An evaluation of the policy on community health organizations in China: will the priority of new healthcare reform in China be a success?

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this paper is to assess historical and recent health reform efforts in China. We provide a brief history of the Chinese healthcare system since 1949 as context for the current healthcare; examine the factors that led to recent efforts to reestablish community-based care in China; and identify the challenges associated with attaining a sustainable and quality community healthcare system.

METHODS

Based on literature review and publicly available data in China, the paper will present a historical case study analysis of health policy change of CHOs in China and provide policy evaluation, and the paper provided policy suggestions.

RESULTS

We find that the government's recent efforts to emphasize the significance of community healthcare services in China have started to change patterns of healthcare use, but many problems still inhibit the development of CHOs, including unsustainable governmental roles, issues of human resource inadequacy and laggard GP practice, poorly designed payment schemes, patient's trust crisis and continue to inhibit the development of community-based primary care.

CONCLUSIONS

Additional policy efforts to help CHOs' development are needed. Recent government investments in public health and primary care alone are not sufficient and could not be sustainable. It will not until long-term self-sustaining mechanisms to relieve an omnipotent government are established, including competent community doctors (GP) system, supportive social insurance reimbursement, appropriate financial incentives to providers, better transparency and accountability, as well as a more regulated referral system, a legitimate, sustainable and quality community health system could be attained.

Achieving horizontal equity: must we have a single-payer health system?

The question posed in this article is whether single-payer health care systems are more likely to provide equal treatment for equal need (horizontal equity) than are multipayer systems. To address this question, we compare access to primary and specialty health care services across selected neighborhoods, grouped by average household income, in a single-payer system (the English NHS), a multiple-payer system with universal coverage (French National Health Insurance), and the U.S. multiple-payer system characterized by large gaps in health insurance coverage. We find that Paris residents, including those with low incomes, have better access to health care than their counterparts in Inner London and Manhattan. This finding casts doubt on the notion that the number of payers influences the capacity of a health care system to provide equitable access to its residents. The lesson is to worry less about the number of payers and more about the system's ability to assure access to primary and specialty care services.

Political strategies of safety-net providers in response to medicaid managed care reforms

Safety-net providers play a central role in the U.S. health care system because they provide the bulk of services to the poor and the uninsured. The health policy literature focuses a great deal on the capacity of these institutions to provide services and the forces that shape these institutions and the services they provide, yet little is made of safety-net providers' potential role as advocates for the poor and for disadvantaged groups. In this article, we draw on findings from a case study of Medicaid policy making in Connecticut to explore efforts by safety-net providers and other nonprofit organizations to advocate around health care policy for the poor. Our findings illustrate how the capacity of nonprofit advocates to represent the poor can be compromised when the rules of the game change and nonprofit providers are asked to compete with for-profit organizations. We find that under a change in the contracting regime--from collaboration to competition--nonprofit service providers may increase political activity to secure a favorable role under the new regime, but these efforts may compromise their ability to act as representatives of the poor.

The voice of advocates in health care policymaking for the poor

Connecticut's Medicaid Managed Care Council gave advocates for the poor an opportunity to monitor the state's Medicaid reform and provided a forum for public discussion of the program's main goals: cost control; improved quality and access to mainstream health care services. Participants engaged in an active discussion of the first two goals, but largely ignored mainstream access. We discuss why this issue did not generate public debate even though many advocates expressed concern about the issue during private interviews. We conclude that they chose not to discuss the issue publicly because they felt that an attainable solution did not exist.

Population health and the health system: a comparative analysis of avoidable mortality in three nations and their world cities

BACKGROUND

Access to timely and effective medical services can reduce rates of premature mortality attributed to certain conditions. We investigate rates of total and avoidable mortality (AM) and the percentage of avoidable deaths in France, England and Wales and the United States, three wealthy nations with different health systems, and in the urban cores of their world cities, Paris, Inner London and Manhattan. We examine the association between AM and an income-related variable among neighbourhoods of the three cities.

METHODS

We obtained mortality data from vital statistics sources for each geographic area. For two time-periods, 1988-90 and 1998-2000, we assess the correlation between area of residence and age- and gender-adjusted total and AM rates. In our comparison of world cities, regression models are employed to analyse the association of a neighbourhood income-related variable with AM.

RESULTS

France has the lowest mortality rates. The US exhibits higher total, but similar AM rates compared to England and Wales. Rates of AM are lowest in Paris and highest in London. Avoidable mortality rates are higher in poor neighbourhoods of all three cities; only in Manhattan is there a correlation between the percentage of deaths that are avoidable and an income related variable.

CONCLUSIONS

Beyond the well-known association of income and mortality, persistent disparities in AM exist, particularly in Manhattan and Inner London. These disparities are disturbing and should receive greater attention from policy makers.

A New Way To Compare Health Systems: Avoidable Hospital Conditions In Manhattan And Paris

Based on a comparison of discharges for avoidable hospital conditions (AHCs), we find that Paris provides greater access to primary care than Manhattan. Age-adjusted AHC rates are more than 2.5 times as high in Manhattan as in Paris. In contrast, the difference in rates of hospital discharge for "marker conditions" are only about 20 percent higher in Manhattan. Rates of discharges for AHCs are higher among residents of low-income neighborhoods in both cities, but the disparity among high- and low-income neighborhoods is more than twice as great in Manhattan. Our analysis highlights the consequences of access barriers to care in Manhattan, particularly among vulnerable residents.

Gender and the treatment of heart disease in older persons in the United States, France, and England: a comparative, population-based view of a clinical phenomenon

BACKGROUND

Gender disparities in the treatment of coronary artery disease (CAD) have been extensively documented in studies from the United States. However, they have been less well studied in other countries and, to our knowledge, have not been investigated at the more disaggregated spatial level of cities.

OBJECTIVE

This study tests the hypothesis that there is a common international pattern of gender disparity in the treatment of CAD in persons aged > or =65 years by analyzing data from the United States, France, and England and from their largest cities-New York City and its outer boroughs, Paris and its First Ring, and Greater London.

METHODS

This was an ecological study based on a retrospective analysis of comparable administrative data from government health databases for the 9 spatial units of analysis: the 3 countries, their 3 largest cities, and the urban cores of these 3 cities. A simple index was used to assess the relationship between treatment rates and a measure of CAD prevalence by gender among age-adjusted cohorts of patients. Differences in rates were examined by univariate analysis using the Student t test for statistical differences in mean values.

RESULTS

Despite differences in health system characteristics, including health insurance coverage, availability of medical resources, and medical culture, we found consistent gender differences in rates of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty and coronary artery bypass grafting across the 9 spatial units. The rate of interventional treatment in women with CAD was less than half that in men. This difference persisted after adjustment for the prevalence of heart disease.

CONCLUSIONS

A consistent pattern of gender disparity in the interventional treatment of CAD was seen across 3 national health systems with known differences in patterns of medical practice. This finding is consistent with the results of clinical studies suggesting that gender disparities in the treatment of CAD are due at least in part to the underdiagnosis of CAD in women.

AHCPR and the changing politics of health services research

The Agency for Health Care Policy and Research has had a turbulent history. Created with little opposition in 1989, it narrowly escaped being eliminated in 1995, only to be reauthorized (with a new mandate and name--the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, or AHRQ) with overwhelming support in 1999. In focusing on budgetary history, this paper sheds light on why health services research (HSR) has difficulty obtaining funding from a government that is willing to spend vast sums on basic biomedical research. The paper argues that three strategies--bureaucratic, marketing, and constituency building--that advocates adopted in the late 1980s made HSR more visible and consequential and were responsible for AHCPR's budgetary successes as well as its near-demise.

Care For The Uninsured In General Internists’ Private Offices

This paper examines the care of uninsured patients in general internists' private practices. More than two-thirds of internists provide at least some charity care, usually to their existing patients who have become uninsured. They appear to be filling a need for people who are moving between coverage, by helping bridge coverage intervals. Approximately two-thirds of all internists accommodate uninsured patients by reducing the charge or creating a payment plan, with internists who are practice owners much more likely to do so. This care to the uninsured is important, especially with growing unemployment rates, because the safety net would not be able to absorb these patients.

The evolving role and care management approaches of safety-net Medicaid managed care plans

This article provides new empirical data about the viability and the care management activities of Medicaid managed-care plans sponsored by provider organizations that serve Medicaid and other low-income populations. Using survey and case study methods, we studied these "safety-net" health plans in 1998 and 2000. Although the number of safety-net plans declined over this period, the surviving plans were larger and enjoying greater financial success than the plans we surveyed in 1998. We also found that, based on a partnership with providers, safety-net plans are moving toward more sophisticated efforts to manage the care of their enrollees. Our study suggests that, with supportive state policies, safety-net plans are capable of remaining viable. Contracting with safety-net plans may not be an efficient mechanism for enabling Medicaid recipients to "enter the mainstream of American health care," but it may provide states with an effective way to manage and coordinate the care of Medicaid recipients, while helping to maintain the health care safety-net for the uninsured.

The World Cities Project: rationale, organization, and design for comparison of megacity health systems

This article provides an overview of the World Cities Project (WCP), our rationale for it, our framework for comparative analysis, and an overview of current studies in progress. The WCP uses New York, London, Paris, and Tokyo as a laboratory in which to study urban health, particularly the evolution and current organization of public health infrastructure, as well as the health status and quality of life in these cities. Comparing world cities in wealthier nations is important because of (1) global trends in urbanization, emerging health risks, and population aging; (2) the dominant influence of these cities on "megacities" of developing nations; and (3) the existence of data and scholarship about these world cities, which provides a foundation for comparing their health systems and health. We argue that, in contrast to nation-states, world cities provide opportunities for more refined comparisons and cross-national learning. To provide a framework for WCP, we define an urban core for each city and examine the similarities and differences among them. Our current studies shed light on inequalities in health care use and health status, the importance of neighborhoods in protecting population health, and quality of life in diverse urban communities.

Exploring the limits of the safety net: community health centers and care for the uninsured

This paper explores the extent to which community health centers (CHCs) are able to manage their uninsured patient caseloads. We found that CHCs can provide primary care, medications, and medical supplies to most of their uninsured patients on site but are limited in their ability to provide diagnostic, specialty, and behavioral health services. Uninsured patients often fail to receive additional services for which they are referred, and it is much more difficult for CHC physicians to arrange specialty or nonemergency hospital care for their uninsured patients than for their insured patients.

Policy feedback and public opinion: the role of employer responsibility in social policy

This study extends the literature on policy feedback and explores the extent to which public attitudes reflect learning from past government initiatives. We analyze the ways in which feedback mechanisms affecting public attitudes may differ from those earlier identified in the literature. We apply this general analytic framework to help explain variation in public attitudes toward private employer involvement in health care, explore possible causal pathways, and offer some preliminary empirical tests of these hypotheses. There are different levels of public support for the notion of employer obligation involving medical care, long-term care, and the treatment of substance abuse. Our evidence suggests that lessons about the performance of institutions in each of these policy domains represent the most important effect of existing policy on public attitudes. Furthermore, these differences correspond to what one would expect based on our model of policy feedback and cannot be explained by other plausible sources of policy legitimacy.

Promising practices: how leading safety-net plans are managing the care of Medicaid clients

Health plans formed by safety-net providers serve large numbers of Medicaid beneficiaries. Through a series of case studies, we examined the care management tools used by leading safety-net plans. These plans do not rely on the coercive, command-style tools of managed care. They rely instead on tools that emphasize partnership with providers: sharing data about practice patterns, using provider profiles and financial bonuses to encourage particular practice patterns, and developing disease management programs that encourage patient compliance with treatment decisions that the plans make little effort to shape. The evidence suggests that these are promising practices but that even these leaders still have a long way to go.