["As we're not willing to hang and behead and not able to deport...". On Emil Kraepelin's influence on Franz von Liszt]

Emil Kraepelin started his scientific career with a pamphlet demanding complete restructure of German penal law. It is well known that Kraepelin was a recipient of Cesare Lombroso's theses on degeneration and atavism. Therefore his demand for a correctional law completely replacing penal law is easily understood. Still undiscussed however is the question of whether Kraepelin's brochure had a decisive effect on German criminal law, especially on the so-called Marburg Program of Franz von Liszt, still viewed as the first emergence of modern criminal law and policies in Germany. Examination of this shows that despite major theoretical faults, Kraepelin came to conclusions that correspond remarkably with von Liszt's. Special focus should be directed on the psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, who criticised Kraepelin's juridical attempt in a very kind yet fundamental way, and on the relationship that existed between Kraepelin and von Liszt.

Forensic psychiatry in nineteenth-century Saxony: the case of Woyzeck

In contrast to other areas of psychiatry, little work has been done on the history of forensic psychiatry, and such work is especially scarce regarding the first half of the 19th century, when forensic psychiatry began to develop together with the neurosciences. One newly discovered archival source bears immediate witness to the genesis of forensic psychiatry and is presented for the first time in this study. That source helps us to better understand, in particular, one of the most important cases in 19th-century German forensic psychiatry - namely, that of Johann Christian Woyzeck, the murderer who became the lead figure and the decisive model for the famous eponymous drama by German poet Georg Büchner. Duke Friedrich August, the heir to the throne of the German kingdom of Saxony, submitted a separately recorded special vote (or, very roughly speaking, a brief) that denied the criminal responsibility of the murderer since he had committed his crime out of jealousy and in an emotionally agitated state of mind that eliminated the offender's free will. Though possessing no relevant professional training, the duke applied, and argued in support of, a syndrome - partial mania - that was then the subject of ongoing controversy in general psychiatry. In that context, his vote and analysis can be seen a part of the conceptual development not only of forensic psychiatry, but also of German psychiatry and criminal law.

[The image of psychiatry in the "Leipziger Volkszeitung" - historical longitudinal study]

OBJECTIVE

This is the first paper to analyse historical changes and trends in psychiatric reports in one German daily newspaper.

METHODS

A total of 4362 issues of the Leipziger Volkszeitung from 14 selected years of publication, 2 subsequent every 15 years starting in 1897, was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively, thus covering all relevant eras of German history (with the exception of the years of World War I and the era of "National Socialism").

RESULTS

The presentation of psychiatric issues changed from rather neutral reports to negatively connotated reports. On the other hand the language used altered significantly: from mostly paraphrases to the use of exact psychiatric terms. Unexpectedly, however, this did not have a positive or smoothing impact on the character of the report.

CONCLUSIONS

Further and more extensive studies are necessary to find out whether our findings are suggestive to a general tendency toward stigmatisation and selective negative reporting on the subject of psychiatry in the history of German daily papers.

[The Möbius-Foundation - a source-based study in the history of promoting psychiatric and neurological research]

The Möbius-Foundation was founded on the initiative of some co-workers and friends of Leipzig neurologist and psychiatrist Paul Julius Möbius, who had died in 1907. Their aim was to venerate the memory of Möbius and to gather support for his and their subjects. After a starting phase of structuring and consolidating, the "Möbius-Foundation" began, according to its statute, to honour achievements in the fields of neurology and psychiatry. The foundation gained reputation throughout Germany in both of these fields. Among the prizewinners of the "Möbius-Award" were Alois Alzheimer, Emil Kraepelin, Max Nonne, Cécile and Oskar Vogt, or Otfrid Foerster. The inflation of 1923 immensely reduced the capital stock of the foundation, sentencing it to inactivity. Until 1938 Johannes Bresler tried to revive the "Möbius-Foundation". Later, the foundation was absorded by the GDNP (Society of German Neurologists and Psychiatrists). However, due to the outbreak of WW II in 1939, the foundation was not able to take up its work again. The history of the foundation mirrors en miniature both the social changes in Germany and German psychiatry in the first half of the twentieth century.

[The birth of the word 'psychosomatic' in medical literature by Johann Christian August Heinroth]

Up to the present day the contributions Johann Christian August Heinroth (1773-1843) made to the development of psychosomatics have been little acknowledged. This paper points out that it was Heinroth who introduced the term 'psychosomatic' into medical literature and examines his concept for psychosomatic ideas. Quotations from his work, among them the passage in his famous 1818 Textbook of Disturbances of Mental Life, are presented and interpreted in their context. All this shows clearly that Heinroth's approach reveals distinct psychosomatic ideas, especially in his concept of body and soul, the etiology and pathogenesis of mental illnesses. For Heinroth soul has the primacy over the body and both interact in many ways. Consequently, mental and many somatic illnesses are caused by the soul, i. e. psychogenetically. Hence Heinroth is of major importance for the history of psychosomatic medicine, not only because he introduced the name, but also due to his holistic and anthropological approach.

[Department of Psychiatry, Centre for Psychiatry, Psychatrium--trends and changes in the names for mental health care institutions in Germany in the 20th century]

This paper investigates trends in the history of names for psychiatric institutions in Germany in the 20 (th) century. Professional lobbyism as well as efforts to fight stigmatisation of mentally ill patients form the background for name changes. The replacement of the term "Heil- Und Pflegeanstalt" ("Institution for the Cure and Care") by "Krankenhaus" ("hospital") in the 1950s/1960s, when through the introduction of modern psychopharmaceuticals psychiatry finally got acknowledged as an equal medical discipline and at the same time broke with the dreadful heritage of Nazi psychiatry, was a major step. The unity of the hospital itself and complimentary mental health care institutions is often expressed by "Zentrum" ("centre") as is the preservation of the patients' ties and their reintegration into the community by "Soziale Psychiatrie".

[Is Akinesia algera by Paul Julius Möbius (1891) as a coenästhetic appearance a still up-to-date phenomenon?]

OBJECTIVE

Considering as example Akinesia algera - postulated in 1891 as a disease by Paul Julius Möbius, the relevance for diagnosing body-related mental disturbances will be demonstrated .

METHOD

Relevant original works of Möbius and of some of his well known contemporaries for instance Kraepelin, Binswanger, Erb were explored. The correlation of the described phenomenon to current textbook doctrine has been attempted.

RESULTS

Möbius, case histories, described as Akinesia algera, can be subsumed under the typology of coenästhetic schizophrenia.

CONCLUSION

Akinesia algera is by primary source to be evaluated as a coenästhetic symptom and remains in daily practice a diagnostic challenge.

Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809 - 1847): Das Rätsel seines frühen Todes

Composer and director of music at Leipzig's Gewandhaus Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy died remarkably young, on 4 November 1847, at the age of 38. The cause of his early death has been a mystery ever since. Three contemporary doctors diagnosed Nervenschlag ("nervous stroke"). Starting with a short outline of Mendelssohn's pathography, this paper includes and quotes for the first time all the contemporary accounts of his death. After considering the older medical interpretations, the paper considers these reports from the point of view of present-day neurological and psychiatric expertise. It reveals that all the accounts had been filed by medical laymen, so their personal impressions had played a major role in their reports. However, it is indisputable that it was pathologic brain alterations that lead to Mendelssohn's death. Weighing up and carefully considering the sources, the authors regard subarachnoidal hemorrhage (SAH) as a likely cause of death. There may even have been some kind of genetic predisposition, since what is reported in this paper regarding Mendelssohn's death also applies to the very similar symptoms and circumstances surrounding his sister Fanny's death.

Neuroblastoma with neuronal differentiation in the spinal cord in an Aberdeen Angus heifer calf

A 5-month-old, female, Aberdeen Angus heifer presented to the veterinary medical teaching hospital for evaluation of slowly progressive hindlimb ataxia. The calf was clinically normal until 4 months of age, following routine pregnancy and delivery. Neurologic examination revealed marked symmetric spastic hindlimb paraparesis. Thoracolumbar radiographs and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis were unremarkable. A presumptive diagnosis of T3-L3 myelopathy was made, and neurologic status remained static for 3 months with broad-spectrum antibiotic and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy. Additional diagnostic tests were refused, and a necropsy was performed following euthanasia. A moderately well delineated, reddish-tan, soft mass 18 mm in diameter replaced 80% of the fourth lumbar spinal cord segment. Histologic examination revealed two distinct features: undifferentiated, primitive, polygonal-to-round cells with typical morphologic characteristics of primitive neuroectoderm; and interspersed areas containing myelinated axons and cells with neuronal differentiation. Immunohistochemical examination confirmed the presence of primitive neuroepithelium and cells with neuronal differentiation.

["This time the reviewer is proud and pleased to agree with Kraepelin's latest nosology, since it is his own"]

This paper aims to acknowledge the major impact Leipzig neurologist and psychiatrist Paul Julius Möbius had on the classification of nervous and mental illnesses. His main objective was to differentiate them by their underlying cause. Between 1890 and 1893 he sampled his views for both subjects. Expanding Evariste Marandon de Montyel's ideas of 1889 Möbius not only agreed that illnesses can emerge from causes that lie mainly within the body as well as mainly outside it, he even went as far as to say that there were illnesses that are solely based on causes outside the body. Moreover, it was Möbius who first introduced the terms "endogenous" and "exogenous" diseases. In accordance with the degeneration theory of his time he referred to transmission as the only etiological factor for endogenous illnesses, proposing that the extent of the illness is determined by the degree of degeneration. In the case of exogenous illnesses, however, the various stimuli affecting the nervous system would lead to qualitatively different illnesses. It is mainly due to Emil Kraepelin, who took over Möbius's dichotomy in the fifth edition of his most influential textbook of psychiatry of 1896, that his views had a lasting influence. And as it shown in the present study it was both through personal arguments with his old friend from Leipzig as well as through Möbius's equally critical and reprimanding reviews of the individual editions of Kraepelin's textbook that the latter acknowledged the importance of the etiological factor in his multi-factorial clinical and empirical nosology. However, since Möbius only considered etiological causes and neglected all others one should refrain from renaming, as suggested, "Kraepelin's nosology" as "Kraepelin's and Möbius's classification".

[The Leipzig Magistrates Court's death sentences in the Woyzeck case]

The trial of Johann Christian Woyzeck for murder is among the most significant for forensic psychiatry in the 19 (th) century. The case gained worldwide fame, not only because of Georg Büchner's eponymous drama. A thorough analysis and reconstruction of the proceedings would allow more light to be shed on one of the major events in the evolution of modern psychiatric positions regarding criminal responsibility. To support this effort, this paper presents two original sources that have just been rediscovered in the archives, and which are of major importance in respect of both the Woyzeck case and the history of forensic psychiatry. Until now only transcripts had been available. The two documents in question relate to the death sentences issued by the Leipzig magistrates court (Schöppenstuhl). They clearly show the ruling feudal and municipal authorities' efforts to exploit both the general rules of procedure as well as the forensic testimony given by Leipzig's medical officer and professor, Johann Christian August Clarus, for their own restorative political interests. This is revealed by the fact, among others, that the legal procedures are interpreted in the narrowest possible way and the crux of the problem, namely the culprit's criminal responsibility, is not really the focus of attention. The defence does not really have a chance, the more so since it makes pleas that are both contradictory and amateurist from a psychiatric point of view. Moreover, its efforts to garner support from reformist forces, above all among scholars, are undermined by the defence team's manipulation of the facts.

The origin of pharmacopsychology: Emil Kraepelin's experiments in Leipzig, Dorpat and Heidelberg (1882-1892)

This historical review shows that the early history of cognitive psychopharmacology, originally labelled as "pharmacopsychology", is closely linked to developments in experimental psychology and academic psychiatry. At the beginning of his scientific career, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) joined Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory of experimental psychology at the University of Leipzig. Although Kraepelin was fired from his clinical position at the university's psychiatric hospital, he completed his habilitation, the German equivalent of Ph.D., and started a series of pharmacological investigations in healthy volunteers using common recreational drugs (alcohol, coffee, tea) or medicinal products (amyl nitrite, chloral hydrate, chloroform, ethyl ether, morphine, paraldehyde) together with innovative psychological tasks. This paper reviews Kraepelin's pharmacopsychological research and his methodological innovations, providing translations, for the first time, from original papers, his monograph On the Modulation of Simple Psychological Processes by Some Medicines and from other sources. Kraepelin's contributions to psychopharmacology and clinical neuropsychology were far ahead of his time and his conceptual achievements have been largely neglected by modern psychiatry and cognitive neuroscience.

[The records of the Medical Faculty of the University of Leipzig on the Woyzeck case, discovered again after 180 years]

Through Georg Büchner's drama the case of Johann Christian Woyzeck gained worldwide fame. For the first time ever this study presents the testimonial drawn up by the Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, which until now had been regarded as having been lost. Now, however, the first-named author rediscovered it in the files of the Leipzig University Archives. The testimonial proved to be a decisive importance, as it sealed Woyzeck's execution in 1824. Before presenting major passages from the testimonial this study give an overview of the chronology of the Woyzeck case and the other medico-psychiatric testimonials drawn up by Leipzig municipal physician Johann Christian August Clarus. It also reveals which professors of Leipzig Medical Faculty were involved in drawing up the final testimonial which confirmed Clarus's findings and rejected the objections raised by Woyzeck's counsel - remarkably without examining the offender himself first-hand, but merely relying on and evaluating the testimonials drawn up by Clarus.

Karl Kleist and his refusal of an appointment at Leipzig in 1923

Further to the study of Newmärker and Bartsch (2003) of Karl Kleist (1879-1960), this short contribution based on archive material, cited for the first time, looks into Kleist's motives for refusing an appointment as Professor of Psychiatry and Neurology at Leipzig University. This study comes to the conclusion that Kleist thought seriously of moving to Leipzig. However, the Saxony Ministry of People's Education refused to make a definite financial commitment to the reconstruction and building work that Kleist considered essential. On the other hand, the authorities in Frankfurt am Main, where Kleist had been appointed 3 years earlier, evidently agreed to the funding he required if he was to remain there. This finally prompted him to turn down the Leipzig offer.

Spin-Charge Separation and Localization in One Dimension

We report on measurements of quantum many-body modes in ballistic wires and their dependence on Coulomb interactions, obtained by tunneling between two parallel wires in an GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure while varying electron density. We observed two spin modes and one charge mode of the coupled wires and mapped the dispersion velocities of the modes down to a critical density, at which spontaneous localization was observed. Theoretical calculations of the charge velocity agree well with the data, although they also predict an additional charge mode that was not observed. The measured spin velocity was smaller than theoretically predicted.

The sin in the aetiological concept of Johann Christian August Heinroth (1773-1843): Part 2: Self-guilt as turning away from reason in the framework of Heinroth's concept of the interrelationships between body and soul

Throughout his work Johann Christian August Heinroth regarded sin to be the cause of mental illness. The present two-part paper investigates what exactly Heinroth understood by sin. Based on a thorough analysis of his own texts, this study shows that on the one hand Heinroth referred to sin in a Christian-Protestant sense. On the other, however, a moral-ethical code of conduct was also involved. Thus, Heinroth did not regard sin as a singular event, but rather as a life conducted in a wrong way for years or even decades, by which he meant a steady striving towards earthly, bodily satisfaction.

["I am rather satisfied with this interpretation of my dreams." -- real-life and work-related encounters between psychiatrist Johann Christian August Heinroth and poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]

Apart from being a major pioneer of modern psychiatry, Johann Christian August Heinroth (1773 - 1843) is foremost famous as the first academic teacher, professor of this subject at Leipzig University. Despite his theoretical concepts being thoroughly investigated by medical historians, the fact that his scientific work also brought him in contact with Weimar poet and scientist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 - 1832) has up to now not been acknowledged. This paper analyses for the first time the manifold points of contact between the two geniuses. Starting off with a retrospective on Goethe's relationship towards psychiatry in his day, this paper investigates the mutual interconnections and influences between the two. This is achieved by an analysis of yet unknown primary sources as well as Goethe's literary and scientific works. A main emphasis is also placed on Heinroth's Textbook of Anthropology of 1822 in which the psychiatrist laid out his understanding of 'relational thinking' (gegenständliches Denken), a key concept for both. This theory developed from Heinroth's dealing with Goethe's concept of "anschauung" and was to gain major importance not only for his way of gaining knowledge in general but also for his psychiatric concept. Goethe's influence on Heinroth is particularly revealed in the latter's holistic views on mental illnesses. Heinroth's visit to Goethe on 15 September 1827 can be earmarked as a sign of their mutual esteem.

[Doctor and patient: Paul Flechsig and Daniel Paul Schreber]

During his three stays in psychiatric institutions between 1884 and 1911, Daniel Paul Schreber was also twice treated in the psychiatric and neurological hospital of Leipzig University headed by Paul Flechsig. In his "Memoirs of a Nervous Patient," Schreber also described the treatment he had received there, which in his perception seemed to be of crucial importance for his later fate. Research on the Schreber case in the last 25 years, based mainly on the interpretation of his own memoirs, supported the view that in fact Flechsig was to blame to a great extent for the outbreak of Schreber's paranoid schizophrenia in February 1894. This paper aims at forwarding exonerating arguments in favor of Flechsig, concluding that what he did did not differ distinctively from the standard tenets of organic psychiatry taught at that time. Of course this does not change the fact that Schreber did not receive the right kind of treatment. However, it puts Flechsig's approach into the right perspective.

The sin in the aetiological concept of Johann Christian August Heinroth (1773-1843). Part 1: Between theology and psychiatry. Heinroth's concepts of 'whose being', 'freedom', 'reason' and 'disturbance of the soul'

Throughout his work Johann Christian August Heinroth regarded sin to be the cause of mental illness. The present two-part paper investigates what exactly Heinroth understood by sin. Based on a thorough analysis of his own texts, this study shows that on the one hand Heinroth referred to sin in a Christian-Protestant sense. On the other, however, a moral-ethical code of conduct was also involved. Thus, Heinroth did not regard sin as a singular event, but rather as a life conducted in a wrong way for years or even decades, by which he meant a steady striving towards earthly, bodily satisfaction.

[On the 150th birthday of Paul Julius Möbius (1853-1907)]

In memory of Paul Julius Möbius (1853-1907) on the occasion of his 150th birthday Among his profession Leipzig neurologist and psychiatrist Paul Julius Möbius made a name for himself by clinical studies on singular neurological topics. Several of these contributions have been acknowledged until today by giving his name to these symptoms or illnesses (cf. 'Möbius sign', 'Möbius syndrome', 'Möbius disease'). It was also him who divided nervous illnesses into endogenous and exogenous ones. Furthermore, Möbius made significant contributions towards the understanding of the causes for some mental illnesses, e.g. it was him who postulated a psychogenic development of hysteria. Through his pathographies as well as his work as a major reviewer and editor of 'Schmidt's Annals of Domestic and Foreign Entire Medicine' Möbius became known to a greater public. Even more well-known, if not infamous, Möbius's name is for his pamphlet on 'The Physiological Mental Weakness of Woman'. As a result of it's repeated republication he was accused to be hating women and his major contributions towards the progress of the neurosciences have been neglected.

Die Errichtung des ersten psychiatrischen Lehrstuhls: Johann Christian August Heinroth in Leipzig

Much research has been done on the work of the alleged "psychicist" Johann Christian August Heinroth (1773-1843). However, his academic career has not yet been investigated in depth. For the first time, original archive material and other sources are quoted to illuminate his history and that of the first European chair of psychiatry at Leipzig University in Germany. Heinroth was first appointed associate professor (without a specific subject), and on 21 October 1811 he became the first associate professor of "psychic therapy". Despite his efforts, this chair was not transformed into a fellow professorship in 1815. In 1819, Heinroth succeeded in being appointed fellow professor, but for medicine in general and not psychiatry in particular. Thus his position was upgraded but his subject was not. After Heinroth's death in 1843, Justus Radius (1797-1884) took over psychiatry as a third, "part-time" chair. After several shifts in responsibilities, he ceased being explicitly referred to as professor of psychiatry.

[Psychiatrist Johann Christian August Heinroth's (1773-1843) practical work at St George's prison, orphanage and madhouse in Leipzig]

This paper ventures to give insights into and evaluate HEINROTH's practical work as a doctor at Leipzig's Georgenhaus on the basis of primary sources found at Leipzig and other Saxony archives. The analysis shows that HEINROTH took up this post because of financial needs. Hence there arose a conflict between this job at the city's orphanage and madhouse and HEINROTH's real ambition of becoming a professor of psychiatry at Leipzig University. THis continued for the whole of his time there. HEINROTH undertook an extremely responsible role and worked energetically at St George's from 1814 until 1834; almost the entire medical care of the 600 inmate lay in his hands. HEINROTH cannot be held responsible for the failure to reform the mental health care system, though urgently needed. On the contrary, he made every effort to ease his patients' mental anguish and life at St George's. However, it must be pointed out that HEINROTH entrusted to his assistants a great part of his duties. HEINROTH did not always fulfil his duties at the local prison to the agreed extent. Increased tensions between him and authorities led to mutual recriminations which ultimately resulted in HEINROTH's dismissal at Christmas 1833. No final judgement can be made as to what extent the arguments propounded by both parties were justified.

[Psychiatry at Leipzig University. A 200 year old tradition]

The University of Leipzig boasts a long tradition in the field of psychiatry. In 1811 Johann Christian August Heinroth was appointed as the first professor of mental health ("psychic therapy") in Europe. He conceived mental illness as based on a person's own guilt, as the consequence of turning away from God and living a life untrue to Christian ethics. After Heinroth retired in 1843 the Leipzig chair remained vacant until 1878 brain researcher Paul Flechsig succeeded him as professor of psychiatry, although not significantly contributing to the progress of this subject. His first assistant was Emil Kraepelin. Flechsig's successors, Oswald Bumke and Paul Schroder, included psychological as well as sociogenetic topics in their research. The latter did pioneering work for the institutionalization of child and adolescent psychiatry. The history of Leipzig psychiatry during the Nazi years has not yet been researched in depth. So far, however, no evidence has been found to prove the university hospital's involvement in German psychiatry's excruciating crimes on patients. It is true, however, that as elsewhere doctors of the Leipzig hospital were members of the Courts of Hereditary Health (Erbgesundheitsgericht) and that e.g. August Bostroem knew of the homicides. In 1943, during the directorship of Werner Wagner, the hospital was totally destroyed. Its reconstruction was mainly the work of Richard Arwed Pfeifer, who also made remarkable contributions to the study of the angiostructure of the brain. With Dietfried Muller-Hegemann, who had a major influence of East-German psychotherapy, the social psychiatric era began, and it was successfully continued under Berhard Schwarz, Klaus Weise and the hospital's present head, Matthias C. Angermeyer, Weise's theoretical and philosophical achievements in the foundation and his demand for an empirical verification of social psychiatric ideas in the whole of Germany are acknowledged until the present day. Last but no least it was him who from 1975 on first tried to implement these concepts into practice in Leipzig.

[Madhouse, asylum, retreat, specialist hospital - on the genesis and history of names for psychiatric institutions in Germany until the beginning of the 20th century]

This paper analyses the history of names for psychiatric institutions in the German language. When scientific, medical psychiatry came into being in the late 18 (th) century, names with negative connotations such as "Narrenhaus" or "Tollhaus" (approximating to the English word "madhouse") were substituted by the then neutral "Irrenhaus" and later in the 19 (th) century by "Irrenanstalt". Soon, however, this new term became associated with negative connotations, making it unsuitable as a reflection of the many improvements made both in the treatment and the public image of psychiatric service users. Changes in word form such as "Heilanstalt", "Pflegeanstalt" and "Heil- und Pflegeanstalt" better reflect the character of the institutions. Objections to the word "Anstalt" (institution) were not acknowledged until the 20 (th) century when the term "Fachkrankenhaus" ("specialist hospital") was introduced. Before then the German word "Klinik" was reserved for university hospitals, the first of which was founded in 1878. The history of names for psychiatric institutions reflects both changes in the treatment of the mentally ill and the attempts made above all by psychiatrists to face and overcome stigmatisation of their clients.

[Treatment of hysteria in the 19th century--in which way did German psychiatrists view castration?]

Until the late 19 th century treatment of hysteria, this inhomogeneous group of somatic, neurological and psychiatric symptoms, hardly differed from the methods of the Greco-Roman epoch. Dietetics, physical applications, and smaller surgical operations made up the standard forms of intervention for this illness which was regarded as belonging to the field of gynecology. Thus, it is not astonishing that oophorectomy (ovariectomy) was included into the therapeutic spectrum for hysteria both in Germany and beyond at the end of the 19 th century. It was above all gynecologist Alfred Hegar (1830 - 1914) who tried to extend the application of this method to nervous illnesses. This therapeutic alternative did not, however, meet with an unanimously positive response among psychiatrists. Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840 - 1902) as a follower of the degeneration theory as well as Paul Flechsig (1847 - 1929) supported it, applying it as the ultima ratio. But since these operations produced no lasting curative impact, functional neurological disorders were regarded more important. From Emil Kraepelin (1856 - 1926) then, psychiatrists began to understand the psychological component of this illness, for which Leipzig neurologist Paul Julius Möbius (1853 - 1907) had made major contributions. Thus, surgical interventions were rejected and conservative methods of treatment were developed further considering psychological aspects. It was Adolf Strümpell (1853 - 1925) who had laid the basis for this postulating a "psychic trauma" as the cause for hysteria as early as in 1884. On the other hand, Möbius had developed a psychotherapeutic concept for the treatment of these disorders long before Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) came out with his psychocathartic method.

Two hundred years of psychiatry at Leipzig University: an overview

The University of Leipzig boasts a long tradition in the field of psychiatry. In 1811 J.C.A. Heinroth was appointed as the first professor of psychiatry in Europe. In 1877 brain researcher P. Flechsig inherited his chair, but did not significantly contribute to the progress of this speciality. His first assistant was E. Kraepelin. Flechsig's successors, O. Bumke and P. Schröder, included psychological as well as sociogenetic topics in their research. The latter did pioneering work for the institutionalization of child and adolescent psychiatry. After the destruction of the hospital in 1943, R. A. Pfeifer re-organized its operation, and he also made remarkable contributions to the study of the angiostructure of the brain. With D. Müller-Hegemann, who had a major influence on German psychotherapy, the social psychiatric era began, and it was successfully continued under B. Schwarz, K. Weise and the hospital's present head, M. C. Angermeyer. Under Angermeyer the institutional basis of the clinic has been improved to include, among its other services, a day clinic and an optionally open-closed ward.

[Emil Kraepelin's work at the Silesian Provincial Psychiatric State Hospital in Leubus]

Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) worked as surgical resident physician at Leubus (Lubiaz) Psychiatric State Hospital (asylum) in Silesia from August 1884 to April 1885. The asylum had been founded in a converted monastery as recommended by Johann Gottfried Langermann (1768-1832). Its first superintendent was Moritz Gustav Martini (1794-1875). Although no primary documents concerning Kraepelin's stay at Leubus could be found in the archives, the secondary sources and Kraepelin's own publications offer a good perspective on his Leubus period. Thus, his ground-breaking psychopathological study of confusion is based on patients observed at Leubus. Furthermore, it was here that his work on the major paper on falsifications of memory was begun. Kraepelin also finished the second part of his study "On the psychology of the comic" and wrote a postscript to his paper on the validity of Weber's law regarding light sensations. Since the then superintendent Wilhelm Alter (1843-1918) did not object to his residents doing scientific work, Kraepelin encouraged the voluntary resident physician Max Salomon (1860-?) to write a thesis on double-thinking. He also devoted a great deal of his time to writing reviews and to research in experimental psychology. Kraepelin's time at Leubus, similar to his Dresden period, are but a transitional phase for his final return to the university which he had left temporarily because he was disappointed and frustrated by the lack of career opportunities that suited his needs.

["How this conflict tortures me!" The man Emil Kraepelin as viewed in his poems]

In 1928, Emil Kraepelin's poems were published posthumously. They provide thus far unknown insight into his intellectual and emotional world. Here we meet the man Kraepelin rather than the psychiatrist. We feel the rather pensive mood he expresses using the same allegories from the world of nature again and again. Kraepelin suffers from the fate of his mother country and his profession as a doctor, which puts him in "slave chains," thus preventing him from following his own course and fulfilling his longings. Those can be seen in his wish to dedicate himself fully to his nosological, psychopathological, or experimental psychological research. One wonders why he did not push his aims through more forcefully in these areas. Procrastination became Kraepelin's self-deception, since he could enter those worlds periodically only. In this way, they resemble his journeys to the south, which became a metaphor for freedom.

LPS-sensory peptide communication in experimental cystitis

Stimulation of sensory nerves can lead to release of peptides such as substance P (SP) and consequently to neurogenic inflammation. We studied the role of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in regulating SP-induced inflammation. Experimental cystitis was induced in female mice by intravesical instillation of SP, LPS, or fluorescein-labeled LPS. Uptake of fluorescein-labeled LPS was determined by confocal analysis, and bladder inflammation was determined by morphological analysis. SP was infused into the bladders of some mice 24 h after exposure to LPS. In vitro studies determined the capacity of LPS and SP to induce histamine and cytokine release by the bladder. LPS was taken up by urothelial cells and distributed systemically. Twenty-four hours after instillation of LPS or SP, bladder inflammation was characterized by edema and leukocytic infiltration of the bladder wall. LPS pretreatment enhanced neutrophil infiltration induced by SP, increased in vitro release of histamine, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interferon-gamma, and significantly reduced transforming growth factor-beta1 release. These findings suggest that LPS amplifies neurogenic inflammation, thereby playing a role in the pathogenesis of neurogenic cystitis.

Interstitial pneumonitis in a patient treated with alpha-interferon and ribavirin for hepatitis C infection

Hepatitis C is a common infection with worldwide prevalence. It has a variable course and can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Until recently alpha-interferon (IFN-alpha) was the only effective treatment available. Combination therapy with IFN-alpha and ribavirin has been found to be more efficacious than IFN-alpha alone. Various side effects have been ascribed to interferon, such as arthralgias, myalgias, fatigue, and gastrointestinal and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Interstitial pneumonitis is a rare but known complication of IFN-alpha when given at a high dosage of 6 to 10 million units per day. Ribavirin is associated with dose-dependent hemolytic anemia, cough, dyspnea, rash, depression, and dyspepsia, although a potential role in interferon-induced interstitial pneumonitis has not been described. We describe a patient with an excellent clinical response of chronic hepatitis C to combination therapy with IFN-alpha at a dosage of 3 million units per day and ribavirin. The patient developed interstitial pneumonitis that resolved after discontinuation of IFN-alpha and ribavirin. Given that interstitial pneumonitis has previously been reported with high-dose IFN-alpha, this case suggests that this complication may occur with lower dosages of IFN-alpha, although a potential role for ribavirin in this disorder at present remains speculative.

Infestation of a bird and two cats by larvae of Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

The larvae of Plodia interpunctella (Hübner), commonly known as the Indian meal moth, often cause enormous losses in stored food supplies. We present three clinical case reports of accidental infestation by P. interpunctella larvae in two domestic cats and one parakeet. A larva gained entry into the avian host and subsequently migrated to the brain. It was alive, covered with "silk-like" fibers and confirmed to be a fourth instar. Plodia interpunctella larvae were excised with forceps from the subcutaneous tissues of the ear and neck of two cats in a different household. Previous reports of infestation by P. interpunctella larvae in vertebrates are unknown.

Mood change through physical exercise in nine- to ten-year-old children

The present study assessed the effect of two types of physical exercise on the self reported mood of 64 9 and 10-yr.-old children who responded to a self-report mood meassure after two different types of aerobic exercise of 15 min., and after a 15-min. video. Significant increases in positive mood and significant decreases in negative mood were found after each exercise treatment; however, positive mood decreased and negative mood increased following the video treatment. Interestingly, no significant difference in mean mood scores was found between the two exercise treatments. These data suggest that short bouts of physical exercise have psychological benefits for children.

Iridociliary epithelial tumors in 100 dogs and 17 cats: a morphological study

The morphological features of iridociliary epithelial tumors in 100 dogs and 17 cats were reviewed. Twenty-seven cases were in either Golden Retrievers or Labrador Retrievers. Affected globes were stained for light microscopy with alcian blue, periodic acid Schiff (PAS) and hematoxylin and eosin stains. Selected tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry for vimentin, desmin, cytokeratin, S-100, neuron-specific enolase (NSE), and glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP). The presence or absence of hyaluronic acid was recorded by staining with alcian blue before and after digestion of the tissue with hyaluronidase. Canine tumors were divided into papillary and solid tumors based on the pattern of growth. Twenty-eight of 57 papillary tumors exhibited invasive behavior including eight of the 57 which showed infiltration of the sclera. Twenty-nine of 43 solid tumors were invasive including 13 of 43 with scleral invasion. Tumors with scleral invasion were designated adenocarcinoma. Tumors of both types could be pigmented or nonpigmented and often contained smooth basement membranes reminiscent of the inner membrane of the nonpigmented ciliary body epithelial cell. All of the feline tumors were nonpigmented and 14 of 16 feline tumors were solid and two of the tumors were papillary. Eighteen of 20 canine tumors and three of four feline tumors stained positive for vimentin. Cytokeratin stain was positive only in a few of the highly aggressive tumors. The finding of pigmented epithelial cells, thick, smooth basement membrane structures, positive staining for vimentin, S-100, and NSE as well as hyaluronic acid deposition were considered to be features which define iridociliary epithelial tumors in dogs. The positive staining for vimentin and NSE are highly specific markers which help to characterize iridociliary epithelium and distinguish this tumor from metastatic epithelial tumors. The finding of solid nonpigmented tumors with small epithelial cells packeted by thin PAS-positive membranes staining positive for vimentin were considered significant features defining iridociliary epithelial tumors in cats. Follow-up information on survival and cause of death was obtained on 43 canine cases and only two feline cases. The average follow-up interval in dogs was 25 months and only two dogs died with lesions that could have been due to metastasis although neither was confirmed. We concluded that neither iridociliary adenomas nor adenocarcinomas is likely to metastasize.

Nephrolithiasis during pregnancy secondary to primary hyperparathyroidism

Nephrolithiasis secondary to primary hyperparathyroidism infrequently complicates pregnancy. It can cause severe maternal and fetal complications. We present a case of a pregnant woman with nephrolithiasis and primary hyperparathyroidism. We reviewed the management of nephrolithiasis due to primary hyperparathyroidism during pregnancy. We believe that early recognition and timely intervention can significantly reduce the incidence of complications.

Dietary supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid does not alter the resistance of mice to Listeria monocytogenes infection

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been used experimentally as a dietary supplement to increase lean body weight and to modulate inflammation in a variety of animal species. In addition, human use of dietary CLA as a supplement to regulate body fat has received both scientific and public attention. No reports have been published regarding the effects of dietary CLA on antimicrobial resistance. In this study, we provide evidence that feeding CLA for up to 4 wk does not alter host defense against Listeria monocytogenes in mice. These findings suggest that the anti-inflammatory effects of CLA do not impair cellular immunity to this intracellular pathogen.

Cholesterol granulomas in three meerkats (Suricata suricatta)

Cholesterol granulomas are uncommon pathologic lesions in animals, although they are important intracranial tumors in humans. This report describes cholesterol granulomas associated with multiple organ systems of three captive meerkats. In the most severe case, meerkat No. 1, the pathologic behavior of the cholesterol granuloma was unique in that it appeared to locally invade the cerebrum and calvarium, possibly contributing to neurological deficits observed antemortem. A review of other meerkat necropsies revealed incidental, asymptomatic cholesterol granulomas in organs of two other individuals, meerkat Nos. 2 and 3. Histologically, all lesions were composed of cholesterol clefts admixed with large, foamy macrophages containing hemosiderin, multinucleated giant cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and foci of mineralization. Hypercholesterolemia was documented in two of the three meerkats.

[Colloquial terminology in German depicting mentally ill and odd people. Etymologic-sociolinguistic review]

OBJECTIVE

This paper investigates the picture of the mentally ill in German colloquial language.

METHOD

The empirically collected single words and phrases were subject to systematic semantical, linguo-historical as well as etymological investigations, the results of which were then contrasted with selected psychiatric concepts of the 18th/19th century.

RESULTS

Most of the words found aim at the head or brain which are often compared with a mechanism and regarded as the actual starting point of the disease. Other terms refer to blows or other mechanical impressions as the cause of mental illnesses. There is another group of words depicting weakness or even total loss of mind. Some of the ideas expressed by the words or structures analysed coincide with concepts psychiatrists had in the past. Many of the words even had been terms in psychiatric theory before they became part of the everyday language after having been loaded with negative connotative meanings making them inappropriate for being a scientific term. Some lexemes have been taken over from other languages, above all from English.

CONCLUSION

Language mirrors stigmatisation of mentally ill people by society in an extraordinarily drastic way. Thus the colloquial names for them share the same fate as the words for other--ethnic, sexual, whatsoever--minorities: by pure means of language those people are regarded as somewhat strange, not belonging, something negative one does not wish to have contact with. On the other hand however, there have always been attempts to counter this by replacing negatively connotated words by other, neutral or even positive ones. Thus was the introduction of the new word nervenkrank ("ill in the nerves", cf English brainsick) in the 19th century, making mentally ill people even to bodily ill ones, what meant an enormous enhancement in value for both the patients and the psychiatrists. Today's name Betroffene ("affect-ed") is another example for those attempts. As can be seen from the historical retrospective this had been the case in former times as well.

Disseminated T-cell lymphoma in a guinea pig with bilateral ocular involvement

A 2-year-old female shorthair guinea pig was presented to the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of Wisconsin-Madison, for evaluation of a unilateral corneal opacity of 1 week duration. Physical examination revealed a markedly thickened right cornea and lymphadenopathy of the submandibular and prescapular lymph nodes. Cytology of a lymph node aspirate was highly suggestive of lymphoma. The animal was humanely euthanized. Postmortem examination revealed a disseminated lymphadenopathy involving the submandibular, anterior cervical, prescapular, bronchial, anterior mediastinal, and mesenteric nodes, and hepatomegaly with accentuation of lobular morphology. The right cornea was dark red, dry and dull, and diffusely thickened, and the globe was exophthalmic. Microscopically, pleomorphic neoplastic lymphoblasts were present in the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, heart, rhinarium, bone marrow, and kidneys. Bilateral infiltration of the eyes by neoplastic lymphoblasts was noted, which was more extensive on the right. The neoplastic cells stained immunohistochemically as T-lymphocytes using antibodies directed against CD3 antigen.