A Common Phenotype Polymorphism in Mammalian Brains Defined by Concomitant Production of Prolactin and Growth Hormone

Pituitary Prolactin (PRL) and Growth Hormone (GH) are separately controlled and sub-serve different purposes. Surprisingly, we demonstrate that extra-pituitary expression in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) is coordinated at mRNA and protein levels. However this was not a uniform effect within populations, such that wide inter-individual variation was superimposed on coordinate PRL/GH expression. Up to 44% of individuals in healthy cohorts of mice and rats showed protein levels above the norm and coordinated expression of PRL and GH transcripts above baseline occurred in the amygdala, frontal lobe and hippocampus of 10% of human subjects. High levels of PRL and GH present in post mortem tissue were often presaged by altered responses in fear conditioning and stress induced hyperthermia behavioral tests. Our data define a common phenotype polymorphism in healthy mammalian brains, and, given the pleiotropic effects known for circulating PRL and GH, further consequences of coordinated CNS over-expression may await discovery.

Triclosan and bisphenol a affect decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells

In recent years, impaired fertility and endometrium related diseases are increased. Many evidences suggest that environmental pollution might be considered a risk factor for endometrial physiopathology. Among environmental pollutants, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) act on endocrine system, causing hormonal imbalance which, in turn, leads to female and male reproductive dysfunctions. In this work, we studied the effects of triclosan (TCL) and bisphenol A (BPA), two widespread EDCs, on human endometrial stromal cells (ESCs), derived from endometrial biopsies from woman not affected by endometriosis. Cell proliferation, cell cycle, migration and decidualization mechanisms were investigated. Treatments have been performed with both the EDCs separately or in presence and in absence of progesterone used as decidualization stimulus. Both TCL and BPA did not affect cell proliferation, but they arrested ESCs at G2/M phase of cell cycle enhancing cell migration. TCL and BPA also increased gene expression and protein levels of some decidualization markers, such as insulin growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP1) and prolactin (PRL), amplifying the effect of progesterone alone. All together, our data strongly suggest that TCL and BPA might alter human endometrium physiology so affecting fertility and pregnancy outcome.

LPXRFamide peptide stimulates growth hormone and prolactin gene expression during the spawning period in the grass puffer, a semi-lunar synchronized spawner

Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) plays as a multifunctional neurohormone that controls reproduction in birds and mammals. LPXRFamide (LPXRFa) peptide, the fish ortholog of GnIH, has been shown to regulate the secretion of not only gonadotropin (GTH) but also growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL), which are potentially important for gonadal function. To investigate the role of LPXRFa peptide on reproduction of the grass puffer, which spawns in semilunar cycles, we examined changes in the levels of gh and prl expression over the several months during the reproductive cycle, and the effects of goldfish LPXRFa peptide-1 (gfLPXRFa-1) on their expression were examined using primary pituitary cultures. The expression levels of both gh and prl showed significant changes during the reproductive cycle in both sexes with one peak in the spawning and pre-spawning periods for gh and prl, respectively. Particularly, gh showed substantial increase in expression in the spawning and post-spawning periods, indicative of its essentiality in the advanced stage of reproduction. gfLPXRFa-1 stimulated the expression of both gh and prl but there was a marked difference in response between them: gfLPXRFa-1 stimulated gh expression at a relatively low dose but little effect was observed on prl. Combined with the previous results of daily and circadian oscillations of lpxrfa expression, the present results suggest that LPXRFa peptide is important in the control of the cyclic reproduction by serving as a multifunctional hypophysiotropic factor that regulates the expression of gh and prl as well as GTH subunit genes.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) regulates prolactin, growth hormone, and IGF-1 receptor expression in the pituitary gland of the gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata

The role of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) on regulation of growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) as well as the possible involvement of IGF-1 receptor subtype a (IGF-1Ra) mRNA was assessed in juvenile specimens of Sparus aurata. IGF-1Ra was successfully cloned, and active receptor domains were localized in its mRNA precursor. Also, phylogenetic analysis of the protein sequence indicated a closer proximity to IGF-1Ra isoform found in zebrafish and other teleosts, than to the isoform IGF-1Rb. The most abundant presence of IGF-1Ra mRNA was detected in white muscle, whereas head kidney showed the lowest gene expression among 24 different studied tissues. Pituitaries of juvenile specimens of S. aurata were incubated in vitro with different doses of IGF-1 (0, 1, 100, and 1000 ng mL(-1)) during a period of 10 h. Total RNA with a high quality could be obtained from these pituitaries. PRL mRNA expression significantly increased with increasing IGF-1 doses. Similarly, IGF-1Ra mRNA increased its expression in response to IGF-1. However, GH mRNA levels decreased in a dose-dependent manner after IGF-1 treatment. The contradictory responses of GH and PRL expressions to IGF-1 in our experiment are possibly mediated by IGF-1Ra presence on the somatotrophs and prolactotrophs. The increase in IGF-1Ra mRNA levels may be related to the proper activation of the PI3-K/Akt signal transduction pathways which are normally involved in GH and PRL regulation.

Bovine lactotroph cultures for the study of prolactin synthesis functions

The aim of this study was to establish a bovine anterior pituitary-derived lactotroph (BAPDL) line that expresses prolactin (PRL) in vitro to study the mechanisms of bovine PRL synthesis and secretion. Immunohistochemistry assay of PRL in the newborn calves' anterior pituitary glands showed that most lactotrophs were located within the superior border of the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary. Tissues of the superior border of the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary were dispersed and cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). The limiting dilution method was used to establish BAPDL from single cell clone. BAPDL cells constantly expressed mRNAs for PRL and pituitary-specific transcription factor 1 (Pit-1) gene and grew steadily and rapidly in the DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS. PRL immunoreactivity was present in BAPDL at passage 20. The concentration of bovine PRL in BAPDL at passage 20 culture supernatant was decreased to below 35% compared with that in BAPDL at passage 1. The effects of human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) and dopamine (DA) on the expression and secretion of PRL in BAPDL at passage 4 were also investigated. The results are consistent with those of previous studies. Thus, it can be used successfully for studying the mechanisms of stimuli regulating PRL synthesis and release.

Prolactin as an Adjunct for Type 1 Diabetes Immunotherapy

Type 1 diabetes is caused by autoimmune destruction of β-cells. Although immunotherapy can restore self-tolerance thereby halting continued immune-mediated β-cell loss, residual β-cell mass and function is often insufficient for normoglycemia. Using a growth factor to boost β-cell mass can potentially overcome this barrier and prolactin (PRL) may fill this role. Previous studies have shown that PRL can stimulate β-cell proliferation and up-regulate insulin synthesis and secretion while reducing lymphocytic infiltration of islets, suggesting that it may restore normoglycemia through complementary mechanisms. Here, we test the hypothesis that PRL can improve the efficacy of an immune modulator, the anticluster of differentiation 3 monoclonal antibody (aCD3), in inducing diabetes remission by up-regulating β-cell mass and function. Diabetic nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice were treated with a 5-day course of aCD3 with or without a concurrent 3-week course of PRL. We found that a higher proportion of diabetic mice treated with the aCD3 and PRL combined therapy achieved diabetes reversal than those treated with aCD3 alone. The aCD3 and PRL combined group had a higher β-cell proliferation rate, an increased β-cell fraction, larger islets, higher pancreatic insulin content, and greater glucose-stimulated insulin release. Lineage-tracing analysis found minimal contribution of β-cell neogenesis to the formation of new β-cells. Although we did not detect a significant difference in the number or proliferative capacity of T cells, we observed a higher proportion of insulitis-free islets in the aCD3 and PRL group. These results suggest that combining a growth factor with an immunotherapy may be an effective treatment paradigm for autoimmune diabetes.

Autocrine/paracrine roles of extrapituitary growth hormone and prolactin in health and disease: An overview

Growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) are both endocrines that are synthesized and released from the pituitary gland into systemic circulation. Both are therefore hormones and both have numerous physiological roles mediated through a myriad of target sites and both have pathophysiological consequences when present in excess or deficiency. GH or PRL gene expression is not, however, confined to the anterior pituitary gland and it occurs widely in many of their central and peripheral sites of action. This may reflect "leaky gene" phenomena and the fact that all cells have the potential to express every gene that is present in their genome. However, the presence of GH or PRL receptors in these extrapituitary sites of GH and PRL production suggests that they are autocrine or paracrine sites of GH and PRL action. These local actions often occur prior to the ontogeny of pituitary somatotrophs and lactotrophs and they may complement or differ from the roles of their pituitary counterparts. Many of these local actions are also of physiological significance, since they are impaired by a blockade of local GH or PRL production or by an antagonism of local GH or PRL action. These local actions may also be of pathophysiological significance, since autocrine or paracrine actions of GH and PRL are thought to be causally involved in a number of disease states, particularly in cancer. Autocrine GH for instance, is thought to be more oncogenic than pituitary GH and selective targeting of the autocrine moiety may provide a therapeutic approach to prevent tumor progression. In summary, GH and PRL are not just endocrine hormones, as they have autocrine and/or paracrine roles in health and disease.

Expression mechanism of tryptophan hydroxylase 1 in mouse islets during pregnancy

Serotonin signaling plays key roles in augmentation of pancreatic β-cell function during pregnancy. Increased expression of tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (Tph1), a rate-limiting enzyme for serotonin synthesis by lactogenic hormones, is involved in this phenomenon. To investigate its mechanisms, we here performed 5'-RACE and identified β-cell-specific transcription initiation sites for Tph1. Prolactin enhanced the expression of mRNA containing these exons; however, reporter gene plasmids containing the proximal 5'-flanking region of these exons did not show prolactin responsiveness in MIN6 cells. Prolactin-induced Tph1 expression was inhibited by a Jak2 inhibitor and was partially inhibited by an MEK1/2 or PI3K inhibitor. Therefore, we analyzed interferon γ-activated sequences (GAS) and found GAS-A about 9-kbp upstream of the transcription start site. The reporter gene plasmid containing the GAS-A region linked to a heterologous promoter showed increased promoter activity by prolactin, which was inhibited by the forced expression of a dominant-negative mutant form of Stat5A and a Jak2 inhibitor. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that prolactin treatment augmented Stat5 binding to the GAS-A region in MIN6 cells, as well as in isolated mouse islets, and that Stat5 recognized the GAS-A region in pregnant mouse islets. In addition, the transactivation activity of Stat5 was enhanced by prolactin through the Erk and PI3K pathways in MIN6 cells. Finally, serotonin expression was attenuated in islets of β-cell-specific Stat5-deficient mice compared with that of control littermates during pregnancy. Our findings suggest that prolactin-induced Tph1 expression is mediated by the activation of Jak2/Stat5, Erk, and PI3K pathways in β cells.

Effects of tibolone and its metabolites on prolactin and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 expression in human endometrial stromal cells

The effects of the postmenopausal replacement steroid tibolone and its 3α-, 3β-OH and Δ-4 tibolone metabolites were evaluated on progesterone receptor-mediated classic decidualization markers insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) and prolactin expression in human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs). Supernatants of conditioned medium or erxtracted RNA from experimental cell incubations of confluent HESCs were subjected to ELISAs, Western blot analysis and RT/PCR, and results were statisically assesed. Over 21 days, specific ELISAs observed linear increases in secreted IGFBP-1 and prolactin levels elicited by tibolone and its metabolites. Cultured HESCs were refractory to E2 and dexamethasone, whereas tibolone and each metabolite exceeded medroxyprogesterone acetate in significantly elevating IGFBP-1 and prolactin output. Anti-progestins eliminated IGFBP-1 and prolactin induction by tibolone and its metabolites. Immunoblotting and RT/PCR confirmed ELISA results. These observations of IGFBP-1 and prolactin expression: (a) indicate the relevance of cultured HESCs in evaluating the chronic effects of tibolone administration to women; (b) are consistent with PR-mediated endometrial atrophy and protection against endometrial bleeding despite the persistence of circulating ER-binding, but not PR-binding metabolites following tibolone administration to women.

Prolonged in vivo administration of testosterone-enanthate, the widely used and abused anabolic androgenic steroid, disturbs prolactin and cAMP signaling in Leydig cells of adult rats

This study was designed to systematically analyze and define the effects of 1-day, 2-weeks, 10-weeks intramuscular administration of testosterone-enanthate, widely used and abused anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS), on main regulators of steroidogenesis and steroidogenic genes expression in testosterone-producing Leydig cells of adult rats. The results showed that prolonged (10-weeks) intramuscular administration of testosterone-enanthate, in clinically relevant dose, significantly increased prolactin, but decreased Prlr2 and Gnrhr in pituitary of adult rat. The levels of testosterone, Insl3, cAMP and mitochondrial membrane potential of Leydig cells were significantly reduced. This was followed by decreased expression of some steroidogenic enzymes and regulatory proteins such as Lhcgr, Prlr1/2, Tspo, Star, Cyp11a1, Cyp17a1, Dax1. Oppositely, Hsd3b1/2, Hsd3b5, Hsd17b4, Ar, Arr19 increased. In the same cells, transcriptional milieu of cAMP signaling elements was disturbed with remarkable up-regulation of PRKA (the main regulator of steroidogenesis). Increased prolactin together with stimulated transcription of Jak2/Jak3 could account for increased Hsd3b1/2 and Hsd3b5 in Leydig cells following 10-weeks in vivo treatment with testosterone-enanthate. In vitro studies revealed that testosterone is capable to increase level of Prlr1, Prlr2, Hsd3b1/2, Hsd3b5 in Leydig cells. Accordingly, testosterone-induced changes in prolactin receptor signaling together with up-regulation of PRKA, Hsd3b1/2, Hsd3b5, Ar in Leydig cells, could be the possible mechanism that contribute to the establishment of a new adaptive response to maintain homeostasis and prevent loss of steroidogenic function. Presented data provide new molecular insights into the relationship between disturbed testosterone homeostasis and mammalian reproduction and are important in terms of wide use and abuse of AASs and human reproductive health.

New insights in prolactin: pathological implications

Prolactin is a hormone that is mainly secreted by lactotroph cells of the anterior pituitary gland, and is involved in many biological processes including lactation and reproduction. Animal models have provided insights into the biology of prolactin proteins and offer compelling evidence that the different prolactin isoforms each have independent biological functions. The major isoform, 23 kDa prolactin, acts via its membrane receptor, the prolactin receptor (PRL-R), which is a member of the haematopoietic cytokine superfamily and for which the mechanism of activation has been deciphered. The 16 kDa prolactin isoform is a cleavage product derived from native prolactin, which has received particular attention as a result of its newly described inhibitory effects on angiogenesis and tumorigenesis. The discovery of multiple extrapituitary sites of prolactin secretion also increases the range of known functions of this hormone. This Review summarizes current knowledge of the biology of prolactin and its receptor, as well as its physiological and pathological roles. We focus on the role of prolactin in human pathophysiology, particularly the discovery of the mechanism underlying infertility associated with hyperprolactinaemia and the identification of the first mutation in human PRLR.

Removal of Rev-erbα inhibition contributes to the prostaglandin G/H synthase 2 expression in rat endometrial stromal cells

The rhythmic expression of clock genes in the uterus is attenuated during decidualization. This study focused on Ptgs2, which is essential for decidualization, as a putative clock-controlled gene, and aimed to reveal the functions of clock genes in relation to Ptgs2 during decidualization. We compared the transcript levels of clock genes in the rat uterus on days 4.5 (D4.5) and 6.5 of pregnancy. The transcript levels of clock genes (Per2, Bmal1, Rorα, and Rev-erbα) had decreased at implantation sites on day 6.5 (D6.5e) compared with those on D4.5, whereas Ptgs2 transcripts had increased on D6.5e. Similar observations of Rev-erbα and Ptgs2 were also obtained in the endometrium on D6.5e by immunohistochemistry. In the decidual cells induced by medroxyprogesterone and 2-O-dibutyryl-cAMP, the rhythmic expression levels of clock genes were attenuated, whereas Ptgs2 transcription was induced. These results indicate that decidualization causes the attenuation of clock genes and the induction of Ptgs2. Furthermore, in the experiment of Bmal1 siRNA, the rhythmic expression of clock genes and Ptgs2 was attenuated by the siRNA. Transcript levels of Ptgs2 and prostaglandin (PG)E₂ production were increased by treatment with the Rev-erbα antagonist, suggesting the contribution of the nuclear receptor Rev-erbα to Ptgs2 expression. Moreover, Rev-erbα knockdown enhanced the induction of Ptgs2 transcription and PGE₂ production by forskolin. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-PCR analysis revealed that Rev-erbα could directly bind to a proximal RORE site of Ptgs2. Collectively, this study demonstrates that the attenuation of the circadian clock, especially its core component Rev-erbα, contributes to the induction of Ptgs2 during decidualization.

Interaction of pituitary hormones and expression of clock genes modulated by bone morphogenetic protein-4 and melatonin

Functional interaction of clock genes and pituitary hormones was investigated by focusing on bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-4 and melatonin actions in anterior pituitary cells. A significant correlation between the mRNA expression of proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and Per2 was revealed in serial cultures of corticotrope AtT20 cells. Knockdown of Per2 expression by siRNA in AtT20 cells resulted in a significant reduction of POMC mRNA level with or without corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulation. Treatments with BMP-4 and melatonin, both of which suppress POMC expression, reduced Per2 mRNA as well as protein levels in AtT20 cells. On the other hand, in lactosomatotrope GH3 cells, an expressional correlation was found between prolactin (PRL) and Clock mRNA levels, which was attenuated in the presence of forskolin treatment. The siRNA-mediated knockdown of Clock expression, but not that of Bmal1, significantly reduced PRL mRNA levels in GH3 cells. Interestingly, Clock mRNA and protein levels did not fluctuate with melatonin, BMP-4 or forskolin treatment, although Bmal1 expression was significantly increased by forskolin treatment. Collectively, a significant correlation between the expression of POMC and Per2 and that between PRL and Clock were uncovered in corticotrope and lactosomatotrope cells, respectively. Per2 expression was inhibited by POMC modulators including melatonin and BMP-4, while Clock expression was steadily maintained. Thus, the effects of melatonin and BMP-4 on clock gene expression may imply differential stability of circadian rhythms of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and PRL secreted from the anterior pituitary.

Melatonin regulates somatotrope and lactotrope function through common and distinct signaling pathways in cultured primary pituitary cells from female primates

Melatonin (MT) is secreted by the pineal gland and exhibits a striking circadian rhythm in its release. Depending on the species studied, some pituitary hormones also display marked circadian/seasonal patterns and rhythms of secretion. However, the precise relationship between MT and pituitary function remains controversial, and studies focusing on the direct role of MT in normal pituitary cells are limited to nonprimate species. Here, adult normal primate (baboons) primary pituitary cell cultures were used to determine the direct impact of MT on the functioning of all pituitary cell types from the pars distalis. MT increased GH and prolactin (PRL) expression/release in a dose- and time-dependent fashion, a response that was blocked by somatostatin. However, MT did not significantly affect ACTH, FSH, LH, or TSH expression/release. MT did not alter GHRH- or ghrelin-induced GH and/or PRL secretions, suggesting that MT may activate similar signaling pathways as ghrelin/GHRH. The effects of MT on GH/PRL release, which are likely mediated through MT1 receptor, involve both common (adenylyl cyclase/protein kinase A/extracellular calcium-channels) and distinct (phospholipase C/intracellular calcium-channels) signaling pathways. Actions of MT on pituitary cells also included regulation of the expression of other key components for the control of somatotrope/lactotrope function (GHRH, ghrelin, and somatostatin receptors). These results show, for the first time in a primate model, that MT directly regulates somatotrope/lactotrope function, thereby lending support to the notion that the actions of MT on these cells might substantially contribute to the define daily patterns of GH and PRL observed in primates and perhaps in humans.

Effects of perfluorooctane sulfuric acid on placental PRL-family hormone production and fetal growth retardation in mice

Perfluorooctane sulfuric acid (PFOS) is a persistent organic pollutant, causes fetal growth retardation but the mechanism is still unclear. This study focused on PFOS-induced toxicity such as placental trophoblast cell histopathological changes, endocrine function (i.e., prolactin (PRL)-family hormone production) and subsequent fetal growth retardation in mice. Maternal body weight gain, placental and fetal weights were significantly decreased in proportion to PFOS dosage. Placental efficiency (fetal weight/placental weight) was significantly reduced dose-dependently. Necrotic changes were observed in PFOS-treated placental tissues, and the area of injury increased dose-dependently. Finally, mRNA levels and maternal serum concentrations of the PRL-family hormones (mPL-II, mPLP-Cα, mPLP-K) were significantly reduced dose-dependently. In addition, the changing pattern between PRL-family hormone concentrations and fetal body weight was positively correlated. These results suggest that gestational PFOS treatment induces placental histopathological changes and disruption of endocrine function, finally may lead to fetal growth retardation in mice.

Grass carp prolactin: molecular cloning, tissue expression, intrapituitary autoregulation by prolactin and paracrine regulation by growth hormone and luteinizing hormone

Prolactin (PRL), a pituitary hormone with diverse functions, is well-documented to be under the control of both hypothalamic and peripheral signals. Intrapituitary modulation of PRL expression via autocrine/paracrine mechanisms has also been reported, but similar information is still lacking in lower vertebrates. To shed light on autocrine/paracrine regulation of PRL in fish model, grass carp PRL was cloned and its expression in the carp pituitary has been confirmed. In grass carp pituitary cells, local secretion of PRL could suppress PRL release with concurrent rises in PRL production and mRNA levels. Paracrine stimulation by growth hormone (GH) was found to up- regulate PRL secretion, PRL production and PRL transcript expression, whereas the opposite was true for the local actions of luteinizing hormone (LH). Apparently, local interactions of PRL, GH and LH via autocrine/paracrine mechanisms could modify PRL production in carp pituitary cells through differential regulation of PRL mRNA stability and gene transcription.

Modeling prolactin actions in breast cancer in vivo: insights from the NRL-PRL mouse

Elevated exposure to prolactin (PRL) is epidemiologically associated with an increased risk of aggressive ER+ breast cancer. To understand the underlying mechanisms and crosstalk with other oncogenic factors, we developed the NRL-PRL mouse. In this model, mammary expression of a rat prolactin transgene raises local exposure to PRL without altering estrous cycling. Nulliparous females develop metastatic, histotypically diverse mammary carcinomas independent from ovarian steroids, and most are ER+. These characteristics resemble the human clinical disease, facilitating study of tumorigenesis, and identification of novel preventive and therapeutic approaches.

[INDUCTION OF DECIDUAL DIFFERENTIATION OF ENDOMETRIAL MESENCHYMAL STEM CELLS]

In this study, we compared the ability of human mesenchymal stem cells derived from menstrual blood (eMSCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from other tissues to differentiate into decidual cells in vitro. It was demonstrated that during differentiation secretion of decidualization markers (prolactin and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1) increases in eMSCs from adipose tissue (MSC-AD). Thus, the ability of eMSCs to differentiate into decidual cells is much higher than MSC-BM or MSC-AD. It makes eMSCs promising for application in cellular therapy of infertility associated with decidualzation insufficiency.

N-glycoprofiling analysis in a simple glycoprotein model: a comparison between recombinant and pituitary glycosylated human prolactin

Human prolactin (hPRL) is a polypeptide hormone occurring in the non-glycosylated (NG-hPRL) and glycosylated (G-hPRL) forms, with MM of approximately 23 and 25kDa, respectively. It has a single, partially occupied N-glycosylation site located at Asn-31, which makes it a particularly simple and interesting model for glycosylation studies. The bioactivity of G-hPRL is lower than that of NG-hPRL (by ca. 4-fold) and its physiological function is not clear. However, carbohydrate moieties generally play important roles in the biosynthesis, secretion, biological activity, and plasma survival of glycohormones and can vary depending on the host cell. The main objective of this study was to determine the N-glycan structures present in native, pituitary G-hPRL and compare them with those present in the recombinant hormone. To obtain recombinant G-hPRL, genetically modified Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO), adapted to growth in suspension, were treated with cycloheximide, thus increasing the glycosylation site occupancy from 5.5% to 38.3%, thereby facilitating G-hPRL purification. CHO cell-derived G-hPRL (CHO-G-hPRL) was compared to pituitary G-hPRL (pit-G-hPRL) especially with regard to N-glycoprofiling. Among the main differences found in the pituitary sample were an extremely low presence of sialylated (1.7%) and a high percentage of sulfated (74.0%) and of fucosylated (90.5%) glycans. A ∼6-fold lower in vitro bioactivity and a higher clearance rate in mice were also found for pit-G-hPRL versus CHO-G-hPRL. N-Glycan profiling proved to be a useful and accurate methodology also for MM and carbohydrate content determination for the two G-hPRL preparations, in good agreement with the values obtained directly via MALDI-TOF-MS.

Hypoxia acclimation protects against oxidative damage and changes in prolactin and somatolactin expression in silver catfish (Rhamdia quelen) exposed to manganese

The aim of this study was to assess the Mn toxicity to silver catfish considering Mn accumulation and oxidative status in different tissues, as well as pituitary hormone expression after acclimation to hypoxia. Silver catfish acclimated to hypoxia for 10 days and successively exposed to Mn (9.8 mg L(-1)) for an additional 10 days exhibited lower Mn accumulation in plasma, liver, kidneys and brain and prevented the hematocrit decrease observed in the normoxia group. Hypoxia acclimation also modified Mn-induced oxidative damage, which was observed by lower reactive species (RS) generation in gills and kidneys, decreased lipid peroxidation (LP) levels in gills, liver and kidneys and decreased protein carbonyl (PC) levels in liver, kidneys and brain. Manganese accumulation showed positive correlations with LP levels in gills and kidneys, as well as with PC levels in gills, liver and brain. In addition, hypoxia acclimation and Mn exposure increased catalase (CAT) activity in gills and kidneys and Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity in gills, liver and brain. Silver catfish that were acclimated under normoxia and exposed to Mn displayed increased pituitary prolactin (PRL) and decreased somatolactin (SL) expression. Interestingly, hypoxia acclimation prevented hormonal fluctuation of PRL and SL in fish exposed to Mn. These findings indicate that while the exposure of silver catfish to Mn under normoxia was related to metal accumulation and oxidative damage in tissues together with endocrine axis disruption, as represented by PRL and SL, hypoxia acclimation reduced waterborne Mn uptake, thereby minimizing oxidative damage and changes in hormonal profile. We hypothesized that moderate hypoxia is able to generate adaptive responses, which may be related to hormesis, thereby ameliorating Mn toxicity to silver catfish.

Prolactin induces up-regulation of its cognate receptor in breast cancer cells via transcriptional activation of its generic promoter by cross-talk between ERα and STAT5

Prolactin (PRL) serves a critical role in breast cancer progression via activation of its cognate receptor. These studies reveal up-regulation of PRLR gene expression by PRL in absence of estradiol in MCF-7 and T47D breast cancer cells. PRL/PRLR via activation of STAT5 that binds a GAS-element in the PRLR gene and the participation of ERα stimulates PRLR transcription/expression. PRL/PRLR induces phosphorylation of ERα through the JAK2/PI3K/MAPK/ERK and JAK2/HER2 activated pathways. The increased recruitment of phospho-ERα, induced by PRL to Sp1 and C/EBPβ at PRLR promoter sites is essential for PRL-induced PRLR transcription. This recruitment is prevented by blockade of PRL expression using RNA interference or ERα phosphorylation using specific inhibitors of PI3K and ERK. Direct evidence is provided for local actions of PRL, independent of estradiol, in the up-regulation of PRLR transcription/expression by an activation-loop between STAT5 and the phospho-ERα/Sp1/C/EBPβ complex with requisite participation of signaling mechanisms. PRL's central role in the up-regulation of PRLR maximizes the action of the endogenous hormone. This study offers mechanistically rational basis for invasiveness fueled by prolactin in refractory states to adjuvant therapies in breast cancer.

Mutation analysis of inhibitory guanine nucleotide binding protein alpha (GNAI) loci in young and familial pituitary adenomas

Pituitary adenomas are neoplasms of the anterior pituitary lobe and account for 15-20% of all intracranial tumors. Although most pituitary tumors are benign they can cause severe symptoms related to tumor size as well as hypopituitarism and/or hypersecretion of one or more pituitary hormones. Most pituitary adenomas are sporadic, but it has been estimated that 5% of patients have a familial background. Germline mutations of the tumor suppressor gene aryl hydrocarbon receptor-interacting protein (AIP) predispose to hereditary pituitary neoplasia. Recently, it has been demonstrated that AIP mutations predispose to pituitary tumorigenesis through defective inhibitory GTP binding protein (Gαi) signaling. This finding prompted us to examine whether germline loss-of-function mutations in inhibitory guanine nucleotide (GTP) binding protein alpha (GNAI) loci are involved in genetic predisposition of pituitary tumors. To our knowledge, this is the first time GNAI genes are sequenced in order to examine the occurrence of inactivating germline mutations. Thus far, only somatic gain-of-function hot-spot mutations have been studied in these loci. Here, we have analyzed the coding regions of GNAI1, GNAI2, and GNAI3 in a set of young sporadic somatotropinoma patients (n = 32; mean age of diagnosis 32 years) and familial index cases (n = 14), thus in patients with a disease phenotype similar to that observed in AIP mutation carriers. In addition, expression of Gαi proteins was studied in human growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting and non-functional pituitary tumors. No pathogenic germline mutations affecting the Gαi proteins were detected. The result suggests that loss-of-function mutations of GNAI loci are rare or nonexistent in familial pituitary adenomas.

The osmoregulatory effects of rearing Mozambique tilapia in a tidally changing salinity

The native distribution of Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, is characterized by estuarine areas subject to salinity variations between fresh water (FW) and seawater (SW) with tidal frequency. Osmoregulation in the face of changing environmental salinity is largely mediated through the neuroendocrine system and involves the activation of ion uptake and extrusion mechanisms in osmoregulatory tissues. We compared plasma osmolality, plasma prolactin (PRL), pituitary PRL mRNA, and mRNA of branchial ion pumps, transporters, channels, and PRL receptors in tilapia reared in FW, SW, brackish water (BW) and in tidally-changing salinity, which varied between FW (TF) and SW (TS) every 6h. Plasma PRL was higher in FW tilapia than in SW, BW, TF, and TS tilapia. Unlike tilapia reared in FW or SW, fish in salinities that varied tidally showed no correlation between plasma osmolality and PRL. In FW fish, gene expression of PRL receptor 1 (PRLR1), Na(+)/Cl(-) cotransporter (NCC), aquaporin 3 (AQP3) and two isoforms of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (NKA α1a and NKA α1b) was higher than that of SW, BW or tidally-changing salinity fish. Gene expression of the Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter (NKCC1a), and the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) were higher in fish in SW, BW or a tidally-changing salinity than in FW fish. Immunocytochemistry revealed that ionocytes of fish in tidally-changing salinities resemble ionocytes of SW fish. This study indicated that tilapia reared in a tidally-changing salinity can compensate for large changes in external osmolality while maintaining osmoregulatory parameters within a narrow range closer to that observed in SW-acclimated fish.

Novel pituitary actions of TAC3 gene products in fish model: receptor specificity and signal transduction for prolactin and somatolactin α regulation by neurokinin B (NKB) and NKB-related peptide in carp pituitary cells

TAC3 is a member of tachykinins, and its gene product neurokinin B (NKB) has recently emerged as a key regulator for LH through modulation of kisspeptin/GnRH system within the hypothalamus. In fish models, TAC3 not only encodes NKB but also a novel tachykinin-like peptide called NKB-related peptide (NKBRP), and the pituitary actions of these TAC3 gene products are still unknown. Using grass carp as a model, the direct effects and postreceptor signaling for the 2 TAC3 products were examined at the pituitary level. Grass carp TAC3 was cloned and confirmed to encode NKB and NKBRP similar to that of other fish species. In carp pituitary cells, NKB and NKBRP treatment did not affect LH release and gene expression but up-regulated prolactin (PRL) and somatolactin (SL)α secretion, protein production, and transcript expression. The stimulation by these 2 TAC3 gene products on PRL and SLα release and mRNA levels were mediated by pituitary NK2 and NK3 receptors, respectively. Apparently, NKB- and NKBRP-induced SLα secretion and transcript expression were caused by adenylate cyclase/cAMP/protein kinase A, phospholipase C/inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate/protein kinase C and Ca(2+)/calmodulin/Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II activation. The signal transduction for the corresponding responses on PRL release and mRNA expression were also similar, except that the protein kinase C component was not involved. These findings suggest that the 2 TAC3 gene products do not play a role in LH regulation at the pituitary level in carp species but may serve as novel stimulators for PRL and SLα synthesis and secretion via overlapping postreceptor signaling mechanisms coupled to NK2 and NK3 receptors, respectively.

Prolactin receptor antagonism uncouples lipids from atherosclerosis susceptibility

The pituitary-derived hormone prolactin has been suggested to stimulate the development of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease through its effects on metabolism and inflammation. In this study, we aimed to challenge the hypothesis that inhibition of prolactin function may beneficially affect atherosclerosis burden. Hereto, atherosclerosis-susceptible LDL receptor (Ldlr) knockout mice were transplanted with bone marrow from transgenic mice expressing the pure prolactin receptor antagonist Del1-9-G129R-hPRL or their non-transgenic littermates as control. Recipient mice expressing Del1-9-G129R-hPRL exhibited a decrease in plasma cholesterol levels (-29%; P<0.05) upon feeding a Western-type diet (WTD), which could be attributed to a marked decrease (-47%; P<0.01) in the amount of cholesterol esters associated with pro-atherogenic lipoproteins VLDL/LDL. By contrast, Del1-9-G129R-hPRL-expressing mice did not display any change in the susceptibility for atherosclerosis after 12 weeks of WTD feeding. Both the absolute atherosclerotic lesion size (223 ± 33 × 10(3) μm(2) for Del1-9-G129R-hPRL vs 259 ± 32 × 10(3) μm(2) for controls) and the lesional macrophage and collagen contents were not different between the two groups of bone marrow recipients. Importantly, Del1-9-G129R-hPRL exposure increased levels of circulating neutrophils (+91%; P<0.05), lymphocytes (+55%; P<0.05), and monocytes (+43%; P<0.05), resulting in a 49% higher (P<0.01) total blood leukocyte count. In conclusion, we have shown that prolactin receptor signaling inhibition uncouples the plasma atherogenic index from atherosclerosis susceptibility in Ldlr knockout mice. Despite an associated decrease in VLDL/LDL cholesterol levels, application of the prolactin receptor antagonist Del1-9-G129R-hPRL does not alter the susceptibility for initial development of atherosclerotic lesions probably due to the parallel increase in circulating leukocyte concentrations.