils protected wild-type mice from skin and joint disease without suppressing T helper type 17 cytokine expression. In contrast, mice lacking γδ T cells showed a partial reduction in neutrophilic recruitment and a significant decrease in IL-17A expression in skin and paw tissue. Thus, in an IL-23-mediated model that allows concurrent assessment of both skin and joint disease, we showed that CCR6 is critical for inflammation in the skin but not in the joint. Furthermore, our data suggest that neutrophils and γδ T cells are key effector cells in IL-23-mediated skin and joint inflammation in mice.

T Cell Receptor Is Required for Differentiation, but Not Maintenance, of Intestinal CD4+ Intraepithelial Lymphocytes

The gut epithelium is populated by intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs), a heterogeneous T cell population with cytotoxic and regulatory properties, which can be acquired at the epithelial layer. However, the role of T cell receptor (TCR) in this process remains unclear. Single-cell transcriptomic analyses revealed distinct clonal expansions between cell states, with CD4+CD8αα+ IELs being one of the least diverse populations. Conditional deletion of TCR on differentiating CD4+ T cells or of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II on intestinal epithelial cells prevented CD4+CD8αα+ IEL differentiation. However, TCR ablation on differentiated CD4+CD8αα+ IELs or long-term cognate antigen withdraw did not affect their maintenance. TCR re-engagement of antigen-specific CD4+CD8αα+ IELs by Listeria monocytogenes did not alter their state but correlated with reduced bacterial invasion. Thus, local antigen recognition is an essential signal for differentiation of CD4+ T cells at the epithelium, yet differentiated IELs are able to preserve an effector program in the absence of TCR signaling.