Novel Bloodless Potassium Determination Using a Signal-Processed Single-Lead ECG

BACKGROUND

Hyper- and hypokalemia are clinically silent, common in patients with renal or cardiac disease, and are life threatening. A noninvasive, unobtrusive, blood-free method for tracking potassium would be an important clinical advance.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Two groups of hemodialysis patients (development group, n=26; validation group, n=19) underwent high-resolution digital ECG recordings and had 2 to 3 blood tests during dialysis. Using advanced signal processing, we developed a personalized regression model for each patient to noninvasively calculate potassium values during the second and third dialysis sessions using only the processed single-channel ECG. In addition, by analyzing the entire development group's first-visit data, we created a global model for all patients that was validated against subsequent sessions in the development group and in a separate validation group. This global model sought to predict potassium, based on the T wave characteristics, with no blood tests required. For the personalized model, we successfully calculated potassium values with an absolute error of 0.36±0.34 mmol/L (or 10% of the measured blood potassium). For the global model, potassium prediction was also accurate, with an absolute error of 0.44±0.47 mmol/L for the training group (or 11% of the measured blood potassium) and 0.5±0.42 for the validation set (or 12% of the measured blood potassium).

CONCLUSIONS

The signal-processed ECG derived from a single lead can be used to calculate potassium values with clinically meaningful resolution using a strategy that requires no blood tests. This enables a cost-effective, noninvasive, unobtrusive strategy for potassium assessment that can be used during remote monitoring.

Hypereosinophilic syndrome with severe hypokalaemia in a Nigerian woman: A case report

INTRODUCTION

Hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES) is a rare disorder. It is defined as eosinophilia of greater than1.5x109 /L persisting for at least 6 months or death before 6 months without an identifiable cause and with eosinophil-mediated organ dysfunction. We present a rare case of hypereosinophilic syndrome with severe hypokalaemia in a Nigerian female patient.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 43year old food vendor referred to the Haematology Department, University College Hospital, Ibadan on account of a 6-week history of cough productive of mucoid, brownish, foul smelling sputum with associated breathlessness, high grade intermittent fever, and intense pruritus. She had accompanying non-projectile,non-bloody vomiting of recently ingested meals. There was absolute eosinophilia of 83x109/L and bone marrow cytology revealed marked eosinophilia with blasts of less than 5%. She also had asymptomatic severe hypokalaemia (1.9mmol/l) likely due to vomiting and reduced dietary intake. The aetiology of the hypereosinophilia could not be ascertained.She was admitted and commenced on intranasal oxygen, Tabs Loratidine, intravenous hydration.The severe hypokalaemia was corrected with IV KCL over 48hours followed with the administration of slow K tablets 600mg tds. She also had tabs Hydroxyurea for cytoreduction and Allopurinol to prevent hyperuricaemia. She improved with the above line of management.

CONCLUSION

This appears to be the first reported case of HES with asymptomatic severe hypokalaemia in the literature. Being a rare disorder it could easily have been missed without a review of the peripheral blood film and marrow aspirate. This finding suggests a possible relationship between hypereosinophilia and hypokalemia which needs to be explored.

An Unusual Case of Acute Muscle Weakness

A previously healthy 35-year old man presented to hospital with acute leg weakness following an alcohol binge. On assessment, tachycardia, urinary retention and bilateral upper and lower limb proximal weakness with preserved peripheral power were noted. Biochemistry revealed marked hypokalaemia, which responded to intravenous replacement, and biochemical thyrotoxicosis, leading to the diagnosis of Thyrotoxic Periodic Paralysis (TPP). Anti-thyroid therapy and beta-blockers were commenced and his neurological symptomatology resolved as he became progressively euthyroid. TPP is a rare acquired subtype of hypokalaemic periodic paralysis, typically causing proximal muscle weakness associated with thyrotoxicosis. It is most common in young Asian males. Acute treatment requires cautious oral potassium supplementation, beta-blockade, and anti-thyroid therapy. TPP is prevented by maintaining euthyroidism; otherwise recurrence is likely.

[Investigation of hypokalemia]

Most causes of hypokalemia could be studied relatively easily by thorough medical history and basal sampling. Moreover, difficult cases of hypokalemia should be studied systematically to identify the underlying cause so that successful long-term treatments can be applied.

Hypokalemic rhabdomyolysis: a rare manifestation of primary aldosteronism

Rhabdomyolysis is a rare presentation of hypokalemia, although muscle weakness is a well-known manifestation of hypokalemia. Primary aldosteronism is characterized by hypertension, suppressed plasma renin activity, increased aldosterone excretion and hypokalemia with metabolic alkalosis. Rhabdomyolysis is not common in primary aldosteronism. We present here a 40-year-old woman presenting with rhabdomyolysis accompanied by severe hypokalemia as heralding symptom of primary aldosteronism.

Paralysis as a Presenting Symptom of Hyperthyroidism in an Active Duty Soldier

Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis (TPP) is an endocrine disorder presenting with proximal motor weakness, typically greatest in the lower extremities, hypokalemia, and signs or laboratory findings consistent with hyperthyroidism. The incidence of TPP is highest in Asian males. This is a case report of a 30-year-old male active duty Soldier who presented to the emergency department complaining of several recent episodes of lower extremity paralysis. The patient underwent a workup which included serum and cerebrospinal fluid studies, and was found to be hypokalemic and hyperthyroid. Following consultation with neurology, the patient was admitted to the medicine service and treated for thyrotoxic periodic paralysis with potassium replacement and treatment of his hyperthyroidism. Since achieving a euthyroid state, he has had no recurrences of TPP. This disease should be considered in patients presenting with symmetric motor weakness and hypokalemia, whether or not symptoms of hyperthyroidism are elicited during the review of systems.

Blood electrolyte disturbances during severe hypoglycemia in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND/AIMS

To investigate abnormalities in blood electrolyte levels during severe hypoglycemia in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in a clinical setting.

METHODS

Blood electrolyte levels in adult T2DM patients during severe hypoglycemia were collected from January 1, 2008 to December 31, 2012. Patients who maintained normal serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels were utilized in the study. Severe hypoglycemia was defined as a condition requiring medical assistance, such as administering carbohydrates when serum glucose levels less than 70 mg/dL were observed, in conjunction with other symptoms of hypoglycemia.

RESULTS

A total of 1,068 patients who visited the emergency room with severe hypoglycemia were screened, of which 219 patients were included in this study. The incidence of abnormal levels for any electrolyte was 47%. Hypokalemia (< 3.5 mmol/L) was the most common type of electrolyte disturbance observed at 21.9%. A decrease in serum potassium levels was associated with decreases in blood glucose levels (r = 0.151, p = 0.025). During severe hypoglycemia, median blood glucose levels, incidence of tachycardia (> 100 beats per minute) and severe hypertension (≥ 180/120 mmHg) were 30 mg/dL (range, 14 to 62) and 35 mg/dL (range, 10 to 69; p = 0.04), 18.8% and 7.2% (p = 0.02), and 20.8% and 10.2% (p = 0.05) in the hypokalemia and normokalemia groups, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

During severe hypoglycemia, hypokalemia occurred in 21.9% of T2DM patients and was associated with tachycardia and severe hypertension. Therefore, the results suggest that severe hypoglycemia may increase cardiovascular events in T2DM.

Antenatal Bartter syndrome presenting as hyperparathyroidism with hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria: a case report and review

Antenatal type I Bartter syndrome (ABS) is usually identified by the presence of polyhydramnios, premature delivery, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, hypercalciuria, and nephrocalcinosis caused by mutations in the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC2)-encoding SLC12A1 gene. In this report, we describe a novel presentation of this syndrome with hypercalcemic hypercalciuric hyperparathyroidism, and review the literature of the variable atypical presentations of ABS.

[Primary aldosteronism]

Primary aldosteronism affects 6% of hypertensive patients. The diagnosis should be suspected in any patient with severe or resistant hypertension or hypertension associated with hypokalemia. The screening test consists on the assessment of the aldosterone to renin ratio. In case of an elevated ratio, the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism is confirmed by either elevated concentrations of basal plasma and/or urinary aldosterone or absence of suppression of aldosterone during dynamic test (including the saline infusion test). CT aims to ensure the absence of adrenal carcinoma and to study the morphology of the adrenals. The unilateral or bilateral type of aldosterone secretion is based on the realization of an adrenal venous sampling. When the hypersecretion is unilateral, the treatment consists of adrenalectomy leading to cure of hypertension in 42% of cases, improvement in 40% of cases. For patient with bilateral disease or who don't want to undergo surgery, treatment is based on spironolactone usually at doses of 25 or 50 mg in combination with other antihypertensives drugs such as diuretics or calcium channel blockers.

Psychiatric and medical management of marijuana intoxication in the emergency department

We use a case report to describe the acute psychiatric and medical management of marijuana intoxication in the emergency setting. A 34-year-old woman presented with erratic, disruptive behavior and psychotic symptoms after recreational ingestion of edible cannabis. She was also found to have mild hypokalemia and QT interval prolongation. Psychiatric management of cannabis psychosis involves symptomatic treatment and maintenance of safety during detoxification. Acute medical complications of marijuana use are primarily cardiovascular and respiratory in nature; electrolyte and electrocardiogram monitoring is indicated. This patient's psychosis, hypokalemia and prolonged QTc interval resolved over two days with supportive treatment and minimal intervention in the emergency department. Patients with cannabis psychosis are at risk for further psychotic sequelae. Emergency providers may reduce this risk through appropriate diagnosis, acute treatment, and referral for outpatient care.

ECG of the Month: ECG in a 30-Year-Old Woman

Sinus rhythm; an atrial premature complex; sagging ST-segments, low T-waves, and prominent U-waves suggesting hypokalemia. The ST-T and U-wave changes described above are characteristic of hypokalemia. When the serum potassium level is between 3.0 and 3.5 mEq/L, one or more of the findings may be present. All three are common when the serum potassium level is below 2.5 mEq/L. At the lowest serum potassium levels the T-wave becomes a notch on the upstroke of a giant U-wave, as occurs here in the ECG of this woman with a serum potassium of 1.7 mEq/L.1,2 This configuration is occasionally mistaken for the ST-segment depression and long QT interval of myocardial ischemia.3 Atrial premature complexes are common with hypokalemia, and atrial fibrillation may occur. This patient's potassium was repleted, and the following day her ECG was essentially normal (Figure 2) and virtually unchanged from an ECG recorded two years earlier.

Hypokalemic Quadriparesis Secondary to Abuse of Cocaine and Heroin

Low plasma potassium level can cause muscle weakness, lassitude, constipation as well as rhabdomyolysis and arrhythmias, when severe. In muscle, low plasma potassium increases resting membrane potential (hyperpolarization) of myocytes that tend to make muscle more refractory to excitation, leading to muscle weakness. Hypokalemia can be associated with a myriad of causes including drugs of abuse. We present a case of hypokalemia and muscle weakness following use of cocaine and heroin.

Hypokalemia in diabetic ketoacidosis is less common than previously reported

[K+] < 3.5 mmol/L is reported to occur in approximately 4 % of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA.) Therefore, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and Joint British Diabetes Societies (JBDS) recommend the assessment of [K+] before the initiation of insulin treatment to avoid the precipitation of morbid hypokalemia. The purpose of this study was to assess the incidence of hypokalemia in patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with DKA. This was a multicenter retrospective, cross-sectional study at EDs with a combined annual adult census of 155,000. Adult patients diagnosed with DKA in the ED, or who were admitted from the ED and subsequently diagnosed with DKA as determined from the hospital electronic database between January 2008 and December 2008, were included for analysis if they had the following initial laboratory values: (1) serum glucose >13.9 mmol/L (250 mg/dL), (2) serum bicarbonate <18 mmol/L (18 mEq/L) or anion gap >15, and (3) evidence of ketonaemia or ketonuria. 537 patients were diagnosed with DKA in the ED at the participating institutions during the reference period. The median [K+] was 4.9 mmol/L (IQR 4.3, 5.5). There were a total of seven patients with an initial 3.3 < [K+] < 3.5 mmol/L, but none with a [K+] < 3.3 mmol/L. Thus, no patients in our study sample required potassium supplementation before the initiation of insulin treatment. The incidence of hypokalemia in our sample of patients with DKA was much less than previously reported, with no cases requiring potassium supplementation before insulin administration.

[Severe hypokalemic rhabdomyolysis. Report of six cases]

Rhabdomyolysis results from acute necrosis of skeletal muscle fibers and consequent leakage of muscle constituents into the circulation. It ranges from an asymptomatic state to a severe condition associated with extreme elevations in creatine kinase and acute renal failure. Reported etiologies of rhabdomyolysis include alcohol abuse, drugs, muscle trauma and muscle overexertion. Less common causes include muscle enzyme deficiencies, electrolyte abnormalities, infectious causes, toxins and endocrine disorders. Hypokalemia is a rare cause of rhabdomyolysis. We report six patients aged 31 to 57 years (three women) with a severe hypokalemic rhabdomyolysis, secondary to chronic diarrhea in two patients, treatment with loop diuretics in one and Gitelman syndrome in three. Rhabdomyolysis may be underdiagnosed in the context of hypokalemia, because the neuromuscular symptoms can be attributed solely to the electrolyte disorder.

Acute diarrhea and metabolic acidosis caused by tuberculous vesico-rectal fistula

Acquired vesico-rectal fistula is an uncommon complication of pelvic malignant tumors, surgical injury, inflammatory disorders such as tuberculosis infection, radiotherapy and less commonly diverticulum of the urinary tract. The fistula is often identified by urinary tract abnormalities such as dysuria, recurrent urinary tract infection, pneumaturia, and fecaluria. Here, we report an unusual case of a patient with a vesico-rectal fistula of tuberculous origin, presenting with severe acute diarrhea, metabolic acidosis, hyperchloremia and hypokalemia while with only mild urinary tract symptoms. The patient was cured by tuberculostatic therapy.

Celiac Crisis Presenting with Refractory Hypokalemia and Bleeding Diathesis

Celiac disease is an immune mediated disorder elicited by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible person and associated with some HLA subtypes. It is characterized by chronic inflammation of small intestine associated with villous atrophy. Symptoms usually appear when weaning from breast milk is done and gluten is introduced in diet. Failures to thrive, chronic diarrhea, vomiting abdominal distension are usual symptoms. Celiac crisis is rare but well known complication of celiac disease presenting with various systemic and metabolic manifestations like hypokalemia, hyponatremia, shock and bleeding diathesis. Celiac crisis usually has some underlying precipitating factor and is more common in patient with noncompliance with gluten free diet. We report a case of 14 year and three months old female child, a known case of celiac disease having the poor compliance with gluten free diet, presenting in celiac crisis with shock, refractory hypokalemia and bleeding diathesis.

Sudden cardiac death in a dialysis patient: hyperkalemia reconsidered

BACKGROUND

To many physicians, hyperkalemia is the first diagnosis ascribed to any patient with end-stage renal disease and abnormal electrocardiographic morphologies or dysrhythmias.

CASE REPORT

A 52-year-old man with end-stage renal disease presented in cardiac arrest. The patient was initially presumed to have hyperkalemia, based on the appearance of wide QRS complexes on the monitor. The diagnosis of hyperkalemia was incorrect; the patient was severely hypokalemic and suffered recurrent episodes of ventricular fibrillation and torsades de pointes.

WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS

An emergency physician's differential diagnosis of sudden cardiac arrest in the patient with end-stage renal disease should not be limited to hyperkalemia and myocardial infarction. Hypokalemia should also be considered. Hypokalemia may be an under-recognized cause of sudden cardiac death in this patient population.

Severe hypokalemia and hypophosphatemia presenting with carpopedal spasm associated with rhabdomyolysis

Background Severe hypokalemia, defined as serum potassium &lt; 2.5 mEq/L, may lead to neuromuscular, gastrointestinal, and ECG abnormalities. Neuromuscular consequences of hypokalemia include weakness, cramps, rarely paralysis, eventually progressing to rhabdomyolysis. Case presentation We report a case of a 4-year-old girl presenting carpopedal spasm and rhabdomyolysis due to severe hypokalemia associated to hypophosphatemia and hypovolemia. At one month of age she underwent an ileal resection because of a neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis, and a bowel resection at two years of age, because of sub-occlusive episodes. The child had frequent episodes of diarrhoea and was treated with oral white clay (kaolin) and a restrictive diet. Three days prior the admission to the hospital she had numerous episodes of watery diarrhoea. Laboratory tests revealed severe hypokalemia, hypophosphatemia, normal calcium levels associated with marked dehydration. An ECG demonstrated sinus bradycardia, ST-segment depression, T-wave flattening, U-wave, and long-QTc. Symmetric carpal and pedal spasms were observed. A marked rise of creatinine phosphokinase and myoglobin associated to cola colored urine was observed. Intravenous supplementation of potassium phosphate as well as adequate volume repletion led to an improvement of the clinical condition, to the disappearance of carpal and pedal spasms, to normalisation of ECG.  Conclusions Careful electrolytes and volume supplementation led to the correction of potential life-threatening arrhythmias and obtained a complete recovery from carpopedal spasm and rhabdomyolysis. Dietary restriction and pharmacological preparations as kaolin have to be administered with caution to treat diarrhea in children and particularly in those who may present other pre-existing risk factors.

Prognostic significance of hypokalemia in hepatic encephalopathy

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate whether hypokalemia prognosticates outcomes in hepatic encephalopathy. We also examined other potential prognostic variables such as serum pH, systemic vascular resistance (SVR) and serum ammonia levels.

METHODOLOGY

Patients with cirrhosis who were admitted for overt hepatic encephalopathy were included in the study and divided into two groups: Group-I consisted of patients with serum Potassium level < 4.0 mEq/L and Group-II consisted of patients with serum Potassium level > 4.0 mEq/L. We collected the baseline demographic data for both the groups including age, gender, ethnicity and calculated the Model for End Stage Liver Disease scores for both the groups at the time of admission. We analyzed the correlation between serum potassium levels and outcome variables including 30- day mortality rate, length of Intensive Care Unit (ICU)/ hospital stay, mechanical ventilation rate and 30-day readmission rate.

RESULTS

A total of 447 patients with diagnosis of cirrhosis were admitted to the hospital with overt hepatic encephalopathy between January 2008 and December 2012. 157 patients with low Potassium level (< 4.0 mEq/L) were included in Group-I while 290 patients with normal Potassium level (> 4.0 mEq/L) and were included in Group-II. Total length of stay in the hospital (P Value= 0.0001) and ICU length of stay (P Value= 0.0003) were significantly longer among the patients with serum potassium level of <4mEq/L.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed statistically significant correlation between serum potassium level and length of stay in hospital and ICU.

Case report: nocardia infection associated with ectopic cushings

BACKGROUND

Cushing's syndrome results from exposure to excess glucocorticoids. Ectopic Cushings is endogenous ACTH dependant form of Cushing's associated with markedly raised ACTH and cortisol levels. This leads to an impaired immune response, setting the stage for occurrence of opportunistic infections. Nocardiosis is a gram positive bacterial infection caused by aerobic actinomycetes in genus Nocardia. We report a series of patients diagnosed with ectopic Cushings, having pneumonia with Nocardia spp. In one of these cases, the manifestations of Cushing's disappeared with treatment for Nocardia.

CASE PRESENTATION

Two middle aged men of Asian descent presented to the Endocrine clinic: the first with history of exertional shortness of breath, and weight loss for 1 year, the other with facial swelling, disturbed sleep and lethargy for a month. The third case was a young Asian male who presented with progressive weakness & weight loss for 2 months. All three patients had uncontrolled hypertension, high blood sugars & were hypokalemic (K: 2.52, 2.9, 1.5 mmol/l); 24 hour urine cortisol was elevated at 2000, 27216 and 9088 (32-243 ug/24 hours); ACTH 68.5, 159, 255 [0-48 pg/ml), respectively. Their MRI pituitary was normal, inferior petrosal sinus sampling revealed no central peripheral gradient. CT chest of these subjects demonstrated cavitatory lung lesions; microscopic analysis of respiratory samples was suggestive of infection with Nocardia spp. Histopathology of bronchoscopic-guided biopsy revealed no malignancy. Antihypertensives, insulin, potassium replacement, ketoconazole & trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole (TS) were initiated. The patients' symptomatology improved & cavitatory lesions resolved with treatment. The primary source for the ectopic cushings remained unknown. The first case required bilateral adrenalectomy. The second case followed a progressively downhill course leading to death. In the third case, we were able to completely taper off ketoconazole, potassium, insulin & antihypertensives, after starting TS.

CONCLUSION

Opportunistic infections are known to be associated with Cushing's syndrome, and higher levels of glucocorticoid secretion are found in patients with ectopically produced ACTH. Pulmonary nocardiosis is important differential to consider. This series includes the first case reported in which signs and symptoms of cushings subsided after treatment of Nocardia.