Injury patterns in patients presenting with a recurrent anterior cruciate ligament tear following primary reconstruction

BACKGROUND

An anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) graft rupture or a primary ACL injury in the contralateral knee is one of the greatest concerns of patients following primary anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). Our study describes the epidemiology and presence of concomitant meniscal injuries of patients with a graft rupture following primary ACLR or a primary rupture of the contralateral ACL following primary ACLR of the ipsilateral knee.

METHODS

We reviewed the medical records of 42 patients who underwent a second ACLR. ACLR was performed using the ipsilateral semitendinosus and gracilis autograft. Variables extracted included the presence of concomitant MM and LM injuries intra-operatively, the patients' level of intensity of sport (light, moderate, strenuous), duration of rehabilitation and mechanism of injury (contact, non-contact).

RESULTS

Twenty-four (57.1%) patients had graft rupture of a previously reconstructed ACL of which 20 (83.3%) were male and 18 (42.9%) patients had a primary ACL tear of the contralateral knee following ACLR of the ipsilateral knee of which 18 (100%) were male. Patient who sustained a graft rupture were younger (29.5 vs. 31.9 years), had a higher body mass index (BMI) (26.42 vs. 25.10 kg/m(2)) and had a longer time before re-injury (6.18 vs. 4.94 years). Concomitant meniscal injury rates were comparable in both groups and the medial meniscus was injured more often.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes the demographics of 2(nd) ACL injuries in the Asian population. Additional studies that investigate the differences in knee anatomy of Asians and Caucasians and their impact on ACL injuries should be performed.

Anterior cruciate ligament ganglion causing flexion restriction: a case report and review of literature

Ganglion cysts originating from the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) are uncommon. Often asymptomatic, they infrequently present with non-specific symptoms such as knee pain, stiffness, clicks, locking or restriction of knee extension. However, the patient we report presented with knee flexion restriction. A 37-year-old Chinese gentleman, with no history of knee trauma, presented with left knee pain. Left knee range of motion (ROM) was from 0 to 110 degrees. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan revealed a 1.5 cm × 3.3 cm × 1.7 cm cyst located in the intercondylar region arising from the ACL and extending predominantly posteriorly. Arthroscopy confirmed an intrasubstance ACL ganglion cyst, which was extending posteriorly. Complete excision of the cyst was performed. At 1-year follow-up, the patient regained knee flexion of 130 degrees. We describe one of the largest ACL ganglion cysts. Such cysts often extend anteriorly and impinge onto the roof of the intercondylar notch during knee extension, thus restricting extension. The restriction in knee motion in our patient was in flexion instead; this was because the cyst took an unusual course of extension predominantly in the posterior direction. Although rare, it must be included as a possible differential diagnosis when patients present with such knee symptoms.

Healing Potential of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament Remnant Stump

AIM

The aim of this study was to analyze the microstructural architecture and cellular differentiation of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) stumps in different stages after injury, as this could augment graft biointegration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The histological appearance and immunoreaction for cluster of differentiation 34 antigen (CD34) of 54 biopsies from 27 remnants were compared to 10 biopsies from 5 normal cruciate ligaments.

RESULTS

CD34 reaction in endothelial cells, fibroblasts and fibrocytes was consistently positive in small synovial vessels. Remnants also exhibited CD34(+) cells among collagen fibers. Blood vessel density varied between specimens. The mean vascular microdensity was 43 per ×200 field in remnants compared to 15.2 in controls. A total of 94.44% of remnant ACL samples had significant hyperplasia of stellate and fusiform stromal cells, CD34(+); 22.4% had developed capillary vessels inside the ligament; 33% exhibited ongoing angiogenesis.

CONCLUSION

Significant differences exist between torn and intact ACL regarding microvascularization. The remnants contain stellate stromal cells and CD34(+) fibrocytes, and display angiogenesis both at synovia as well as in the ligament itself. These findings underline the potential contribution to neoligament healing when remnants are preserved.

No significant difference in clinical outcome and knee stability between patellar tendon and semitendinosus tendon in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

INTRODUCTION

ACL reconstruction with either patellar tendon or semitendinosus tendon autografts are standard procedures. Between these two grafts might be differences in stability, morbidity, or long-term changes. This study investigates outcomes of ACL reconstruction with patellar tendon versus semitendinosus tendon autografts. We hypothesize no significant differences in clinical outcome and knee stability between both groups.

METHODS

In a randomized prospective trial, we operated 62 ACL-deficient patients, 45 males and 17 females with a mean age of 29.8 years (min. 18, max. 44). We reconstructed the ligament using either autologous patellar tendon (n = 31) or semitendinosus tendon (n = 31). After 10 years of follow-up, we investigated 47 patients of the study. For evaluation we used a standard clinical examination including one-leg jump test and KT-1000 instrumental translation measure, visual analog pain scale, IKDC subjective knee form, Lysholm score, Tegner activity scale, and standard X-rays of the knee.

RESULTS

The data did not show any significant differences between the two groups. Between 5 and 10 years after ACL reconstruction both groups started to develop degenerative arthritic changes, which were detectable in standard radiographs of the knee. At 10-year follow-up mean IKDC for the BPTB group was 1.8 (min. 1, max. 3) and for the ST group it was 2.2 (min 1, max. 4), p = 0.35. Regarding Tegner activity scale after 10 years, the BPTB group showed a mean score of 5.9 (min. 4, max. 9) versus 5.1 (min. 3, max. 7) in the ST group, p = 0.53. For the Lysholm score the BPTB group reached a mean of 92.0 (min. 63, max. 98) and the ST group 91.8 (min. 62, max. 98) points, p = 0.66. There is a tendency for higher donor site morbidity in the BPTB group than in the ST group, p = 0.07.

CONCLUSIONS

Both, patellar tendon and semitendinosus tendon are safe autografts for ACL reconstruction. Regarding graft selection, individual patient-dependent factors should be considered. ACL reconstruction cannot fully restore pre-injury status of knee joint function in the majority of cases.

Meniscal tears associated with anterior cruciate ligament injury

PURPOSE

To investigate the frequency of meniscal tear and the location of tear associated with anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

We studied 549 patients (552 knees) who were diagnosed with ACL injury by arthroscopy at our center between January 2006 and March 2014 (8 years and 3 months). The subjects comprised 289 males and 263 females ranging in age from 13 to 66 (mean 26.1) years. The cause of injury was sports-related in 89.1 %, and the mean interval from injury to initial arthroscopy was 23 months. The patients were divided into two groups: arthroscopy performed within 8 weeks after injury (acute group; 256 knees) and more than 8 weeks after injury (chronic group; 296 knees). Frequency of meniscal tear and location of tear were compared between two groups.

RESULTS

The incidence of meniscal tear diagnosed by arthroscopic examination was 79.2 % (437 of 552 knees) in all subjects; 72.7 % (186 of 256 knees) in acute group and 84.8 % (251 of 296 knees) in chronic group, and was significantly higher in chronic group. Regarding the locations of meniscal tears, in acute group (186 knees), medial meniscal tear only was found in 20 knees (10.8 %), lateral meniscal tear only in 129 knees (69.4 %), and bilateral (including medial and lateral) meniscal tears in 37 knees (19.9 %). In chronic group (251 knees), medial meniscal tear only was found in 62 knees (24.7 %), lateral meniscal tear only in 85 knees (33.9 %), and bilateral meniscal tears in 104 knees (41.4 %). Lateral meniscal tear was commonly associated with acute ACL injury, while medial meniscal tear with chronic ACL injury. Bucket handle tear was observed in 25 knees (medial: 17 knees, lateral: 8 knees) in acute group, and 81 knees (medial: 69 knees, lateral: 12 knees) in chronic group, and was more common in the chronic group.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of meniscal tear associated with ACL injury is higher in chronic cases; the number of medial meniscal tears is particularly high, many of which require meniscectomy. Early ACL reconstruction is recommended also for the prevention of secondary meniscal tear.

Does flexible tunnel drilling affect the femoral tunnel angle measurement after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction?

PURPOSE

To quantify the mean difference in femoral tunnel angle (FTA) as measured on knee radiographs between rigid and flexible tunnel drilling after anatomic anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction.

METHODS

Fifty consecutive patients that underwent primary anatomic ACL reconstruction with a single femoral tunnel drilled with a flexible reamer were included in this study. The control group was comprised of 50 patients all of who underwent primary anatomic ACL reconstruction with a single femoral tunnel drilled with a rigid reamer. All femoral tunnels were drilled through a medial portal to ensure anatomic tunnel placement. The FTA was determined from post-operative anterior-to-posterior (AP) radiographs by two independent observers. A 5° difference between the two mean FTA was considered clinically significant.

RESULTS

The average FTA, when drilled with a rigid reamer, was 42.0° ± 7.2°. Drilling with a flexible reamer resulted in a mean FTA of 44.7° ± 7.0°. The mean difference of 2.7° was not statistically significant. The intraclass correlation coefficient for inter-tester reliability was 0.895.

CONCLUSIONS

The FTA can be reliably determined from post-operative AP radiographs and provides a useful and reproducible metric for characterizing femoral tunnel position after both rigid and flexible femoral tunnel drilling. This has implications for post-operative evaluation and preoperative treatment planning for ACL revision surgery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Editorial: Functional testing in the assessment of return to sports after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

The paper entitled "Functional testing differences in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction patients released versus not released to return to sport" published in the American Journal of Sports Medicine (AJSM) assessed Functional Movement Screen (FMS) and the Lower Quarter Y Balance Test (YBT-LQ) as possible objective tools for evaluating a patient's readiness to return to sports after ACL reconstruction. The results suggest that many patients clinically cleared continue to have measurable function deficits and that both FMS and YBT-LQ may be used as additional tools for return to sports clearance.

Combined anterolateral ligament and anatomic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction of the knee

Although anatomic anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction is established for the surgical treatment of anterolateral knee instability, there remains a significant cohort of patients who continue to experience post-operative instability. Recent advances in our understanding of the anatomic, biomechanical and radiological characteristics of the native anterolateral ligament (ALL) of the knee have led to a resurgent interest in reconstruction of this structure as part of the management of knee instability. This technical note describes our readily reproducible combined minimally invasive technique to reconstruct both the ACL and ALL anatomically using autologous semitendinosus and gracilis grafts. This method of ALL reconstruction can be easily integrated with all-inside ACL reconstruction, requiring minimal additional operative time, equipment and expertise. Level of evidence V.

Combined chronic anterior cruciate ligament and posterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: functional and clinical results

PURPOSE

Multiligamentous injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) is an uncommon but debilitating event. Patients with combined ligament injuries typically complain of painful, debilitating knee instability that restricts their sports and daily activities. The purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate functional and clinical outcomes of patients with chronic ACL and PCL deficiency who underwent simultaneous single-stage arthroscopic reconstruction of the central pivot.

METHODS

Medical records of 20 consecutive patients with chronic ACL and PCL deficiency who underwent simultaneous single-stage arthroscopic reconstruction of the central pivot were retrospectively reviewed. All patients had received either an allograft (group A) or a semitendinosus-gracilis graft for ACL repair and a bone-patellar tibial-bone graft for PCL repair (group B). Functional outcomes, after the initial follow-up period at 24-month FU, were assessed with concentric isokinetic knee extensor-flexor testing at 60 and 180°/s. The secondary aim was to compare long-term clinical recovery by the administration of the IKDC (International Knee Document Committee) Knee Ligament Evaluation Form, the Lysholm Knee Scoring Scale and the Cincinnati Knee Rating Scale.

RESULTS

The mean per cent quadriceps strength deficit in the operated as compared to the healthy knee was 13.5 % in group A and 15 % in group B (angular velocity 60°/s) and 13.5 % in group A and 9.4 % in group B (angular velocity 180°/s). The mean per cent flexor strength deficit in the operated as compared to the healthy knee was 10.4 % in group A and 12.3 % in group B (angular velocity 60°/s) and 12.2 % in group A and 9 % in group B (angular velocity of 180°/s). The flexor-quadriceps ratio was 49.4 % in group A and 48.8 % in group B in the healthy knee and 53.2 % in group A and 53.8 % in group B in the operated knee (angular velocity 60°/s) and 63.9 % in group A and 60.7 % in group B in the healthy knee and 65 % in group A and 64.9 % in group B in the operated knee (angular velocity 180°/s). Lysholm outcome was 93.9 ± 3.9 in group A and 89.1 ± 7.6 in group B (n.s). Cincinnati score was 89.6 ± 7.3 in group A and 91.0 ± 6.9 in group B (p = 0.791). IKDC results were group A in six patients (60 %), group B in three patients (30 %) and group C in one patient (10 %) in the allograft group and group A in seven patients (70 %) and group B in three patients (30 %) for autologous group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that one-stage arthroscopic bicruciate ligament reconstruction can restore good knee joint function. Surgical treatment should be followed by a comprehensive rehabilitation programme with specific goals, objectives and strategies, including pain management and assessment of progress in recovery of joint function and perception of knee stability.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Retrospective case series, Level IV.

Loss of anterior cruciate ligament integrity and the development of radiographic knee osteoarthritis: a sub-study of the osteoarthritis initiative

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to determine whether loss of ACL integrity in an older cohort precedes the onset of radiographic OA (ROA).

METHODS

Participants in this nested case-control study were selected from the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) study who had risk factors for OA development but did not have ROA (Kellgren-Lawrence grading (KLG) of 0 or 1) in both knees at baseline. The MRIs were assessed for the presence of ACL tears. Case knees were defined by the development of ROA on knee radiographs between the 12 and 48 month visits. Their radiographs were assessed at P0 (time of onset of radiographic knee OA), 1 year prior to P0 (P-1) and at baseline. Controls were selected from amongst those who did not develop incident ROA and were matched to cases.

RESULTS

355 persons who developed ROA were matched to 355 controls. No relationship between loss of ACL integrity and incident ROA was found at any assessment time point. Odds ratios (OR) for baseline, 1 year prior to incident ROA (P1) and at point of occurrence of incident ROA (P0) were 2.00 (0.66-6.06), 2.5 (0.76-8.24) and 2.75 (0.85-8.88) respectively. A significant risk of incident ROA was found in participants who had a history of knee injury with an OR of 1.51 (1.05-2.16).

CONCLUSION

Loss of ACL integrity does not confer a significantly increased risk of incident ROA in an older adult cohort. In contrast, a history of knee injury was associated with an increased risk of incident ROA.

Femoral Condyle Fracture during Revision of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: Case Report and a Review of Literature

A rare and devastating complication following anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) revision reconstruction is femoral fracture. A 35-year old male soccer player with a history of ACL tear from one year ago, who underwent arthroscopic ACL reconstruction and functioned well until another similar injury caused ACL re-rupture. Revision of ACL reconstruction was performed and after failure of graft tension during the pumping, a fluoroscopic assessment showed a femoral condyle fracture. The patient referred to our knee clinic and was operated on in two stages first fixation of the fracture and then ACL re-revision after fracture healing was complete. Not inserting multiple guide pins, keeping a safe distance from the posterior cortex and giving more attention during graft tensioning, especially in revision surgeries, are all small points that can reduce the risk of fracture during the revision of ACL reconstruction.

A security evaluation of the Rigid-fix crosses pin system used for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in tibial fixation site

Our study aims to evaluate the safeness and feasibility that Rigid-fix cross pin system was used for hamstring graft anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction in the tibial fixation site. In this study, eleven adult conservative cadaver knees were performed using the Rigid-fix Cross Pin device in the tibial fixation site for modeling the ACL reconstruction. The guide rod top was put through the tibial tunnel at the three horizontal positions: equal pace to articular facet (group A), the plane 5 mm below articular facet (group B), and the plane 10 mm below articular facet (group C). We gave four rotation positions to the cross-pin guide: 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° slope, referring to the parallel line of the posterior border of tibial plateau. We recorded the iatrogenic damages incidence, in the four different slope angle in the three groups, and then compare the incidence using Chi-Square test. Our results suggested that the incidence of chondral injury of tibial plateau in group B and group C was significantly lower compared to group A (χ (2) A-B = 27.077, χ (2) A-C 45.517, P = 0.000); However, there was no significant difference for the incidence penetrating the medial condyle of tibial plateau among the three groups (χ (2) = 5.733, P = 0.057); The highest incidence of injuring ligamentum transversum is in group A with 72.7%, especially at the 60° slope angle. In summary, our study suggested that in order to achieve the satisfactory clinical effect for the Rigid-fix system used in the tibia end fixation of ACL reconstruction surgery, the guide rod top should be put at the 5 mm below articular facet with a slope that parallel to the tibial medial plane at 30°-60° slope angle.

Biomechanics of single-tunnel double-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction using fixation with a unique expandable interference screw

BACKGROUND

Single-tunnel double-bundle (STDB) anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction can restore biomechanical function and anatomic structure, but existing methods of graft fixation are not adequate. The aims of this study are to examine knee biomechanics after STDB reconstruction using a unique expandable interference screw for fixation.

METHODS

The biomechanical parameters of six pairs of human cadaveric knee specimens were measured with the ACL intact, after ACL removal, and after STDB reconstruction using the interference screw or single-tunnel single-bundle (STSB) reconstruction. Anterior tibial translation under 134 N anterior tibial load in a neutral position as well as in 15° and 30° internal and external knee rotation and the internal tibial rotation angle under the rotatory load (5 N·m internal tibial rotation) were measured.

RESULTS

Anterior tibial translations at each degree of knee flexion in the STDB group were significantly less than in the STSB group (all, P<0.05). The internal rotation angles in the STSB group at five flexion angles were significantly higher than in the ACL intact group, whereas there were significantly less than those of the ACL absent group (P<0.05). Under rotatory loads in the neutral position, the tibial internal rotation angles of the STDB group were significantly lower than in the STSB group at all flexion angles (all, P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

STDB ACL reconstruction with the expandable interference screw provides better anteroposterior and rotational stability than STSB reconstruction.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The technique provides the advantages of double-bundle reconstruction using a single-tunnel technique.

Single-bundle or double-bundle for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To compare the clinical outcomes of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction with double-bundle and single-bundle techniques.

STUDY DESIGN

Meta-analysis

METHODS

We searched electronic databases including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Google Scholar from 1966 to Jan 2012 to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing clinical outcomes of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction with double-bundle and single-bundle techniques. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed trial quality. Meta-analysis was performed to pool results.

RESULTS

Nineteen RCTs were included with a total of 1686 patients. The pooled analysis across all studies showed that the double-bundle ACL reconstruction technique could have significantly better outcomes in rotational laxity, as assessed by the pivot-shift test, KT grading and IKDC grading than the single-bundle techniques. We found no evidence of a difference in function measured by IKDC scores, KT arthrometer, Lysholm knee, or Tegner activity scores and complications after operations between single and double-bundle ACL reconstruction groups.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis demonstrated the superiority of double-bundle over single-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. The double-bundle ACL reconstruction technique has better outcomes in rotational laxity (pivot-shift test, KT grading and IKDC grading). However, for functional recovery, there was no significant difference between single-bundle and double-bundle reconstruction techniques.