Traditional Chinese medicine for pulmonary fibrosis therapy: Progress and future prospects

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a chronic, debilitating and often lethal lung disorder. Despite the molecular mechanisms of PF are gradually clear with numerous researchers' efforts, few effective drugs have been developed to reverse human PF or even halt the chronic progression to respiratory failure. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), the main component of the medical practice used for more than 5000 years especially in China, often exerts wider action spectrum than previously attempted options in treating human diseases. Recent data have shown the anti-fibrotic benefits of the active ingredients from TCM in this field, which may represent an attractive source of the drug discovery against PF.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review summarizes the pre-clinical and clinical evidence on the benefits of TCM and their active ingredients, and provides a comprehensive information and reliable basis for the exploration of new treatment strategies of botanical drugs in the therapy of PF.

METHODS

The literature information was obtained from the scientific databases on ethnobotany and ethno medicines (up to Aug 2016), mainly from the Pubmed, Web of Science and CNKI databases, and was to identify the experimental studies on the anti-fibrotic role of the active agents from TCM and the involved mechanisms. The search keywords for such work included: "lung fibrosis" or "pulmonary fibrosis", and "traditional Chinese medicine", "extract" or "herb".

RESULTS

A number of studies have shown that the active agents of single herbs and TCM formulas, particularly the flavonoids, glycosides and alkaloids, exhibit potential benefits against PF, the mechanisms of which appear to involve the regulation of inflammation, oxidant stress, and pro-fibrotic signaling pathways, etc. Besides, the processing methods for discovering TCM in treating PF were prospectively discussed.

CONCLUSION

These research work have shown the therapeutic benefits of TCM in the treatment of PF. However, more continued researches should be undertaken to clarify the unconfirmed chemical composition and regulatory mechanisms, conduct standard clinical trials, and evaluate the possible side effects. The insights provided in present review will be needed for further exploration of botanical drugs in the development of PF therapy.

Neuroprotective Effects of Echinacoside on Regulating the Stress-Active p38MAPK and NF-κB p52 Signals in the Mice Model of Parkinson's Disease

Herbal medicines have long been used to treat Parkinson's disease (PD). To systematically analyze the anti-parkinsonian activity of echinacoside (ECH) in a neurotoxic model of PD and provide a future basis for basic and clinical investigations, male C57BL/6 mice were randomized into blank control, PD model and ECH-administration groups. ECH significantly suppressed the dopaminergic neuron loss (P < 0.01) caused by MPTP and maintained dopamine content (P < 0.01) and dopamine metabolite content (P < 0.05) compared with that measured in mice with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced damage. Additionally, ECH inhibited the activation of microglia and astrocytes in the substantia nigra, which suggested the involvement of neuroinflammation. The relevant cytokines were detected with a Proteome Profiler Array, which confirmed that ECH participated in the regulation of seven cytokines. Given that p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) and NF-kappaB (NF-κB) signals are considered to be closely related to neuroninflammation, the gene expression levels of p38MAPK and six NF-κB DNA-binding subunits were assessed. Western blotting analysis showed that both p38MAPK and the NF-κB p52 subunit were upregulated in the MPTP group and that ECH downregulated their expressions. Minocycline was administered as the positive control to inhibit neuroinflammation, and no differences were detected between the minocycline- and ECH-mediated inhibition of the p38MAPK and NF-κB p52 signals. In conclusion, echinacoside is a potential novel orally active compound for regulating neuroinflammation and related signals in Parkinson's disease and may provide a new prospect for clinical treatment.

Phenylethanoid Glycosides: Research Advances in Their Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Activity and Pharmacokinetics

Phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs) are widely distributed in traditional Chinese medicines as well as in other medicinal plants, and they were characterized by a phenethyl alcohol (C₆-C₂) moiety attached to a β-glucopyranose/β-allopyranose via a glycosidic bond. The outstanding activity of PhGs in diverse diseases proves their importance in medicinal chemistry research. This review summarizes new findings on PhGs over the past 10 years, concerning the new structures, their bioactivities, including neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial and antivirus, cytotoxic, immunomodulatory, and enzyme inhibitory effects, and pharmacokinetic properties.

Hyperoside reduces albuminuria in diabetic nephropathy at the early stage through ameliorating renal damage and podocyte injury

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the major microvascular complications in diabetes. Podocyte injury such as slit diaphragm effacement is regarded as a determinant in the occurrence and development of albuminuria in DN. In this study, we examined the effect of hyperoside, an active flavonoid glycoside, on proteinuria and renal damage in a streptozotocin-induced DN mouse model at the early stage. The results showed that oral administration of hyperoside (30 mg/kg/day for 4 weeks could significantly decrease urinary microalbumin excretion and glomerular hyperfiltration in DN mice, but did not affect the glucose and lipid metabolism. Periodic acid-Schiff staining and transmission electron microscopy showed that glomerular mesangial matrix expansion and podocyte process effacement in DN mice were significantly improved by hyperoside. Further investigations via immunofluorescence staining, real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis showed that the decreased slit diaphragm protein nephrin and podocin mRNA expression and protein levels in DN mice were restored by hyperoside treatment. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that hyperoside could decrease albuminuria at the early stage of DN by ameliorating renal damage and podocyte injury.

Tribenoside and lidocaine in the local treatment of hemorrhoids: an overview of clinical evidence

OBJECTIVE

The combination of tribenoside+lidocaine (Procto-Glyvenol®) is a medical preparation for the local treatment of hemorrhoids, delivered as a suppository or rectal cream. This product has been used for decades in the therapy of hemorrhoids. This review discusses available evidence on the use of tribenoside/lidocaine in clinical practice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Papers were retrieved by a PubMed search, using different combinations of pertinent keywords (e.g. tribenoside AND hemorrhoids), without any limitations in terms of publication date and language. Documents from Authors' personal collection of literature could also be considered. Papers were selected for inclusion according to their relevance for the topic, as judged by the Authors.

RESULTS

The efficacy of the combination of tribenoside+lidocaine in relieving symptoms caused by hemorrhoids and its safety have been assessed in several clinical studies on patients of either gender, either versus its two individual components (tribenoside and lidocaine) or versus steroids in the same setting. Five studies compared the combination treatment with each of its single components, and of these, three studies compared tribenoside+ lidocaine with a tribenoside-free semi-placebo preparation containing only lidocaine, and two studies compared this combination with lidocaine-free preparations containing only tribenoside. Tribenoside+lidocaine was compared with steroid-containing preparations in six studies. Last, two studies evaluated the efficacy and tolerability of the tribenoside+lidocaine combination in women with hemorrhoids as a consequence of pregnancy or delivery. All the above-mentioned studies were well-conducted and can provide a comprehensive evaluation of tribenoside+lidocaine in the treatment of hemorrhoids.

CONCLUSIONS

Enough evidence exists to recommend the use of this combination therapy as a fast, effective and safe option for the local treatment of low-grade hemorrhoids.

Supraphysiological Levels of Quercetin Glycosides are Required to Alter Mineralization in Saos2 Cells

Flavonoid intake is positively correlated to bone mineral density (BMD) in women. Flavonoids such as quercetin exhibit strong anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity that may be beneficial for bone health. Quercetin, previously shown to positively influence osteoblasts, is metabolized into glycosides including rutin and hyperoside. We compared the effects of these glycosides on mineralization in human osteoblast (Saos2) cells. Administration of rutin (≥25 µM) and hyperoside (≥5 µM) resulted in higher mineral content, determined using the alizarin red assay. This was accompanied by higher alkaline phosphatase activity with no cell toxicity. The expression of osteopontin, sclerostin, TNFα and IL6, known stimuli for decreasing osteoblast activity, were reduced with the addition of rutin or hyperoside. In summary, rutin and hyperoside require supraphysiological levels, when administered individually, to positively influence osteoblast activity. This information may be useful in developing nutraceuticals to support bone health.

Flavonoids and phenylethanoid glycosides from Lippia nodiflora as promising antihyperuricemic agents and elucidation of their mechanism of action

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Lippia nodiflora has been traditionally used in the Ayurvedic, Unani, and Sidha systems, as well as Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for the treatment of knee joint pain, lithiasis, diuresis, urinary disorder and swelling.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aims to investigate the antihyperuricemic effect of the L. nodiflora methanol extract, fractions, and chemical constituents and their mechanism of action in the rat model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mechanisms were investigated by performing xanthine oxidase inhibitory, uricosuric, and liver xanthine oxidase/xanthine dehydrogenase (XOD/XDH) inhibitory studies in potassium oxonate- and hypoxanthine-induced hyperuricemic rats. The plant safety profile was determined using acute toxicity study. The molecular docking of the active compound to the xanthine oxidase was simulated using computer aided molecular modeling analysis.

RESULTS

Oral administration of methanol extract showed a dose-dependent reduction effect on the serum uric acid level of hyperuricemic rats. F3 was the most potent fraction in lowering the serum uric acid level of hyperuricemic rats. Bioactivity-guided purification of F3 afforded two phenylethanoid glycosides, arenarioside (1) and verbascoside (2) and three flavonoids, 6-hydroxyluteolin (3), 6-hydroxyluteolin-7-O-glycoside (4), and nodifloretin (5). The highest serum uric acid reduction effect was exhibited by 3 (66.94%) in hyperuricemic rats, followed by 5 (55.97%), 4 (49.16%), 2 (29.03%), and 1 (22.08%) at 0.2 mmol/kg. Dose-response investigation on 3 at doses of 0.05, 0.1, and 0.3 mmol/kg produced a significant dose-dependent reduction on the serum uric acid level of hyperuricemic rats. Repeated administration of F3 or 3 to the hyperuricemic rats for 10 continuous days resulted in a significant and progressive serum uric acid lowering effect in hyperuricemic rats. In contrast, methanol extract and F3 did not reduce serum uric acid level of normoruricemic rats. In addition, F4 significantly increased the uric acid excretion of hyperuricemic rats at 200mg/kg. No toxic effect was observed in rats administered with 5000 mg/kg of methanol extract or F3.

CONCLUSION

The potential application of L. nodiflora against hyperuricemia in the animal in accordance with its traditional uses has been demonstrated in the present study for the first time. The antihyperuricemic effect possessed by L. nodiflora was contributed mainly by liver XOD/XDH inhibitory activities and partially by uricosuric effect. Flavonoids mainly accountable for the uric acid lowering effect of L. nodiflora through the inhibition of XOD/XDH activities.

Secoisolariciresinol diglycoside, a flaxseed lignan, exerts analgesic effects in a mouse model of type 1 diabetes: Engagement of antioxidant mechanism

Peripheral painful neuropathy is one of the most common complications in diabetes and necessitates improved treatment. Secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG), a predominant lignan in flaxseed, has been shown in our previous studies to exert antidepressant-like effect. As antidepressant drugs are clinically used to treat chronic neuropathic pain, this work aimed to investigate the potential analgesic efficacy of SDG against diabetic neuropathic pain in a mouse model of type 1 diabetes. We subjected mice to diabetes by a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of streptozotocin (STZ, 200 mg/kg), and Hargreaves test or von Frey test was used to assess thermal hyperalgesia or mechanical allodynia, respectively. Chronic instead of acute SDG treatment (3, 10 or 30 mg/kg, p.o., twice per day for three weeks) ameliorated thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in diabetic mice, and these analgesic actions persisted about three days when SDG treatment was terminated. Although chronic treatment of SDG to diabetic mice did not impact on the symptom of hyperglycemia, it greatly attenuated excessive oxidative stress in sciatic nerve and spinal cord tissues, and partially counteracted the condition of weight decrease. Furthermore, the analgesic actions of SDG were abolished by co-treatment with the reactive oxygen species donor tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BOOH), but potentiated by the reactive oxygen species scavenger phenyl-N-tert-butylnitrone (PBN). These findings indicate that chronic SDG treatment can correct neuropathic hyperalgesia and allodynia in mice with type 1 diabetes. Mechanistically, the analgesic actions of SDG in diabetic mice may be associated with its antioxidant activity.

Forsythiaside inhibits cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation by activation of Nrf2 and inhibition of NF-κB

Cigarette smoke has been reported to be the major cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It causes persistent inflammation by regulating the redox-sensitive pathways. Forsythiaside, an active constituent isolated from the Chinese medicinal herb Forsythia suspensa, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. Thus, in this study, we investigated the protective effects of forsythiaside against cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation in mice. COPD mice model was established by cigarette smoke. Forsythiaside was given 2h before cigarette smoke exposure for five consecutive days. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissues were collected to assess pathological changes, lipid peroxidation, inflammatory cytokine production, Nrf-2, and NF-κB expression. Our results showed that forsythiaside attenuated the infiltration of inflammatory cells, NO and inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β production, and reversed the CS-induced decrease of glutathione/glutathione disulfide (GSH/GSSG) ratio. Western blot analysis showed that forsythiaside inhibited cigarette smoke-induced NF-κB activation. In addition, forsythiaside dose-dependently up-regulated the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1. In conclusion, forsythiaside protected against cigarette smoke-induced lung injury through activating Nrf2 and inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway.

The Quinovic Acid Glycosides Purified Fraction from Uncaria tomentosa Protects against Hemorrhagic Cystitis Induced by Cyclophosphamide in Mice

Uncaria tomentosa is widely used in folk medicine for the treatment of numerous diseases, such as urinary tract disease. Hemorrhagic cystitis (HE) is an inflammatory condition of the bladder associated with the use of anticancer drugs such as cyclophosphamide (CYP). Sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate (Mesna) has been used to prevent the occurrence of HE, although this compound is not effective in established lesions. It has been demonstrated that the purinergic system is involved in several pathophysiological events. Among purinergic receptors, P2X7 deserves attention because it is involved in HE induced by CYP and, therefore, can be considered a therapeutic target. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential therapeutic effect of the quinovic acid glycosides purified fraction (QAPF) from U. tomentosa in the mouse model of CYP-induced HE. Pretreatment with QAPF not only had a protective effect on HE-induced urothelial damage (edema, hemorrhage and bladder wet weight) but was also able to control visceral pain, decrease IL-1β levels and down-regulates P2X7 receptors, most likely by inhibit the neutrophils migration to the bladder. This research clearly demonstrates the promising anti-inflammatory properties of QAPF, supporting its use as complementary therapy. QAPF represents a promising therapeutic option for this pathological condition.

Anti-obesity effect of total phenylpropanoid glycosides from Ligustrum robustum Blume in fatty diet-fed mice via up-regulating leptin

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Chinese folk medicine, the leaves of Ligustrum robustum Blume (LR) were commonly used in the treatment of obesity and hyperlipidemia. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-obesity effect and mechanisms of total phenylpropanoid glycosides from Ligustrum robustum Blume (LRTPG) in fatty diet-fed C57BL/6J mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were divided randomly into 6 groups, i.e., control, model, positive (Orlistat 0.12g/kg), and LRTPG at three dosages (0.3, 0.6 or 1.2g/kg), respectively. Control mice were fed with standard diet; the others were fed with fatty diet. After 4 weeks׳ modeling, therapy mice were intragastrically administrated with positive drug or LRTPG for 5 weeks, respectively. Pharmacodynamic effects including body weight, fat weight, Lee׳s index, serum lipid levels, morphological changes and adipocyte area ratio were evaluated. The mechanisms were explored as the factors related to lipids metabolism in gene expressions by real-time PCR, and assured as the protein level of differential gene by Western blotting.

RESULTS

The anti-obesity effects of LRTPG in all treated mice were shown as decreased body weight, fat mass, Lee׳s index, total cholesterol (TC) level, and adipocyte area. The mechanisms were demonstrated as elevated mRNA and protein levels of adipose leptin, and consequently decreasing mRNA of adipose acyl coenzyme A: diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) with increasing mRNA of hepatic cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), which led to inhibition of triglyceride (TG) synthesis and promotion of cholesterol catabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-obesity effect of LRTPG in fatty diet-fed mice was related to the up-regulation of leptin, which may provide scientific evidence supporting the traditional usage of LR on obesity in China.

Recent advances in antitumor antibiotics

An effective treatment schedule with bleomycin in combination with mitomycin and a new effective area in treatment with neocarzinostatin was introduced. Studies on more useful derivatives or analogues of bleomycin and anthracycline antitumor antibiotics were described. Bleomycin PEP thus selected may become a useful agent. Aclacinomycin and various other anthracycline glycosides were isolated from beer fermentation and tested. Future progress in microbiol secondary metabolites useful in cancer treatment was discussed.

Glycosides of cistanche improve learning and memory in the rat model of vascular dementia

OBJECTIVE

Glycosides of cistanche (GC) is extracted from Xin Jiang Cistanche, which is widely used as a Chinese herb. This study aims to evaluate the effects of GC on vascular dementia (VD).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The VD model was established by the ligature of the bilateral common carotid artery in adult Wistar rats, who received daily i. p. administration of saline, GC (10 mg/kg body weight/d, i.p.) or oxiracetam (450 mg/kg body weight/d, i.p) for 14 days. Morris Water Maze test valued cognitive performance of the rats. The hippocampus was dissected and subjected to proteomics and immunohistochemical analysis.

RESULTS

The GC group showed significantly lower escape latency than the VD group at four and five days after surgery. They showed no significant difference when compared with sham-operated group and the oxiracetam control group. In the hippocampus, the 21 protein spots in the GC group showed different expression levels compared with the VD group. This included the four proteins that showed a significant difference: three upregulated proteins thioredoxin-like protein 1, dual specificity mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 and dihydropyrimidinase-related protein 2 (CRMP-2), and one down-regulated protein glutathione synthetase. Immunohistochemistry analysis showed that P-tau protein level was significantly higher in the VD model group than the sham-operated group (p < 0.05). After GC treatment, P-tau protein level in VD model rats showed a significant decrease compared with VD group treated with saline (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The GC plays a critical role in protecting the hippocampal neurons in the VD, by decreasing P-tau phosphorylation and increasing the CRMP-2 expression level. Pharmacological manipulation of GC offers a new opportunity for VD treatment.

Lignans and aromatic glycosides from Piper wallichii and their antithrombotic activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Piper wallichii (Miq.) Hand.-Mazz. is a medicinal plant used widely for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory diseases, cerebral infarction and angina in China. Previous study showed that lignans and neolignans from Piper spp. had potential inhibitory activities on platelet aggregation. In the present study, we investigated the chemical constituents of Piper wallichii and their antithrombotic activities, to support its traditional uses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The methanolic extract of the air-dried stems of Piper wallichii was separated and purified using various chromatographic methods, including semi-preparative HPLC. The chemical structures of the isolates were determined by detailed spectroscopic analysis, and acidic hydrolysis in case of the new glycoside 2. Determination of absolute configurations of the new compound 1 was facilitated by calculated electronic circular dichroism using time-dependent density-functional theory. All compounds were tested for their inhibitory effects on platelet aggregation induced by platelet activating factor (PAF) in rabbits׳ blood model, from which the active ones were further evaluated the in vivo antithrombotic activity in zebrafish model.

RESULTS

A new neolignan, piperwalliol A (1), and four new aromatic glycosides, piperwalliosides A-D (2-5) were isolated from the stems of Piper wallichii, along with 25 known compounds, including 13 lignans, six aromatic glycosides, two phenylpropyl aldehydes, and four biphenyls. Five known compounds (6-10) showed in vitro antiplatelet aggregation activities. Among them, (-)-syringaresinol (6) was the most active compound with an IC50 value of 0.52 mM. It is noted that in zebrafish model, the known lignan 6 showed good in vivo antithrombotic effect with a value of 37% at a concentration of 30 μM, compared with the positive control aspirin with the inhibitory value of 74% at a concentration of 125μM.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that lignans, phenylpropanoid and biphenyl found in Piper wallichii may be responsible for antithrombotic effect of the titled plant.

Development of sotagliflozin, a dual sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1/2 inhibitor

The sodium-dependent glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are an important emerging class for the treatment of diabetes. Development of SGLT2 inhibitors has been oriented around a desire for high selectivity for the SGLT2 protein relative to the SGLT1 protein. More recently, genetic and pharmacology research in mice has indicated that gastrointestinal SGLT1 inhibition may also be an appropriate therapeutic target to treat diabetes. Combining SGLT1 and SGLT2 inhibition in a single molecule would provide complementary insulin-independent mechanisms to treat diabetes. Therefore, sotagliflozin (LX4211) has been developed as a dual inhibitor of SGLT1 and SGLT2. The differentiating clinical features of dual inhibitor of SGLT1 and SGLT2 include a large postprandial glucose reduction, elevation of glucagon-like peptide 1 and modest urinary glucose excretion. These features may have clinical implications for the use of sotagliflozin in the treatment of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Effects of lettuce glycoside B in ameliorating pulmonary fibrosis induced by irradiation exposure and its anti-oxidative stress mechanism

The present research assessed the effects of lettuce glycoside B (LGB), a compound separated and purified from Pterocypsela laciniata, on irradiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis and explored the mechanism involved. Animal model of irradiation exposure inducing pulmonary fibrosis was established by Co irradiator. Rats were intraperitoneally treated with LGB (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) once per day for a month. Lung index data were analyzed. The levels of fibrosis were assessed by hydroxyproline (Hyp) of pulmonary and lung tissue sections after irradiation exposure. Alveolitis and fibrosis levels were calculated from semi-quantitative analysis of hematoxylin and eosin and Masson's trichrome lung section staining. The serum levels of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), interleukin (IL)-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were also evaluated. Antioxidant enzymes of superoxide dismutase (SOD) were measured in serum. Moreover, we also measured serum malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, a marker of oxidative stress. Treatment with LGB significantly reduced mortality rates and lung index scores and MDA content, enhanced SOD and other antioxidant enzymes activity, and regulated serum levels of TGF-β1, IL-6, and TNF-α. These results demonstrated that LGB significantly inhibited irradiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Furthermore, the results suggested promising clinical effect of LGB therapies for treating irradiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

The anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of kaempferol glycosides from unripe soybean leaves in high-fat-diet mice

The present study investigated the anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of kaempferol glycoside (KG) fractions which were composed of four kaempferol glycosides and purified from unripe Jindai-soybean (Edamame) leaves in C57BL/6J mice. High fat-fed mice treated with 0.15% dietary KG for 92 days had reduced body weight, adipose tissue and TG levels compared to the high fat-fed control group. KG-treatment also decreased fasting blood glucose, serum HbA1c (hemoglobin A(1c)) levels and improved insulin resistance. Gene expression analysis of the liver showed that KG decreased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-γ) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP-1c) expression. These results suggest that KG reduced the accumulation of adipose tissue, improving hyperlipidemia as well as diabetes in obese mice by increasing lipid metabolism through the downregulation of PPAR-γ and SREBP-1c. Thus, KG may have an anti-obesity and anti-diabetic potential.

Inhibitory effects of kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside on ovalbumin-induced lung inflammation in a mouse model of allergic asthma

The modification of natural flavonoid by glycosylation alters their physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, such as increased water solubility and stability, reduced toxicity, and sometimes enhanced or even new pharmacological activities. Kaempferol (KF), a plant flavonoid, and its glycosylated derivative, kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside (K-3-rh), were evaluated and compared for their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-asthmatic effects in an asthma model mouse. The results showed that K-3-rh fully maintained its anti-inflammatory and anti-asthmatic effects compared with KF in an asthma model mouse. Both KF and K-3-rh significantly reduced the elevated inflammatory cell numbers in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). KF and K-3-rh also significantly inhibited the increase in Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) and TNF-α protein levels through inhibition of the phosphorylation Akt and effectively suppressed eosinophilia in a mouse model of allergic asthma. The total immunoglobulin (Ig) E levels in the serum and BALF were also blocked by KF and K-3-rh to similar extents. K-3-rh exerts similar or even slightly higher inhibitory effects on Th2 cytokines and IgE production compared with KF, whereas K-3-rh was less effective at DPPH radical scavenging and the inhibition of ROS generation in inflammatory cells compared with KF. These results suggested that the K-3-rh, as well as KF, may also be a promising candidate for the development of health beneficial foods or therapeutic agents that can prevent or treat allergic asthma.

Protective effect of total flavonoid C-glycosides from Abrus mollis extract on lipopolysaccharide-induced lipotoxicity in mice

Abrus mollis is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine for treating acute and chronic hepatitis, steatosis, and fibrosis. It was found that the total flavonoid C-glycosides from Abrus mollis extract (AME) showed potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activities. To further investigate the hepatoprotective effect of AME and its possible mechanisms, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury models were applied in the current study. The results indicated that AME significantly attenuated LPS-induced lipid accumulation in mouse primary hepatocytes as measured by triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) assays and Oil Red O staining. Meanwhile, AME exerted a protective effect on LPS-induced liver injury as shown by decreased liver index, serum aminotransferase levels, and hepatic lipid accumulation. Real-time PCR and immunoblot data suggested that AME reversed the LPS-mediated lipid metabolism gene expression, such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1). In addition, LPS-induced overexpression of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), X-box-binding protein-1 (XBP-1), and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) were dramatically reversed by AME. Furthermore, AME also decreased the expression of LPS-enhanced interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Here, it is demonstrated for the first time that AME ameliorated LPS-induced hepatic lipid accumulation and that this effect of AME can be attributed to its modulation of hepatic de novo fatty acid synthesis. This study also suggested that the hepatoprotective effect of AME may be related to its down-regulation of unfolded protein response (UPR) activation.

Apigenin-7-glycoside prevents LPS-induced acute lung injury via downregulation of oxidative enzyme expression and protein activation through inhibition of MAPK phosphorylation

Apigenin-7-glycoside (AP7Glu) with multiple biological activities is a flavonoid that is currently prescribed to treat inflammatory diseases such as upper respiratory infections. Recently, several studies have shown that its anti-inflammatory activities have been strongly linked to the inhibition of secretion of pro-inflammatory proteins, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOs) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) induced through phosphorylation nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) pathways. Additionally, inflammation, which can decrease the activities of antioxidative enzymes (AOEs) is also observed in these studies. At the same time, flavonoids are reported to promote the activities of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) decreased by LPS. The purpose of this study was to assess these theories in a series of experiments on the suppressive effects of AP7Glu based on LPS-induced nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 macrophages in vitro and acute lung injury in mice in vivo. After six hours of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, pulmonary pathological, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, total polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) cells, cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and AOEs, are all affected and changed. Meanwhile, our data revealed that AP7Glu not only did significantly inhibit the LPS-enhanced inflammatory activity in lung, but also exhibited anti-inflammatory effect through the MAPK and inhibitor NF-κB (IκB) pathways.

Effects of Multi-glycosides of Tripterygium wilfordiion in the Treatment of Sjögren's Syndrome in the Non-obese Diabetic Mouse Model

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of the multi-glycosides of Tripterygium wilfordii (GTW) on Sjögren's syndrome (SS) in the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model.

METHODS

Twenty-seven 8-week-old, female NOD mice were divided into the GTW group, the hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) group, and control (normal saline) group, and received corresponding treatment for 16 weeks. The treatment-induced changes in stimulated total saliva flow rate (STFR), level of serum anti-SSA/SSB, ratio of regulatory T (Treg) cells, histology of the submandibular gland (SMG) and the gene expression profile that is related to inflammation and autoimmunization were evaluated.

RESULTS

Compared to the untreated (control) mice, STRF, SMG index and Treg/CD4+ cell ratio were significantly higher, whereas anti-SSA, anti-SSB and lymphoid foci were remarkably lower in GTW-treated mice. HCQ-treated mice showed similar results except SMG index was not different from the untreated mice. NOD mice showed 19.03% altered gene expression with maturation from the age of 8 weeks to 24 weeks. Treatment with HCQ and GTW reduced the change in gene expression to 13.09% and 7.14%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

GTW is as effective as HCQ in the treatment of Sjögren's syndrome in the NOD mouse model.

Induction of apoptosis in colon cancer cells treated with isorhamnetin glycosides from Opuntia ficus-indica pads

(OFI) contains health-promoting compounds like flavonoids, being the isorhamnetin glycosides the most abundant. We evaluated the effect of OFI extracts with different isorhamnetin glycosides against two different human colon cancer cells (HT-29 and Caco2). The extracts were obtained by alkaline hydrolysis with NaOH at 40 °C during 15, 30 or 60 min. Tri and diglycosides were the most abundant isorhamnetin glycosides, therefore these compounds were isolated to compare their cytotoxic effect with the obtained from the extracts. The OFI extracts and purified isorhamnetin glycosides were more cytotoxic against HT-29 cells than Caco2 cells. OFI-30 exhibited the lowest IC50 value against HT-29 (4.9 ± 0.5 μg/mL) and against Caco2 (8.2 ± 0.3 μg/mL). Isorhamnetin diglycosides IG5 and IG6 were more cytotoxic than pure isorhamnetin aglycone or triglycosides when they were tested in HT-29 cells. Bioluminescent analysis revealed increased activity of caspase 3/7 in OFI extracts-treated cells, particularly for the extract with the highest concentration of isorhamnetin triglycosides. Flow cytometry analysis confirmed that OFI extract and isorhamnetin glycosides induced a higher percentage of apoptosis in HT-29 than in Caco2, while isorhamnetin was more apoptotic in Caco2. This research demonstrated that glycosilation affected antiproliferative effect of pure isorhamnetin glycosides or when they are mixed with other phytochemicals in an extract obtained from OFI.

Xysmalobium undulatum (uzara) - review of an antidiarrhoeal traditional medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xysmalobium undulatum, commonly known as uzara, is traditionally used as an antidiarrhoeal and to treat stomach cramps, dysmenorrhoea and afterbirth cramps. In addition, it was reportedly used to treat anxiety and other conditions relating to mental health.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To unite the botanical aspects, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activity, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data, toxicity and commercial aspects of the scientific literature available on uzara.

METHOD

An extensive review of the literature covering 1917-2014 was carried out. Electronic databases including Scopus, Pubmed, Google Scholar and Google were used to assemble the data. All abstracts, full-text articles and books written in English and German were examined and included.

RESULTS

The phytochemistry of uzara has been comprehensively investigated and at least 18 compounds have been isolated and characterised. Uzara contains mainly cardenolide glycosides such as uzarin and xysmalorin and cardenolide aglycones such as uzarigenin and xysmalogenin. Limited scientific studies on the biological activity of uzara have been done. In vitro antisecretory antidiarrhoeal action was confirmed. Central nervous system activity was conflicting, in vitro and in vivo (animals) studies were inconclusive and no clinical studies have been performed. No antimutagenic effects have been reported and no toxicity up to date has been associated with uzara consumption. Significant cross-reactivity of uzara compounds with commercial digoxin and digitoxin assays may interfere with therapeutic drug monitoring.

CONCLUSIONS

The key traditional uses associated with uzara have been investigated in vitro and in vivo (animal), but clinical trial data is lacking.

Analgesic activity of Eugenia jambolana leave constituent: a dikaempferol rhamnopyranoside from ethyl acetate soluble fraction

CONTEXT

Eugenia jambolana Lam. (Myrtaceae) is a medicinal plant used in folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes, inflammation, and pain.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the antinociceptive effect of kaempferol-7-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside]- 4'-O-4'-[kaempferol-7-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside (EJ-01), isolated from the E. jambolana leaves.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

EJ-01 (3, 10, and 30 mg kg(-1), orally) was assessed for peripheral (formalin-nociception and acetic acid-writhing) and central (hot plate and tail flick test) analgesic activity in mice and the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity (25, 50, and 100 µg mL(-1)) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

EJ-01 (10 and 30 mg kg(-1)) significantly inhibited mean writhing counts (37.74 and 36.83) in acetic acid writhing and paw licking time (55.16 and 45.66 s) in the late phase of the formalin test as compared with the respective control (60.66 and 104.33 s). EJ-01 did not show analgesic activity in central pain models. Significant reduction in the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (295.48, 51.20, and 49.47 pg mL(-1)) and interleukin (IL)-1β (59.38, 20.08, and 15.46 pg mL(-1)) levels were observed in EJ-01-treated medium (25, 50, and 100 µg mL(-1)) as compared with vehicle-treated control values (788.67 and 161.77 pg mL(-1)), respectively. Significant reduction in total nitrite plus nitrate (NOx) levels (70.80 nmol) was observed in the EJ-01-treated medium (100 µg mL(-1)) as compared with the vehicle-treated value (110.41 nmol).

CONCLUSION

EJ-01 is a valuable analgesic constituent of E. jambolana leaves and this study supports the pharmacological basis for the use of this plant in traditional medicine for curing inflammatory pain.

Morroniside improves microvascular functional integrity of the neurovascular unit after cerebral ischemia

Treating the vascular elements within the neurovascular unit is essential for protecting and repairing the brain after stroke. Acute injury on endothelial systems results in the disruption of blood-brain barrier (BBB), while post-ischemic angiogenesis plays an important role in delayed functional recovery. Here, we considered alterations in microvessel integrity to be targets for brain recovery, and tested the natural compound morroniside as a therapeutic approach to restore the vascular elements of injured tissue in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model, and morroniside was then administered intragastrically once a day at doses of 30, 90, and 270 mg/kg. BBB integrity and associated factors were analyzed to identify cerebrovascular permeability 3 days after MCAO. The recruitment of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), the expression of angiogenic factors and the new vessel formation in the peri-infarct cortex of rats were examined 7 days after MCAO to identify the angiogenesis. We demonstrated that at 3 days post-ischemia, morroniside preserved neurovascular unit function by ameliorating BBB injury. By 7 days post-ischemia, morroniside amplified angiogenesis, in part by enhancing endothelial progenitor cell proliferation and expression of angiogenic factors. Morever, the increase in the amount of vWF⁺ vessels induced by ischemia could be extended to 28 days after administration of morroniside, indicating the crucial role of morroniside in angiogenesis during the chronic phase. Taken together, our findings suggested that morroniside might offer a novel therapeutic approach for promoting microvascular integrity recovery and provide a thoroughly new direction for stroke therapy.