Genetic alterations in DNA diploid, aneuploid and multiploid colorectal carcinomas identified by the crypt isolation technique

Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) and microsatellite instability (MSI) commonly occur in colorectal carcinomas. However, the role of these genetic alterations in determining DNA ploidy status of tumors (diploid, aneuploid and multiploid) remains unclear. In the present study, we attempted to clarify the relationship between genetic alterations and DNA ploidy status. Crypt isolation coupled with DNA cytometric sorting and polymerase chain reaction assay (17 microsatellite markers) were used to study allelic losses and MSI in 59 colorectal carcinomas (diploid, 15; aneuploid, 10 and multiploid, 34). Of the 15 diploid carcinomas, 6 exhibited MSI in which allelic losses were rarely found. The other 9 diploid tumors mostly exhibited allelic losses, but none displayed MSI status. Whereas allelic losses frequently occurred in the aneuploid carcinomas and the aneuploid populations of multiploid carcinomas, they were rarely detected in the diploid populations of multiploid carcinomas. MSI status was not observed in aneuploid carcinomas nor in either population of multiploid carcinomas. Although multiploid carcinomas genetically resemble aneuploid carcinomas in the expression of the severe LOH phenotype, the genetic alterations seen in the diploid populations of multiploid carcinomas may differ from those of diploid carcinomas. Furthermore, all diploid, aneuploid and both the diploid and aneuploid fractions of the multiploid tumors that were non-MSI exhibited a high rate of LOH, suggesting that LOH is independent of the tumor's ploidy status.

Pathway tracing using biotinylated dextran amines

Biotinylated dextran amines (BDA) are highly sensitive tools for anterograde and retrograde pathway tracing studies of the nervous system. BDA can be reliably delivered into the nervous system by iontophoretic or pressure injection and visualized with an avidin-biotinylated HRP (ABC) procedure, followed by a standard or metal-enhanced diaminobenzidine (DAB) reaction. High molecular weight BDA (10 k) yields sensitive and exquisitely detailed labeling of axons and terminals, while low molecular weight BDA (3 k) yields sensitive and detailed retrograde labeling of neuronal cell bodies. The detail of neuronal cell body labeling can be Golgi-like. BDA tolerates EM fixation and processing well and can, therefore, be readily used in ultrastructural studies. Additionally, BDA can be combined with other anterograde or retrograde tracers (e.g. PHA-L or cholera toxin B fragment) and visualized either by multi-color DAB multiple-labeling - if permanent labels are desired, or by using multiple simultaneous immunofluorescence - if fluorescence viewing is desired. In the same manner, BDA pathway tracing and neurotransmitter immunolabeling can be combined. Note that BDA pathway tracing can also be combined with anterograde or retrograde labeling with fluorescent dextran amines, if one wishes to exclusively use tracers with the favorable transport properties and sensitivities of dextran amines. In this case, the BDA can be visualized together with the fluorescent dextran amines using fluorescence labeling for the BDA, or the fluorescent dextran amines can be visualized together with the BDA by multicolor DAB labeling via immunolabeling of the fluorescent dextran amines using anti-fluorophore antisera. BDA is, thus, a flexible and valuable pathway tracing tool that has gained widespread popularity in recent years.

Identification of the anterior nucleus of the ansa lenticularis in birds as the homolog of the mammalian subthalamic nucleus

In mammals, the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a glutamatergic diencephalic cell group that develops in the caudal hypothalamus and migrates to a position above the cerebral peduncle. By its input from the external pallidal segment and projection to the internal pallidal segment, STN plays a critical role in basal ganglia functions. Although the basal ganglia in birds is well developed, possesses the same major neuron types as in mammals, and plays a role in movement control similar to that in mammals, it has been uncertain whether birds possess an STN. We report here evidence indicating that the so-called anterior nucleus of the ansa lenticularis (ALa) is the avian homolog of mammalian STN. First, the avian ALa too develops within the mammillary hypothalamic area and migrates to a position adjacent to the cerebral peduncle. Second, ALa specifically receives input from dorsal pallidal neurons that receive input from enkephalinergic striatal neurons, as is true of STN. Third, ALa projects back to avian dorsal pallidum, as also the case for STN in mammals. Fourth, the neurons of ALa contain glutamate, and the target neurons of ALa in dorsal pallidum possess AMPA-type glutamate receptor profiles resembling those of mammalian pallidal neurons. Fifth, unilateral lesions of ALa yield behavioral disturbances and movement asymmetries resembling those observed in mammals after STN lesions. These various findings indicate that ALa is the avian STN, and they suggest that the output circuitry of the basal ganglia for motor control is similar in birds and mammals.

Ultrastructural architecture and mechanical properties of attachment pads in Tettigonia viridissima (Orthoptera Tettigoniidae)

Natural releasable attachment systems of insect legs, where attachment-detachment performances are often very fast, seem to be optimized to get a maximum of real contact to the substratum. Tarsi of Tettigonia viridissima bear flexible attachment pads with unusual ultrastructural architecture of the cuticle. The indentation of the attachment pads was measured under different loads using a force-tester. Since the mechanical properties are influenced by material structure, the freeze-substitution experiments were undertaken to investigate the influence of loads on material structure. Both profile changes of the surface and the orientation of cuticle microfibrils were visualized by means of scanning electron microscopy followed by fracturing of the frozen material. The results show that the flexible pad material deforms replicating the substrate profile down to the micrometer roughness. The pad material showed both elastic and viscous behavior under loads. Elastic deformation of the pad occurred under normal force applied for 4-6 s (elastic modulus 27.2 +/- 11.6 kPa). Two viscous relaxation processes were found, of time constants tau1 = 1.88+/-0.616 s and tau2 =41.2 +/- 9.95 s. Low stiffness of material studied here aids in surface replication and increase of area of real contact between the pad and the underlying substrate.

[Effects of various growth factors on human mandibular condylar cartilage cell proliferation]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and basic fibroblast growth factor(bFGF) on human mandibular condylar cartilage (MCC) cell proliferation.

METHODS

Isolated human MCC cells were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% newborn calf serum(NCS). The second passages were used in order to avoid chondrocyte dedifferentiation. Cells were seeded at 2 x 10(4)/well on 96-well plate. After synchronization, medium was replaced by DMEM containing 0.4% NCS or 10% NCS with various growth factors, concentrations and combinations. Dose-response and time-course were studied by MTT colorimetric method.

RESULTS

In 0.4% serum containing medium, bFGF stimulated the proliferation moderately, whereas TGF-beta 1 and IGF-I had less effect. In 10% NCS condition, all three growth factors had mitogenic effect and acted dose-dependently. The effects were significant after three days. Among them, bFGF was a potent mitogen(increased by 65%), IGF-I the next(24%). The effect of TGF-beta 1 (13%) might be mediated by some other factors in the serum. The synergetic effects were achieved when they were used in combination.

CONCLUSION

It is suggested that optimal combination of growth factors can promote the proliferation of MCC cells significantly, this might be an ideal way in dealing with cartilage damage during pathogenesis.

Physiological and molecular properties of AMPA/Kainate receptors expressed by striatal medium spiny neurons

The mechanisms by which glutamate shapes the activity of striatal medium spiny neurons are of fundamental importance to our understanding of normative and pathological striatal physiology. Non-N-Methyl-D-aspartate (non-NMDA) glutamate receptor expression and function were studied in medium spiny neurons with a combination of single cell RT-PCR, immunocytochemistry and whole-cell voltage-clamp techniques. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis found that GluR2 mRNA appeared to be the most abundant and widely distributed AMPA receptor mRNA. GluR1 was also commonly detected. However, GluR3 mRNA was preferentially expressed by neurons coexpressing substance P and enkephalin and GluR4 mRNA was not detected in identified medium spiny neurons. All neuronal classes appeared to express GluR5 or GluR6 and/or GluR7 mRNA in addition to kainate (KA) subunit mRNA. Immunocytochemical studies confirmed the mRNA distributions and also revealed that GluR1 protein was largely restricted to dendritic spines. Although the mRNA and protein for both alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-ioxyzole-4-proprionic acid (AMPA) and KA class subunits was detected, the physiological response to glutamatergic ligands and the benzothiadizine cyclothiazide was characteristic of AMPA, not KA receptors. The AMPA receptor antagonist GYKI 52466 blocked the response to AMPA and all but a small transient component of the response to KA. The current-voltage relationship of the AMPA-evoked currents was relatively linear but Ca2+ fluorometry revealed that substantial changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration accompanied exposure to either agonist. These results argue that somatodendritic non-NMDA glutamate receptors in medium spiny neurons are primarily GluR2-containing receptors of the AMPA class but that activation of these receptors as a group nevertheless results in a significant Ca2+ influx.

[A quick way in isolation and amplification of mandibular condylar cartilage cell in vitro]

OBJECTIVE

To establish a quick way in acquiring well differentiated mandibular condylar cartilage (MCC) cells with high viability in large scale.

METHODS

Japan white rabbit MCC cells were harvested by enzymatic method. They were grown in a modified bioreactor culture system, which contained the cytodex-3 micro-carriers in the culture medium. Kinetic growth of MCC cells on DEAE-dextran micro-carrier was observed under phase contrast microscope and environmental scanning microscope respectively.

RESULTS

MCC cells attached rapidly to the surface of micro-carriers, but their spreading was slow. A quick growth of these cells was observed when they fully spread onto the micro-carrier. The number of MCC cells increased 16.2 times compared with that of plating.

CONCLUSIONS

Micro-carrier culture of MCC cells can yield a large quantity of cells within a short period of time that will be of benefit in banking MCC cells for reconstruction of impaired cartilage.

Adhesion measured on the attachment pads of Tettigonia viridissima (Orthoptera, insecta)

The tarsi of the cricket Tettigonia viridissima bear flexible attachment pads that are able to deform, replicating the profile of a surface to which they are apposed. This attachment system is supplemented by a secretion produced by epidermal cells and transported onto the surface of the pad through the pore canals of the pad cuticle. This study shows that the secretion alone is necessary, but not sufficient, for adhesion. To account for the full adhesive force, the deformation of the pad and the resulting changes in contact area were considered. In two series of experiments, the adhesive properties of the secretion and the adhesion of the whole pad were measured using a force tester, the sensitivity of which ranged from micronewtons to centinewtons. The adhesive forces of the secretion measured between a smooth sapphire ball with a diameter of 1.47 mm and a flat silicon surface ranged from 0.1 to 0.6 mN. In a control experiment on the silicon surface without secretion, no adhesive force was measured. There was no dependence of the adhesive force on the applied compressive force. When an intact pad was pulled off a flat silicon surface, the adhesive force increased with increasing applied compressive force, but it did not increase further once the applied force exceeded a certain value. The saturated adhesive force, ranging from 0.7 to 1.2 mN, was obtained at applied forces of 0.7-1.5 mN. The hemispherical surface of the pad had a larger contact area and demonstrated greater adhesion under a larger applied force. Adhesion became saturated when a pad was deformed such that contact area was maximal. The tenacity (the adhesive force per unit area) was 1.7-2.2 mN mm(−)(2).

[Fibronectin in adhesion, spreading and proliferation of mandibular condylar cartilage cells on cytodex-3 microcarrier]

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of exogenous fibronectin on the attachment and growth of mandibular condylar cartilage (MCC) cells on DEAE-dextran micro-carrier.

METHODS

MCC cells were harvested from newborn New Zealand white rabbits by sequential digestion with trypsin and collagenase. They were grown on the 20 mg/L fibronectin-coated and uncoated cytodex-3 micro-carrier. Samples were collected after 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 days. The kinetics of adhesion and growth were observed with phase contrast microscope and environmental scanning electronic microscope (ESEM) and quantified by 0.1% crystal violet nuclear extrusion method.

RESULTS

MCC cells could rapidly attach and spread onto the fibronectin-coated cytodex-3, and nearly 60 percent cells attached to the micro-carrier within 2 hours. Spreading cells were flat and lowly refractile observed under phase contrast microscope. While the attachment and spreading of the cells in the untreated group were slow, and only 36 percent cells attached to the uncoated micro-carrier. However, most cells attached to the micro-carrier in both groups after 24 hours. The MCC cells attaching to FN-coated cytodex-3 observed under ESEM were flatter and adhered tightly with more processes (pseudopodia) stretching out from cytoplasm. In contrast, cells on untreated cytodex-3 remained regularly round even 24 hours after being plated. Meanwhile, there was an accelerated growth rate of the MCC cells on the fibronectin treated cytodex-3. The cell density in the FN treated group was higher than that of the untreated group at the end of the culture.

CONCLUSION

Fibronectin, one major glycoprotein of extracellular matrix, plays an important role in cell attachment and spreading. The better understanding of the extracellular matrix will be helpful in selecting the optimal substrate for cell growth in vitro.

[Evaluation of plant protectants against pest insects]

An interference index of population control (IIPC) was constructed for investigating the complex effects of plant protectants, including the effects of repelling insect pests away from the plant, deterring the egg laying of adults and the continuation of feeding, and causing death by toxicity. At the same time, indicated by IIPC, the alcohol extracts of some common plants, such as Eucalytus rubusta, Wedelia chinensis etc. and the neem oil gave very good results to protect the plant against Plutella xylostella. The D-C-Tron NR Petroleum Spray Oil (CALTEX) also gave an excellent effect to protect citrus against red mite. All the experiments show the important role of the repellent effect on the pests.

[The regulation effects of growth factors on the procollagen gene expressions of human mandibular condylar cartilage cells]

OBJECTIVE

At the early stage of osteoarthrosis (OA) and joint damage, the cartilage cells proliferation increases dramatically, but this repair process is finally replaced by the progressive destruction of the cartilage. The reason, in accordance to the latest research, is the abnormal phenotype of the involved cartilage cell. This result suggests that the regulation of cartilage cell phenotype may be an effective way in the treatment of OA and other cartilage destructive diseases. In this study, the effects of transforming growth factor-beta(TGF-beta), insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) on collagen expression of human mandibular condylar cartilage cells was investigated.

METHODS

Chondrocytes were isolated from human fetus by enzymatic method. The second passage of the cells was used in this study. They were cultured in DMEM medium supplemented with 20% newborn calf serum (NCS). After the cells reached confluence, the medium was replaced by DMEM containing 0.4% NCS. Then the cells were exposed to different growth factors including IGF-I (10 ng/ml), TGF-beta (5 ng/ml) and bFGF (50 ng/ml). The steady state mRNA levels of different samples were examined by slot-blot hybridization. The results were analysed by Student t test.

RESULTS

IGF-I had the least effects on the mRNA levels of three kinds of procollagen (type I, type II and type III). On the other hand, bFGF and TGF-beta could inhibit the expression of type II collagen by 0.352 and 0.685 times comparing with the control groups separately. TGF-beta increased type I collagen expression. Besides, bFGF and TGF-beta also increased the value of type I collagen/type II collagen. None of the three kinds of growth factors had obvious effects on the expression of type III collagen.

CONCLUSION

IGF-I can maintain the chondrocyte differentiated phenotype, while TGF-beta and bFGF have inhibitory effects.

A simple and sensitive antigen retrieval method for free-floating and slide-mounted tissue sections

The masking of antigens by aldehyde-containing fixatives or by paraffin embedding procedures is a problem for immunohistochemical studies. Enzymatic digestion, formic acid treatment, microwave heating and autoclave heating have been used to deal with this problem, with microwave heating-based antigen retrieval having become widely used as the method of choice. Microwave heating, however, has the shortcoming that it is difficult to precisely control the heating temperature and it is difficult to apply this method of heating to free-floating sections without damaging the sections. We describe here a simple, reliable and sensitive antigen retrieval method that uses water-bath heating. By this method, the temperature can be precisely controlled to yield effective antigen retrieval with minimal tissue damage in free-floating or paraffin-embedded slide-mounted sections. We found that the best results were obtained with a 30 min incubation in a 10-50 mM sodium citrate solution (pH 8.5-9.0) preheated to and maintained at 80 degrees C in a water-bath, followed by 30 min incubation in 0.3-3% nonfat dry milk to reduce nonspecfic staining. This method is highly effective for both 40 microm free floating sections, slide-mounted cryostat sections and paraffin-embedded slide-mounted sections, and it works well for tissue from diverse species (human, rat, mouse, pigeon, and zebra finch) and for diverse antigens (e.g. enkephalin, substance P, huntingtin, GluR1, GFAP, and ubiquitin). This method was also found to enhance immunolabeling in glutaraldehyde-fixed tissue that had been prepared for ultrastructural examination, without having a deleterious effect on the ultrastructure.

[Effects of growth factors on DNA and collagen synthesis of human mandibular condylar cartilage cells]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1), insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and basic fibroblast growth factor(bFGF) on DNA and collagen synthesis of mandibular condylar cartilage(MCC) of human fetus.

METHODS

Cell culture, 3H-TdR and 3H-Proline incorporation methods were used. MCC cells were harvested from 4 to 5 months old human fetus. Cells were seeded at 2 x 10(4)/well on 96-well Plate. After synchronization, medium was replaced by DMEM containing 0.4% NCS with various growth factors and concentrations.

RESULTS

bFGF stimulated the DNA synthesis significantly, and IGF-I had less effect, while the effect of TGF-beta 1 was insignificant. For collagen synthesis, bFGF caused a dose-dependent increase(60%). A greater effect(98%) was achieved when IGF-1 was added. In contrast, TGF-beta 1 could inhibit collagen synthesis (24%).

CONCLUSION

Growth factors play an important part in the proliferation and matrix synthesis of MCC cells, which might be of potential application in treating cartilage destructive lesions.

[Phenotypic changes of mandibular condylar cartilage cells during subculture]

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the phenotypic changes of mandibular condylar cartilage(MCC) cells during subculture in vitro.

METHODS

MCC cells were harvested from human fetus by digestion of collagenase and cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% newborn calf serum, then they were passaged when reached confluence. Morphological changes were observed under phase-contrast microscope. Type II collagen, proteoglycan synthesis and type I, II and III procollagen mRNA levels were also studied in serial monolayer cultures.

RESULTS

During subculture, type II collagen and proteoglycan synthesis were decreased, being accompanied by a lower type II collagen mRNA level. In contrast, type I and III procollagen mRNA levels were elevated progressively. The morphology of polygonal-shaped chondrocytes was lost to the bipolar fibroblastic cells.

CONCLUSION

Passage and culture can affect the phenotypic property of MCC cells.

Evidence from a novel human cell clone that adult vascular smooth muscle cells can convert reversibly between noncontractile and contractile phenotypes

Smooth muscle cells (SMCs) perform diverse functions that can be categorized as contractile and synthetic. A traditional model holds that these distinct functions are performed by the same cell, by virtue of its capacity for bidirectional modulation of phenotype. However, this model has been challenged, in part because there is no physiological evidence that an adult synthetic SMC can acquire the ability to contract. We sought evidence for this by cloning adult SMCs from human internal thoracic artery. One clone, HITB5, expressed smooth muscle alpha-actin, smooth myosin heavy chains, heavy caldesmon, and calponin and showed robust calcium transients in response to histamine and angiotensin II, which confirmed intact transmembrane signaling cascades. On serum withdrawal, these cells adopted an elongated and spindle-shaped morphology, random migration slowed, extracellular matrix protein production fell, and cell proliferation and [(3)H]thymidine incorporation fell to near 0. Cell viability was not compromised, however; in fact, apoptosis rate fell significantly. In this state, agonist-induced elevation of cytoplasmic calcium was even more pronounced and was accompanied by SMC contraction. Readdition of 10% serum completely returned HITB5 cells to a noncontractile, proliferative phenotype. Contractile protein expression increased after serum withdrawal, although modestly, which suggested that the switch to contractile function involved reorganization or sensitization of existing contractile structures. To our knowledge, the physiological properties of HITB5 SMCs provide the first direct demonstration that cultured human adult SMCs can convert between a synthetic, noncontracting state and a contracting state. HITB5 cells should be valuable for characterizing the basis of this critical transition.

[Influence of flavonoid of Astragalus membranaceus's stem and leaves on the function of cell mediated immunity in mice]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the immune regulation of flavonoid of Astragalus membranaceus's stem and leaves (FAM).

METHODS

Changes of total T cell count and subsets in mice were determined by monoclonal antibody assay before and after treatment with FAM, and the LAK activity was tested simultaneously by isotope technique.

RESULTS

FAM could promote the proliferation of lymphocytes induced by ConA, raise the T cell count and regulate the T cell subsets disorder, elevate the LAK activity induced by IL-2.

CONCLUSION

FAM possesses the effect of immune stimulation and immune regulation in treating immunosuppressive mice. This study provides the experimental basis for clinical application of FAM.

The functional anatomy of the basal ganglia of birds

To study how the basal ganglia can control movement in birds, we have reinvestigated the connections of the pigeon dorsal pallidum. Our results indicate that avian basal ganglia appear to control movement through major projections to several premotor pretectal and tegmental centres which innervate the tectum, and through a minor projection to a possible motor thalamic centre which innervates the Wulst. For such control, separate striatopallidal output circuits appear to exist in birds that are remarkably similar to those described in mammals, suggesting that avian and mammalian basal ganglia may control movement through similar mechanisms, and that the morphological substrate for such control evolved earlier than previously thought.

Manganese sulfate-dependent glycosylation of endogenous glycoproteins in human skeletal muscle is catalyzed by a nonglucose 6-P-dependent glycogen synthase and not glycogenin

Glycogenin, a Mn2+-dependent, self-glucosylating protein, is considered to catalyze the initial glucosyl transfer steps in glycogen biogenesis. To study the physiologic significance of this enzyme, measurements of glycogenin mediated glucose transfer to endogenous trichloroacetic acid precipitable material (protein-bound glycogen, i.e., glycoproteins) in human skeletal muscle were attempted. Although glycogenin protein was detected in muscle extracts, activity was not, even after exercise that resulted in marked glycogen depletion. Instead, a MnSO4-dependent glucose transfer to glycoproteins, inhibited by glycogen and UDP-pyridoxal (which do not affect glycogenin), and unaffected by CDP (a potent inhibitor of glycogenin), was consistently detected. MnSO4-dependent activity increased in concert with glycogen synthase fractional activity after prolonged exercise, and the MnSO4-dependent enzyme stimulated glucosylation of glycoproteins with molecular masses lower than those glucosylated by glucose 6-P-dependent glycogen synthase. Addition of purified glucose 6-P-dependent glycogen synthase to the muscle extract did not affect MnSO4-dependent glucose transfer, whereas glycogen synthase antibody completely abolished MnSO4-dependent activity. It is concluded that: (1) MnSO4-dependent glucose transfer to glycoproteins is catalyzed by a nonglucose 6-P-dependent form of glycogen synthase; (2) MnSO4-dependent glycogen synthase has a greater affinity for low molecular mass glycoproteins and may thus play a more important role than glucose 6-P-dependent glycogen synthase in the initial stages of glycogen biogenesis; and (3) glycogenin is generally inactive in human muscle in vivo.

Adhesion energy of receptor-mediated interaction measured by elastic deformation

We investigated the role of receptor binding affinity in surface adhesion. A sensitive technique was developed to measure the surface energy of receptor-mediated adhesion. The experimental system involved a functionalized elastic agarose bead resting on a functionalized glass coverslip. Attractive intersurface forces pulled the two surfaces together, deforming the bead to produce an enlarged contact area. The Johnson-Kendall-Roberts (JKR) model was used to relate the surface energy of the interaction to the elasticity of the bead and the area of contact. The surface energies for different combinations of modified surfaces in solution were obtained from reflection interference contrast microscopy (RICM) measurements of the contact area formed by the bead and the coverslip. Studies with surfaces functionalized with ligand-receptor pairs showed that the relationship between surface energy and the association constant of the ligand binding has two regimes. At low binding affinity, surface energy increased linearly with the association constant, while surface energy increased logarithmically with the association constant in the high affinity regime.

Cellular localization of huntingtin in striatal and cortical neurons in rats: lack of correlation with neuronal vulnerability in Huntington's disease

Immunohistochemistry and single-cell RT-PCR were used to characterize the localization of huntingtin and/or its mRNA in the major types of striatal neurons and in corticostriatal projection neurons in rats. Single-label immunohistochemical studies revealed that striatum contains scattered large neurons rich in huntingtin and more numerous medium-sized neurons moderate in huntingtin. Double-label immunohistochemical studies showed that the large huntingtin-rich striatal neurons include nearly all cholinergic interneurons and some parvalbuminergic interneurons. Somatostatinergic striatal interneurons, which are medium in size, rarely contained huntingtin. Calbindin immunolabeling showed that the vast majority of the medium-sized striatal neurons that contain huntingtin are projection neurons, but only approximately 65% of calbindin-labeled projection neurons (localized to the matrix compartment of striatum) were labeled for huntingtin. Calbindin-containing projection neurons of the matrix compartment and calbindin-negative projection neurons of the striatal patch compartment contained huntingtin with comparable frequency. Single-cell RT-PCR confirmed that striatal cholinergic interneurons contain huntingtin, but only approximately 65% of projection neurons contained detectable huntingtin message. The finding that huntingtin is not consistently found in striatal projection neurons [which die in Huntington's disease (HD)] but is abundant in striatal cholinergic interneurons (which survive in Huntington's disease) suggests that the mutation in huntingtin that causes HD may not directly kill neurons. In contrast to the heterogeneous expression of huntingtin in the different striatal neuron types, we found all corticostriatal neurons to be rich in huntingtin protein and mRNA. One possibility raised by our findings is that the HD mutation may render corticostriatal neurons destructive rather than render striatal neurons vulnerable.

Abnormally decreased HbA1c can be assessed with erythrocyte creatine in patients with a shortened erythrocyte age

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether erythrocyte creatine can serve as a corrective index for HbA1c in patients with a shortened mean age of erythrocytes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

HbA1c and creatine in density-fractionated erythrocytes from 18 normal subjects were measured. HbA1c and erythrocyte creatine in the whole blood of 43 patients with liver cirrhosis (LC), 14 patients with hemolytic anemia (HA), 38 other patients with high reticulocyte counts (HRC) (>2.2%), and 59 normal subjects were also measured. The patients in this study all had normal blood glucose levels. A correction formula derived from the linear regression equation for the correlation between HbA1c and erythrocyte creatine was used to correct the patients' HbA1c values.

RESULTS

Among density-fractionated erythrocytes, the young cells exhibited low HbA1c and high creatine values. With progressively increasing density, HbA1c gradually increased and creatine gradually decreased. In the whole blood samples, the HbA1c values were significantly lower (P < 0.001) in LC, HA, and HRC patients than in normal subjects. By contrast, the erythrocyte creatine values were significantly higher (P < 0.001) in LC, HA, and HRC patients than in normal subjects. A linear correlation between HbA1c (y) and erythrocyte creatine (x) was observed (y=-0.224x + 5.00; n=154; r=-0.70; P < 0.001). Based on the regression equation, a correction formula was obtained. Low HbA1c values (<4.3%) were found in 24 of the 43 LC patients, 12 of the 14 HA patients, and 20 of the 38 HRC patients. After correction of the HbA1c values, 15 of the 24 LC patients, 9 of the 12 HA patients, and 16 of the 20 HRC patients had HbA1c values within the normal range.

CONCLUSIONS

HbA1c decreased in inverse proportion to the increase in erythrocyte creatine because of a shortened mean age of erythrocytes. The abnormally decreased HbA1c value could be assessed with erythrocyte creatine.

Sensitive enzymatic assay for erythrocyte creatine with production of methylene blue

We developed a new, highly sensitive enzymatic method for quantifying creatine in erythrocytes, which comprises creatine amidinohydrolase, sarcosine oxidase, and peroxidase. In the present method, an N-methylcarbamoyl derivative of methylene blue, 10-N-methylcarbamoyl-3,7-bis(dimethylamino)phenothiazine (MCDP), was used as a sensitive chromogenic compound. Potassium ferrocyanide was used to prevent nonspecific oxidation of MCDP. The enzymatic method exhibited good analytical performance: precision, within-run CVs <1.0% and between-day CVs <2.0%; average analytical recovery, 99.3% +/- 1.8%; detection limit, 1.0 micromol/L in hemolysate; and linearity, at least up to 500 micromol/L as creatine concentration in hemolysate. Excellent agreement was observed between the present method (y) and HPLC (x), y = 1.029x - 0.002 micromol/g hemoglobin, r = 0.9998, S(y/x) = 0.053 micromol/g hemoglobin (n = 110). No significant interference was produced by various compounds, including guanidino compounds, amino acids, and reducing materials. The reference intervals (mean +/- 2 SD) for erythrocyte creatine obtained from 60 males and 60 females were (in micromol/g hemoglobin) 1.18 +/- 0.52 (0.66-1.70) for males and 1.35 +/- 0.49 (0.86-1.84) for females. Using this method, we documented changes in erythrocyte creatine in patients with various hemolytic conditions, including hemolytic anemia, liver cirrhosis, renal insufficiency, and chronic renal failure treated with hemodialysis with or without the administration of erythropoietin. We conclude that the use of MCDP allows sensitive measurement of erythrocyte creatine and that MCDP with potassium ferrocyanide can improve the sensitivity of assays that use peroxidase for detection of H2O2.

Alterations in sheep fetal right ventricular tissue with induced hemodynamic pressure overload

We report on the cellular and molecular effects of acute and chronic hemodynamic overload on the fetal sheep heart. In one fetus of a twin gestation, the pulmonary artery was banded to create a condition of hemodynamic pressure overload in the right ventricle. The effects of this overload on the right ventricle (RV), left ventricle (LV), and intra-ventricular septum (IVS) of the heart were studied and compared to that in a control, unbanded twin fetus. At the cellular level, the histological data showed that both the size of the nuclei and the overall cell size of cardiac myocytes were increased after five days of banding; although, with one hour of banding no effects were detected at the cellular level. Based on prior studies on connexins which showed their involvement in differentiation, remodeling, and response to load we looked at their expression in control and experimental hearts. At the molecular level, changes in expression of connexin isoforms, the main gap junction protein in the heart, were observed after both one hour and five days of banding. Changes were observed in expression of connexins 40, 43, and 45. For connexin 43 there was a significant reduction confined to the right ventricle, in the chronically treated fetus, whereas, connexins 40 and 45 expression decreased after acute overload. These early molecular changes are significant because the "functional syncytium" of the myocardium is established through the gap junction connections. Alterations in connexin isoform expression affect the development, mechanical, and electrophysiological properties of the heart muscle. These changes may contribute to the ultimate result of continued hemodynamic stress on the right ventricle: heart failure.

Sequential T cell response involved in tumor rejection of sarcoma, Meth A, in syngeneic mice

We investigated the type of T cell response involved in Meth A tumor rejection in primary immune and hyperimmune syngeneic mice. It was found that a CD4+ T cell-mediated delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response activating non-specific killer cells such as macrophages, NK and LAK cells, without a specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response, was the major immune response leading to Meth A tumor rejection in primary immune mice. In contrast, the specific CD8+ CTL response was the major response leading to the tumor rejection, in addition to CD4+ T cell-mediated DTH response, in hyperimmune mice. Analysis of CD4+ T cell clones established from primary immune and hyperimmune spleen cells indicated that a CD4+ T cell clone (C9) of primary immune mice (although only one clone was established) was of Th1 type, and induced cytotoxicity in accessory cells by classic DTH in vitro. Eight CD4+ T cell clones were established from hyperimmune spleen cells. Six out of the eight clones were of the Th2 type and two were Th0-like. However, no Th1-type CD4+ T cell clone was established from hyperimmune spleen cells. All of these CD4+ T cell clones, even the Th2-type clones, were capable of inducing cytotoxicity in vitro in T cell-depleted accessory cells, as in an in vitro DTH response. We postulate on the basis of these results that the T cell response leading to Meth A tumor rejection in vivo sequentially changed from a CD4+ T cell-mediated classic DTH response to a CD8+ CTL response, in addition to a cellular response mediated probably by Th2-type cells, during the process of repeated immunization.

An enzymatic assay for erythrocyte creatine as an index of the erythrocyte life time

OBJECTIVES

To establish and estimate an enzymatic measurement of creatine in erythrocytes as an index of the erythrocyte life time.

DESIGN AND METHOD

The measurement of creatine in erythrocytes was performed using an enzymatic assay kit that was developed for serum and urine creatine. An erythrocyte sample was subjected to creatine measurement after hemolysis and deproteinization. Performance of the method for creatine measurement in erythrocytes was estimated. Effects of age and gender on the creatine content of erythrocytes were also estimated in 305 normal subjects.

RESULTS

The method showed within-run CVs varying from 0.7 to 1.0% (n = 20), and between-day CVs from 1.3 to 1.7% (15 days). Good linearity was observed at least up to 1000 mumol/L as creatine value in hemolyzed sample. The analytical recovery was calculated to be 98.1 +/- 1.3% on average. No considerable interference by various substances, including guanidino compounds and amino acids, with the assay was observed. Excellent correlation was observed between the present method and high performance liquid chromatography. With the unit of mumol/g Hb: slope, 1.034 +/- 0.003 (mean +/- SD); intercept, -0.059 +/- 0.012 (mean +/- SD); correlation coefficient, 0.9996; and Sy.x, 0.069. With the unit of mumol/L RBC: slope, 1.033 +/- 0.003 (mean +/- SD); intercept, -18.23 +/- 3.55 (mean +/- SD); correlation coefficient 0.9996; and Sy.x, 20.40. A significant increase in erythrocyte creatine was observed in females aged 11- to 50 years old as compared with males in the corresponding age bracket, however, a gender difference was not observed in other age bracket. This finding suggests the possibility of a slight decrease in the erythrocyte life time due to menstruation in females.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that the present method is favorable for quantifying erythrocyte creatine, and has analytical characteristics suitable for routine work in clinical laboratories.