The PsaE subunit is required for complex formation between photosystem I and flavodoxin from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

The photoreduction of the oxidized and the semiquinone form of flavodoxin by photosystem I particles (PSI) from the wild type and a psaE deletion strain from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 was analyzed by flash-absorption spectroscopy to investigate a possible involvement of the PsaE subunit in this photoreduction process. The kinetics of the reduction of oxidized flavodoxin display a single-exponential component for both PSI preparations. Limiting electron transfer rates kobs of approximately 500 and approximately 900 s -1 are deduced for the wild type and PSI from the psaE-less mutant, respectively, indicating that the PsaE subunit is not important for this photoreduction process. In the case of wild-type PSI, the reduction of flavodoxin semiquinone is a biphasic process, displaying a fast first-order phase with a t1/2 of approximately 13 micro(s) which is then followed by a slower, concentration-dependent phase, for which a second-order rate constant k2 of 2.2 x 10(8) M-1 cm-1 is calculated. In contrast, photoreduction of the semiquinone by PSI from the psaE-less mutant is monoexponential, displaying only one second-order component with a second-order rate constant similar to those observed for wild-type PSI (k2 = 1.5 x 10(8) M-1 cm-1). The fast first-order component which is interpreted as an electron transfer process within a preformed complex between flavodoxin semiquinone and PSI is almost completely absent in the reduction of flavodoxin by the PsaE-less PSI. A similar loss of the fast phase is also observed for the photoreduction of flavodoxin semiquinone by PSI from a Synechococcus elongatus psaE-less mutant. Upon reconstitution of isolated PsaE to the PsaE-less PSI in vitro, approximately 80% of the fast first-order kinetic component is recovered, indicating that PsaE is required for high-affinity binding of the flavodoxin semiquinone to PSI. In addition, chemical cross-linking assays show that flavodoxin can no longer be cross-linked to PSI in detectable amounts when PsaE is missing on the reaction center. Taken together, these experiments indicate that the PsaE subunit is required for complex formation between PSI and flavodoxin but is not required for an efficient forward electron transfer from photosystem I to both forms of flavodoxin.

Role of methionine 56 in the control of the oxidation-reduction potentials of the Clostridium beijerinckii flavodoxin: effects of substitutions by aliphatic amino acids and evidence for a role of sulfur-flavin interactions

Flavodoxins are small electron transferases that participate in low-potential electron transfer pathways. The flavodoxin protein is able to separate the two redox couples of the noncovalently bound flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cofactor through the differential thermodynamic stabilization or destabilization of each of its redox states. In the flavodoxin from Clostridium beijerinckii, the sulfur atom of methionine 56 is in direct contact with the re or inner face of the isoalloxazine ring of the FMN cofactor. In this study, evidence was sought for a possible role for sulfur-aromatic (flavin) interactions in the regulation of one-electron reduction potentials in flavoproteins. Met56 was systematically replaced with all the naturally occurring aliphatic amino acids by site-directed mutagenesis. Replacement of Met56 with alanine or glycine increased the midpoint potentials at pH 7 for the oxidized-semiquinone couple by up to 20 mV compared to that of the wild type, while replacement by the longer chain aliphatic residues decreased the midpoint potential by >30 mV. The midpoint potential for the semiquinone-hydroquinone couple was less negative than that for the wild type for all the mutants, increasing by as much as 90 mV for the M56I mutant. For the M56A mutant, the loss of approximately 0.5 kcal/mol in the binding energy for oxidized FMN and an increase of 1. 6 kcal/mol for the flavin hydroquinone, relative to that of the wild type, are responsible for the observed changes in the midpoint potentials. The stability of the semiquinone complex of this mutant was not affected. The one-election reduction potentials for the M56L, M56I, and M56V mutants are also influenced by the differential stabilization of the three redox states; however, the semiquinone complex was significantly less stable in these proteins. These differences are likely the consequence of the introduction of additional steric factors and an apparent structural preference for a smaller or more flexible side chain at this position in the semiquinone complex. While the other factors may contribute, it is argued that the results obtained for the entire group of mutants are consistent with the elimination of important sulfur-flavin interactions that contribute in part to the stabilization of the oxidized and destabilization of the hydroquinone states of the cofactor in this flavodoxin. The results of this study also demonstrate unequivocally the functional importance of this methionine residue and that it is unique among the aliphatic amino acids in its capacity to generate the physiologically relevant low reduction potential exhibited by the C. beijerinckii flavodoxin.

Modulation of the redox potentials of FMN in Desulfovibrio vulgaris flavodoxin: thermodynamic properties and crystal structures of glycine-61 mutants

Mutants of the electron-transfer protein flavodoxin from Desulfovibrio vulgaris were made by site-directed mutagenesis to investigate the role of glycine-61 in stabilizing the semiquinone of FMN by the protein and in controlling the flavin redox potentials. The spectroscopic properties, oxidation-reduction potentials, and flavin-binding properties of the mutant proteins, G61A/N/V and L, were compared with those of wild-type flavodoxin. The affinities of all of the mutant apoproteins for FMN and riboflavin were less than that of the wild-type apoprotein, and the redox potentials of the two 1-electron steps in the reduction of the complex with FMN were also affected by the mutations. Values for the dissociation constants of the complexes of the apoprotein with the semiquinone and hydroquinone forms of FMN were calculated from the redox potentials and the dissociation constant of the oxidized complex and used to derive the free energies of binding of the FMN in its three oxidation states. These showed that the semiquinone is destabilized in all of the mutants, and that the extent of destabilization tends to increase with increasing bulkiness of the side chain at residue 61. It is concluded that the hydrogen bond between the carbonyl of glycine-61 and N(5)H of FMN semiquinone in wild-type flavodoxin is either absent or severely impaired in the mutants. X-ray crystal structure analysis of the oxidized forms of the four mutant proteins shows that the protein loop that contains residue 61 is moved away from the flavin by 5-6 A. The hydrogen bond formed between the backbone nitrogen of aspartate-62 and O(4) of the dimethylisoalloxazine of the flavin in wild-type flavodoxin is absent in the mutants. Reliable structural information was not obtained for the reduced forms of the mutant proteins, but if the mutants change conformation when the flavin is reduced to the semiquinone, to facilitate hydrogen bonding between N(5)H and the carbonyl of residue 61, then the change must be different from that known to occur in wild-type flavodoxin.

Methionine synthase exists in two distinct conformations that differ in reactivity toward methyltetrahydrofolate, adenosylmethionine, and flavodoxin

Methionine synthase (MetH) from Escherichia coli catalyzes the synthesis of methionine from homocysteine and methyltetrahydrofolate via two methyl transfer reactions that are mediated by the endogenous cobalamin cofactor. After binding both substrates in a ternary complex, the enzyme transfers a methyl group from the methylcobalamin cofactor to homocysteine, generating cob(I)alamin enzyme and methionine. The enzyme then catalyzes methyl transfer from methyltetrahydrofolate to the cob(I)alamin cofactor, forming methylcobalamin cofactor and tetrahydrofolate prior to the release of both products. The cob(I)alamin form of the enzyme occasionally undergoes oxidation to an inactive cob(II)alamin species; the enzyme also catalyzes its own reactivation. Electron transfer from reduced flavodoxin to the cob(II)alamin cofactor is thought to generate cob(I)alamin enzyme, which is then trapped by methyl transfer from adenosylmethionine to the cobalt, restoring the enzyme to the active methylcobalamin form. Thus the enzyme is potentially able to catalyze two methyl transfers to the cob(I)alamin cofactor: methyl transfer from methyltetrahydrofolate during primary turnover and methyl transfer from adenosylmethionine during activation. It has recently been shown that methionine synthase is constructed from at least four separable regions that are responsible for binding each of the three substrates and the cobalamin cofactor, and it has been proposed that changes in positioning of the substrate binding regions vis-à-vis the cobalamin binding region could allow the enzyme to control which substrate has access to the cofactor. In this paper, we offer evidence that methionine synthase exists in two different conformations that interconvert in the cob(II)alamin oxidation state. In the primary turnover conformation, the enzyme reacts with homocysteine and methyltetrahydrofolate but is unreactive toward adenosylmethionine and flavodoxin. In the reactivation conformation, the enzyme is active toward adenosylmethionine and flavodoxin but unreactive toward methyltetrahydrofolate. The two conformations differ in the susceptibility of the substrate-binding regions to tryptic proteolysis. We propose a model in which conformational changes control access to the cobalamin cofactor and are the primary means of controlling cobalamin reactivity in methionine synthase.

Synthesis and properties of 8-CN-flavin nucleotide analogs and studies with flavoproteins

A high potential analog of riboflavin with a cyano function at the 8-position was synthesized by employing novel reaction conditions, starting from 8-amino-riboflavin. This was converted to the FAD level with FAD synthetase. The reduced 8-CN-riboflavin, unlike normal reduced flavin, has a distinctive absorption spectrum with two distinctive peaks in the near ultraviolet region. The oxidation-reduction potential of the new flavin was determined to be -50 mV, approximately 160 mV more positive than that of normal riboflavin. The 8-CN-riboflavin and 8-CN-FMN were found to be photoreactive and need to be protected from exposure to light. However such complications were not encountered with protein-bound flavins. The apoproteins of flavodoxin and Old Yellow Enzyme (OYE) were reconstituted with the 8-CN-FMN and apoDAAO was reconstituted with 8-CN-FAD. Spectral properties of the enzyme-bound neutral and anionic semiquinones were determined from these reconstituted proteins. In the case of 8-CN-FMN-OYE I, it was shown that the comproportionation reaction of a mixture of reduced and oxidized enzyme bound flavin is very rapid, compared with the same reaction with native protein, resulting in approximately 100% thermodynamically stable anionic semiquinone. In the case of 8-CN-OYE I, it was shown that the rate of reduction of the enzyme bound flavin by NADPH is approximately 40 times faster, and the rate of reoxidation of reduced enzyme bound flavin by oxygen is an order of magnitude slower than with the normal FMN enzyme. This is in accord with the high oxidation-reduction potential of the flavin, which thermodynamically stabilizes the reduced enzyme.

The isiB gene encoding flavodoxin is not essential for photoautotrophic iron limited growth of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803

When iron becomes limiting, Synechocystis 6803 induces the synthesis of flavodoxin. As a basis for genetic analysis, the flavodoxin-encoding isiB gene of Synechocystis 6803 was cloned and sequenced. The isiB gene was disrupted by insertion of an interposon within the isiB coding region resulting in two Synechocystis 6803 mutant strains, CKF-I and CKF-II. They were distinguished from each other by the orientation of the kanamycin resistance cassette. Photoautotrophic growth of the mutant strains under iron limiting conditions, which are sufficient for induction of flavodoxin in the wild-type cells, demonstrated that IsiB was not essential for Synechocystis 6803.

Helicobacter pylori porCDAB and oorDABC genes encode distinct pyruvate:flavodoxin and 2-oxoglutarate:acceptor oxidoreductases which mediate electron transport to NADP

Helicobacter pylori, a major cause of human gastric disease, is a microaerophilic bacterium that contains neither pyruvate nor 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase activity. Previous studies (N. J. Hughes, P. A. Chalk, C. L. Clayton, and D. J. Kelly, J. Bacteriol. 177:3953-3959, 1995) have indicated that the major routes for the generation of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and succinyl-CoA are via pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase (POR) and 2-oxoglutarate:acceptor oxidoreductase (OOR), respectively. The purified POR is a heterotetrameric protein, with subunits of 48 (PorA), 36 (PorB), 24 (PorC), and 14 (PorD) kDa. In this study OOR has been purified, and it is similarly composed of polypeptides of 43 (OorA), 33 (OorB), 24 (OorC), and 10 (OorD) kDa. Both POR and OOR are oxygen labile and are likely to be major contributors to the microaerophilic phenotype of H. pylori. Unlike POR, OOR was unable to use a previously identified flavodoxin (FldA) as an electron acceptor. Although the purified enzymes were unable to reduce NAD(P), electrons from both pyruvate and 2-oxoglutarate could reduce NADP in cell extracts, consistent with a role for these oxidoreductases in the provision of NADPH as a respiratory electron donor. The H. pylori por, oor, and fldA genes were cloned and sequenced. The deduced por gene products showed significant sequence similarity to archaeal four-subunit 2-oxoacid:acceptor oxidoreductases. However, the amino acid sequences of OorA and -B were more closely related to that of the two-subunit POR of the aerobic halophile Halobacterium halobium. Both porD and oorD encode integral ferredoxin-like subunits. POR and OOR are probably essential enzymes in H. pylori, as insertion inactivation of porB and oorA appeared to be lethal.

Flavodoxin-dependent pyruvate oxidation, acetate production and metronidazole reduction by Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori flavodoxin was purified to homogeneity from cell extracts of strain NCTC 11637. The molecular weight of the protein was estimated by gel electrophoresis to be 18 kDa. Oxidized flavodoxin showed an absorption spectrum with maxima at 378 nm and 453 nm, and it was reduced to a neutral form of flavin semiquinone by the electrons generated in the oxidation of pyruvate. This coenzyme A dependent pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase activity of H. pylori was also detected as a reduction of methyl viologen or cytochrome c by bacterial extracts. The apparent Km of pyruvate was 310 microM. Anaerobically incubated bacteria (10[9]) of strain NCTC 11637 produced acetate (96 +/- 16 nmol/h) from pyruvate concomitantly reducing metronidazole (17 +/- 5 nmol/h). In anaerobic conditions both sensitive and resistant H. pylori strains reduced metronidazole, and there was a significant positive correlation between acetate production and metronidazole activation (r = 0.77, P < 0.01, n = 11). In the presence of atmospheric oxygen, H. pylori excreted twice as much acetate but metronidazole was not activated. These results suggest that the pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase complex catalyses pyruvate oxidation in H. pylori. Electrons generated in this reaction are transferred to flavodoxin and under anaerobic conditions further to metronidazole (imidazoles) thus reducing the drug to its bactericidal form.

Differential stabilization of the three FMN redox forms by tyrosine 94 and tryptophan 57 in flavodoxin from Anabaena and its influence on the redox potentials

Flavodoxins are electron transfer proteins that carry a noncovalently bound flavin mononucleotide molecule as the redox-active center. The redox potentials of the flavin nucleotide are profoundly altered upon interaction with the protein. In Anabaena flavodoxin, as in many flavodoxins, the flavin is sandwiched between two aromatic residues (Trp57 and Tyr94) thought to be implicated in the alteration of the redox potentials. We have individually replaced these two residues by each of the other aromatic residues, by alanine and by leucine. For each mutant, we have determined the redox potentials and the binding energies of the oxidized FMN--apoflavodoxin complexes. From these data, the binding energies of the semireduced and reduced complexes have been calculated. Comparison of the binding energies of wild-type and mutant flavodoxins at the three redox states suggests that the interaction between Tyr94 and FMN stabilizes the apoflavodoxin--FMN complex in all redox states. The oxidized and semireduced complexes are, however, more strongly stabilized than the reduced complex, making the semiquinone/hydroquinone midpoint potential more negative in flavodoxin than in unbound FMN. Trp57 also stabilizes all redox forms of FMN, thus cooperating with Tyr94 in strong FMN binding. On the other hand, Trp57 seems to slightly destabilize the semireduced complex relative to the oxidized one. Finally, we have observed that reduction of mutants lacking Trp57 is slow relative to that of wild-type or mutants lacking Tyr94, which suggests that Trp57 could play a role in the kinetics of flavodoxin redox reactions.

Escherichia coli flavodoxin sepharose as an affinity resin for cytochromes P450 and use to identify a putative cytochrome P450c17/3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase interaction

Flavodoxin Sepharose (Fld Sepharose), a reagent originally developed to demonstrate an interaction between native Escherichia coli Fld and cytochrome P450c17, has been synthesized, using highly expressed (7 micromol Fld/liter E. coli culture) recombinant E. coli Fld, for use as an affinity resin for microsomal cytochromes P450. As a test of the specificity of Fld Sepharose, we have examined the utility of this resin for purification of P450c17 and P450c21 from a relatively crude mixture of solubilized adrenocortical microsomal proteins. Chromatography of this mixture on Fld Sepharose resulted in a threefold enrichment of cytochrome P450 specific content without spectrally detectable P450 denaturation. Electrophoretic and immunoblot analyses of fractions eluted from the Fld Sepharose column revealed the presence of P450c17 and P450c21, both of which were sufficiently pure, after SDS-PAGE, for identification by N-terminal sequence analysis. Intriguingly, a major protein copurifying with P450c17 and P450c21 was identified as 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD) which was subsequently found not to directly bind Fld Sepharose. Purified bovine 3beta-HSD covalently linked to Sepharose can bind recombinant bovine P450c17, an interaction which is partially disrupted upon mild heat denaturation of P450c17 or by the nonionic detergent Emulgen. This interaction, however, does not appear to affect P450c17 hydroxylase and lyase activities as measured in vitro. From these results, we propose that 3beta-HSD and P450c17 may associate, perhaps as part of a steroidogenic complex, in the endoplasmic reticulum.

Negatively charged anabaena flavodoxin residues (Asp144 and Glu145) are important for reconstitution of cytochrome P450 17alpha-hydroxylase activity

Catalysis by microsomal cytochromes P450 requires the membrane-bound enzyme NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (P450 reductase), which transfers electrons to the P450 heme via a flavodoxin-like domain. Previously, we reported that Escherichia coli flavodoxin (Fld), a soluble electron transfer protein, directly interacts with bovine cytochrome P450 17alpha-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450c17) and donates electrons to this enzyme when reconstituted with NADPH-ferredoxin (flavodoxin) reductase (FNR) (Jenkins, C. M., and Waterman, M. R. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 27401-27408). To investigate whether flavodoxins can serve as useful models of the analogous domain in P450 reductase, we have examined the FNR-Fld system from the cyanobacterium Anabaena. Mutagenesis of two acidic Anabaena Fld residues (D144A and E145A) significantly decreased flavodoxin-supported P450c17 progesterone 17alpha-hydroxylase activity. Specifically, D144A exhibited only 15% of the activity of wild-type Fld, whereas the adjacent mutation, E145A, caused a 40% loss in activity. P450-dependent hydrogen peroxide/superoxide production by wild-type FNR-Fld was measurably higher than that generated by FNR-D144A or FNR-E145A, indicating that the mutations do not lead to P450 heme-mediated electron uncoupling. Interestingly, the D144A and E145A mutants bind with equal or even greater affinity to P450c17 than wild-type Fld. Furthermore, these mutations (D144A and E145A) actually increased cytochrome c reductase activity (35 and 100% higher than wild type). Anabaena Fld residues Asp144 and Glu145 align closely with rat P450 reductase residue Asp208, which has been shown by mutagenesis to be important in electron transfer to P4502B1 but not to cytochrome c (Shen, A. L., and Kasper, C. B. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 27475-27480). Thus, these residues in flavodoxins and P450 reductase appear to have similar functions in P450 recognition and/or electron transfer, supporting the hypothesis that flavodoxins represent valid models for the FMN-binding domain of P450 reductase.

Backbone dynamics of oxidized and reduced D. vulgaris flavodoxin in solution

Recombinant Desulfovibrio vulgaris flavodoxin was produced in Escherichia coli. A complete backbone NMR assignment for the two-electron reduced protein revealed significant changes of chemical shift values compared to the oxidized protein, in particular for the flavine mononucleotide (FMN)-binding site. A comparison of homo- and heteronuclear NOESY spectra for the two redox states led to the assumption that reduction is not accompanied by significant changes of the global fold of the protein. The backbone dynamics of both the oxidized and reduced forms of D. vulgaris flavodoxin were investigated using two-dimensional 15N-1H correlation NMR spectroscopy. T1, T2 and NOE data are obtained for 95% of the backbone amide groups in both redox states. These values were analysed in terms of the 'model-free' approach introduced by Lipari and Szabo [(1982) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 104, 4546-4559, 4559-4570]. A comparison of the two redox states indicates that in the reduced species significantly more flexibility occurs in the two loop regions enclosing FMN. Also, a higher amplitude of local motion could be found for the N(3)H group of FMN bound to the reduced protein compared to the oxidized state.

The three-dimensional structure of flavodoxin reductase from Escherichia coli at 1.7 A resolution

Flavodoxin reductase from Escherichia coli is an FAD-containing oxidoreductase that transports electrons between flavodoxin or ferredoxin and NADPH. Together with flavodoxin, the enzyme is involved in the reductive activation of three E. coli enzymes: cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase, pyruvate formate lyase and anaerobic ribonucleotide reductase. An additional function for the oxidoreductase appears to be to protect the bacteria against oxygen radicals. The three-dimensional structure of flavodoxin reductase has been solved by multiple isomorphous replacement, and has been refined at 1.7 A to an R-value of 18.4% and Rfree 24.8%. The monomeric molecule contains one beta-sandwich FAD domain and an alpha/beta NADP domain. The overall structure is similar to other reductases of the NADP-ferredoxin reductase family in spite of the low sequence similarities within the family. Flavodoxin reductase lacks the loop which is involved in the binding of the adenosine moiety of FAD in other FAD binding enzymes of the superfamily but is missing in the FMN binding phthalate dioxygenase reductase. Instead of this loop, the adenine interacts with an extra tryptophan at the C terminus. The FAD in flavodoxin reductase has an unusual bent conformation with a hydrogen bond between the adenine and the isoalloxazine. This is probably the cause of the unusual spectrum of the enzyme. There is a pronounced cleft close to the isoalloxazine that appears to be well suited for binding of flavodoxin/ferredoxin. Two extra short strands of the NADP-binding domain probably act as an anchor point for the binding of flavodoxin.

NMR assignments, secondary structure and hydration of oxidized Escherichia coli flavodoxin

Recombinant flavodoxin from Escherichia coli was uniformly enriched with 15N and 13C isotopes and its oxidized form in aqueous solution investigated by three-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. Nearly complete 1H, 15N and 13C resonance assignments were obtained. The secondary structure was determined from chemical shift, NOE and 3J(HNH alpha) coupling constant data. Like homologous long-chain flavodoxins, E. coli flavodoxin contains a five-stranded parallel beta-sheet and five helices. The beta-strands were found to comprise the residues 3-8, 29-34, 48-56, 80-89, 114-116 and 141-145. The helices comprise residues 12-25, 40-45, 62-73, 98-108 and 152-166. The FMN-binding site was determined by intermolecular NOEs and low-field shifted amide proton resonances induced by the phosphoester group of the cofactor. The data are in good agreement with a previously predicted model of E. coli flavodoxin [Havel, T. F. (1993) Mol. Sim. 10, 175-210]. The analysis of of water-flavodoxin NOEs revealed the presence of two, possibly three, buried hydration water molecules which are located at sites, where homologous flavodoxins from Anacystis nidulans and Anabena 7120 contain conserved hydration water molecules. One of these water molecules mediates hydrogen bonds between the protein backbone and the ribityl chain of the FMN cofactor.

Control of oxidation-reduction potentials in flavodoxin from Clostridium beijerinckii: the role of conformation changes

X-ray analyses of wild-type and mutant flavodoxins from Clostridium beijerinckii show that the conformation of the peptide Gly57-Asp58, in a bend near the isoalloxazine ring of FMN, is correlated with the oxidation state of the FMN prosthetic group. The Gly-Asp peptide may adopt any of three conformations: trans O-up, in which the carbonyl oxygen of Gly57 (O57) points toward the flavin ring; trans O-down, in which O57 points away from the flavin; and cis O-down. Interconversions among these conformers that are linked to oxidation-reduction of the flavin can modulate the redox potentials of bound FMN. In the semiquinone and reduced forms of the protein, the Gly57-Asp58 peptide adopts the trans O-up conformation and accepts a hydrogen bond from the flavin N5H [Smith, W. W., Burnett, R. M., Darling, G. D., & Ludwig, M. L. (1977) J. Mol. Biol. 117, 195-225; Ludwig, M. L., & Luschinsky, C. L. (1992) in Chemistry and Biochemistry of Flavoenzymes III (Müller, F., Ed.) pp 427-466, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL]. Analyses reported in this paper confirm that, in crystals of wild-type oxidized C. beijerinckii flavodoxin, the Gly57-Asp58 peptide adopts the O-down orientation and isomerizes to the cis conformation. This cis form is preferentially stabilized in the crystals by intermolecular hydrogen bonding to Asn137. Structures for the mutant Asn137Ala indicate that a mixture of all three conformers, mostly O-down, exists in oxidized C. beijerinckii flavodoxin in the absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Redox potentials have been manipulated by substitutions that alter the conformational energies of the bend at 56M-G-D-E. The mutation Asp58Pro was constructed to study a case where energies for cis-trans conversion would be different from that of wild type. Intermolecular interactions with Asn137 are precluded in the crystal, yet Gly57-Pro58 is cis, and O-down, when the flavin is oxidized. Reduction of the flavin induces rearrangement to the trans O-up conformation. Redox potential shifts reflect the altered energies associated with the peptide rearrangement; E(ox/sq) decreases by approximately 60 mV (1.3 kcal/mol). Further, the results of mutation of Gly57 agree with predictions that a side chain at residue 57 should make addition of the first electron more difficult, by raising the energy of the O-up conformer that forms when the flavin is reduced to its semiquinone state. The ox/sq potentials in the mutants Gly57Ala, Gly57Asn, and Gly57Asp are all decreased by approximately 60 mV (1.3 kcal/mol). Introduction of the beta-branched threonine side chain at position 57 has much larger effects on the conformations and potentials. The Thr57-Asp58 peptide adopts a trans O-down conformation when the flavin is oxidized; upon reduction to the semiquinone, the 57-58 peptide rotates to a trans O-up conformation resembling that found in the wild-type protein. Changes in FMN-protein interactions and in conformational equilibria in G57T combine to decrease the redox potential for the ox/sq equilibrium by 180 mV (+4.0 kcal/mol) and to increase the sq/hq potential by 80 mV (-1.7 kcal/mol). A thermodynamic scheme is introduced as a framework for rationalizing the properties of wild-type flavodoxin and the effects of the mutations.

Interaction of Escherichia coli cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase and its physiological partner flavodoxin: binding of flavodoxin leads to axial ligand dissociation from the cobalamin cofactor

Cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase from Escherichia coli catalyzes the last step in de novo methionine biosynthesis. Conversion of the inactive cob(II)alamin form of the enzyme, formed by the occasional oxidation of cob(I)alamin during turnover, to an active methylcobalamin-containing form requires a reductive methylation of the cofactor in which an electron is supplied by reduced flavodoxin and the methyl group is derived from S-adenosyl-L-methionine. E. coli flavodoxin acts specifically in this activation reaction, and neither E. coli ferredoxin nor flavodoxin from the cyanobacterium Synechococcus will substitute, despite their highly similar midpoint potentials for one-electron transfer. As assessed by EPR spectroscopy, the binding of flavodoxin to cob(II)alamin methionine synthase results in a change in the coordination geometry of the cobalt from five-coordinate to four-coordinate. Histidine 759 of methionine synthase, which replaces the normal lower ligand dimethylbenzimidazole on binding of methylcobalamin to methionine synthase, is dissociated from the cobalt of the cobalamin by the binding of flavodoxin. The association of flavodoxin and methionine synthase depends on ionic strength and pH; the pH dependence corresponds to the uptake of one proton on association. The formation of a complex between flavodoxin and methionine synthase perturbs the midpoint potentials of the flavin and cobalamin cofactors only marginally and without any significant thermodynamic advantage for electron transfer to the cobalamin of methionine synthase. No significant binding was seen between oxidized flavodoxin and methylcobalamin methionine synthase. A model for the interaction of methionine synthase with flavodoxin is proposed in which flavodoxin binding leads to changes in the distribution of methionine synthase conformations.

P450BM-3; a tale of two domains--or is it three?

Over 400 P450s have been identified to date in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, plants and animals, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. These enzymes function in areas such as metabolism and steroidogenesis. The eukaryotic members of this gene superfamily of proteins have proved difficult to study because of the hydrophobic nature of their substrates, their various redox partners, and membrane association. To better understand the structure/function relationship of P450s-what determines substrate specificity and selectivity, what determines redox-partner binding, and which regions are involved in membrane binding-we have compared the three crystallized, soluble bacterial P450s (two class I and one class II) and a model of a steroidogenic, eukaryotic P450 (P450arom), to define which structural elements form a conserved structural fold for P450s, what determines specificity of substrate binding and redox-partner binding, and which regions are potentially involved in membrane association. We believe that there is a conserved structural fold for all P450s that can be used to model those P450s that prove intransigent to structural determination. However, although there appears to be a conserved structural core among P450s, there is sufficient sequence variability that no two P450s are structurally identical. NADPH-P450 reductase transfers electrons from NADPH to P450 during the P450 catalytic cycle. This enzyme has usually been thought of as a simple globular protein; however, sequence analysis has shown that NADPH-P450 reductase is related to two separate flavoprotein families, ferredoxin nucleotide reductase (FNR) and flavodoxin. Recent studies by Wolff and his colleagues have shown that the FAD-binding FNR domain and FMN-binding flavodoxin domain of human NADPH-P450 reductase can be independently expressed in Escherichia coli. The subdomains can be used to reconstitute, however poorly, the monooxygenase activity of the P450 system. We have been utilizing the reductase domain of P450BM-3 to study the mechanism of electron transfer from NADPH to P450 in this complex multidomain protein. We have overexpressed both the FNR subdomain and the flavodoxin subdomain in E. coli and fully reconstituted the cytochrome c reductase activity of this enzyme. Our studies have shown that electron transfer from NADPH through the reductase domain to the P450 requires shuttling of the FMN subdomain between the reductase subdomain and the P450. Studies of the factors that control the molecular recognition and interaction among these three proteins are complicated by the weakness of the association and changes in the strength of the interaction depending on the redox state of each of the components. How these structural and mechanistic studies of a soluble bacterial P450 can be extended to gain a better understanding of the control of membrane-bound eukaryotic P450-dependent redox systems is discussed.

The cumulative electrostatic effect of aromatic stacking interactions and the negative electrostatic environment of the flavin mononucleotide binding site is a major determinant of the reduction potential for the flavodoxin from Desulfovibrio vulgaris [Hildenborough]

Flavodoxins are typified by the very low one-electron reduction potential for the semiquinone/hydroquinone couple (Esq/hq) of the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cofactor. In the Desulfovibrio vulgaris flavodoxin, the elimination of the side chain of Tyr98, which flanks the outer or si face of the flavin, through the Y98A mutation results in a substantial increase in Esq/hq of 139 mV, representing about one-half of the total shift in Esq/hq in this flavodoxin [Swenson, R. P., & Krey, G. D. (1994) Biochemistry 33, 8505-8514]. The extent to which this large effect was the result of the elimination of unfavorable coplanar aromatic stacking interactions or to the greater solvent exposure of the flavin ring was not known. The significance of the latter effect was heightened by the characterization of the Fld+6 mutant which demonstrated that the unfavorable interaction between the negative electrostatic environment provided by the asymmetric clustering of acidic residues surrounding the cofactor and the FMN hydroquinone anion is responsible for about one-third of the total decrease in Esq/hq in this flavodoxin [Zhou, Z., & Swenson, R. P. (1995) Biochemistry 34, 3183-3192]. In this study, a flavodoxin mutant was generated in which an alanine was substituted for Tyr98 while at the same time the negative electrostatic surface was partially neutralized by the substitution of the six acidic amino acid residues with their amide equivalents. The Esq/hq value of this mutant was found to have increased by 221 mV relative to wild type, which accounts for 70-80% of the total shift in Esq/hq in this flavodoxin. This increase is very similar to the sum of the individual changes in Esq/hq introduced independently in the Y98A and Fld+6 mutants. The similarity in the magnitude of the effect of the neutralization of the six acidic residues in the context of an alanine residue at position 98 (Y98A) relative to an aromatic tyrosine residue (wild type) suggests that the increase in Esq/hq observed for the Y98A mutant is more likely due to the elimination of unfavorable pi-pi interactions between Tyr98 and the FMN hydroquinone rather than to the increased solvent exposure of the flavin. This study provides further support for the concept that the cumulative effect of the unfavorable electrostatic interactions introduced by coplanar aromatic or pi-pi stacking interactions and the negative electrostatic environment of the FMN binding site is a major determinant of the low one-electron reduction potential of the flavodoxin.

Evaluation of the electrostatic effect of the 5'-phosphate of the flavin mononucleotide cofactor on the oxidation--reduction potentials of the flavodoxin from desulfovibrio vulgaris (Hildenborough)

Two mutants of the Desulfovibrio vulgaris flavodoxin, T12H and N14H, were generated which, for the first time, place a basic residue within the normally neutral 5'-phosphate binding loop of the flavin mononucleotide cofactor binding site found in all flavodoxins. These histidine residues were designed to form an ion pair with the dianionic 5'-phosphate, either altering its ionization state or offsetting its negative charge to allow evaluation of the magnitude of its electrostatic effect on the redox properties of the cofactor. The midpoint potential for the oxidized/semiquinone couple was not significantly altered in either mutant. However, the midpoint potentials for the semiquinone/hydroquinone couple (Esq/hq) were less negative than that of the wild type, increasing by 28 and 15 mV relative to that of the wild type for the T12H and N14H mutants, respectively, at pH 6. 31P NMR spectroscopy suggests that, just as for wild type, the phosphate group in each mutant does not change its ionization state between pH 6 and 8. Therefore, the small increases in midpoint potential must be linked to the protonation of the histidine residues, either through favorable interactions with the anionic hydroquinone or by the partial compensation of the charge on the 5'-phosphate. Values for the pKa of His12 and His14 in the oxidized flavodoxin were determined by 1H NMR spectroscopy to be 6.71 and 6.93, respectively, which are only modestly elevated relative to the average value for histidines in proteins. This suggests that the histidines do not form strong ion-pairing interactions with the phosphate and/or that the effective charge on the 5'-phosphate may be substantially less than the reported formal dianionic charge. Either way, the data provide evidence for the rather weak electrostatic interaction between a charged group at this site and the anionic flavin hydroquinone. In contrast, Esq/hq reported for the apoflavodoxin-riboflavin complex, which lacks the 5'-phosphate group, is 180 mV less negative than that of the native flavodoxin. The re-evaluation of the redox and cofactor binding properties of the riboflavin complex generated values for the dissociation constants for the riboflavin complex in the oxidized, semiquinone, and hydroquinone oxidation states that are 2100-, 63000-, and 54-fold higher, respectively, than that for the naturally occurring flavin mononucleotide complex. The large redox potential shifts observed for both redox couples in the riboflavin complex are primarily the consequence of a decreased stabilization of the semiquinone rather than the result of the absence of the negative charge of the 5'-phosphate. It is concluded from this study that the negative charge on the phosphate group of the cofactor does not play a disproportionate role in decreasing Esq/hq, at most contributing equivalently with the acidic amino acid residues clustered around the flavin to an unfavorable electrostatic environment for the formation of the flavin hydroquinone anion.

SoxR, a [2Fe-2S] transcription factor, is active only in its oxidized form

SoxR protein is known to function both as a sensor and as a transcriptional activator for a superoxide response regulon in Escherichia coli. The activity of SoxR was tested by its ability to enable the transcription of its target gene, soxS, in vitro. The activity of the oxidized form was lost when its [2Fe-2S] clusters were reduced by dithionite under anaerobic conditions, and it was rapidly restored by autooxidation. This result is consistent with the hypothesis that induction of the regulon is effected by the univalent oxidation of the Fe-S centers of SoxR. In vivo, this oxidation may be caused by an alteration of the redox balance of electron chain intermediates that normally maintains soxR in an inactive, reduced state. Oxidized SoxR was about twice as effective as reduced SoxR in protecting the soxS operator from endonucleolytic cleavage. However, this difference could not account for a greater than 50-fold difference in their activities and therefore could not support a model in which oxidation activates SoxR by enabling it to bind to DNA. NADPH, ferredoxin, flavodoxin, or ferredoxin (flavodoxin):NADP+ reductase could not reduce SoxR directly in vitro at a measurable rate. The midpoint potential for SoxR was measured at -283 mV.

Flavodoxin from Wolinella succinogenes

A monomeric flavoprotein (18.8 kDa) was isolated from the soluble cell fraction of Wolinella succinogenes and was identified as a flavodoxin based on its N-terminal sequence, FMN content, and redox properties. The midpoint potentials of the flavodoxin (Fld) at pH 7. 5 were measured as -95 mV (Fldox/Flds) and -450 mV (Flds/Fldred) relative to the standard hydrogen electrode. The cellular flavodoxin content [0.3 micromol (g protein)-1] was the same in bacteria grown with fumarate or with polysulfide as the terminal acceptor of electron transport. The flavodoxin did not accept electrons from hydrogenase or formate dehydrogenase, the donor enzymes of electron transport to fumarate or polysulfide. Pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase activity [180 U (g cellular protein)-1] was detected in the soluble cell fraction of W. succinogenes grown with fumarate or polysulfide. The enzyme was equally active with Fldox or Flds at high concentrations. The Km for Flds (80 microM) was larger than that for Fldox and for the ferredoxin isolated from W. succinogenes (15 microM). We conclude that flavodoxin serves anabolic rather than catabolic functions in W. succinogenes.

The structural alignment between two proteins: is there a unique answer?

Structurally similar but sequentially unrelated proteins have been discovered and rediscovered by many researchers, using a variety of structure comparison tools. For several pairs of such proteins, existing structural alignments obtained from the literature, as well as alignments prepared using several different similarity criteria, are compared with each other. It is shown that, in general, they differ from each other, with differences increasing with diminishing sequence similarity. Differences are particularly strong between alignments optimizing global similarity measures, such as RMS deviation between C alpha atoms, and alignments focusing on more local features, such as packing or interaction pattern similarity. Simply speaking, by putting emphasis on different aspects of structure, different structural alignments show the unquestionable similarity in a different way. With differences between various alignments extending to a point where they can differ at all positions, analysis of structural similarities leads to contradictory results reported by groups using different alignment techniques. The problem of uniqueness and stability of structural alignments is further studied with the help of visualization of the suboptimal alignments. It is shown that alignments are often degenerate and whole families of alignments can be generated with almost the same score as the "optimal alignment." However, for some similarity criteria, specially those based on side-chain positions, rather than C alpha positions, alignments in some areas of the protein are unique. This opens the question of how and if the structural alignments can be used as "standards of truth" for protein comparison.

Conformational stability of apoflavodoxin

Flavodoxins are alpha/beta proteins that mediate electron transfer reactions. The conformational stability of apoflavodoxin from Anaboena PCC 7119 has been studied by calorimetry and urea denaturation as a function of pH and ionic strength. At pH > 12, the protein is unfolded. Between pH 11 and pH 6, the apoprotein is folded properly as judged from near-ultraviolet (UV) circular dichroism (CD) and high-field 1H NMR spectra. In this pH interval, apoflavodoxin is a monomer and its unfolding by urea or temperature follows a simple two-state mechanism. The specific heat capacity of unfolding for this native conformation is unusually low. Near its isoelectric point (3.9), the protein is highly insoluble. At lower pH values (pH 3.5-2.0), apoflavodoxin adopts a conformation with the properties of a molten globule. Although apoflavodoxin at pH 2 unfolds cooperatively with urea in a reversible fashion and the fluorescence and far-UV CD unfolding curves coincide, the transition midpoint depends on the concentration of protein, ruling out a simple two-state process at acidic pH. Apoflavodoxin constitutes a promising system for the analysis of the stability and folding of alpha/beta proteins and for the study of the interaction between apoflavoproteins and their corresponding redox cofactors.

Flavodoxin 1 of Azotobacter vinelandii: characterization and role in electron donation to purified assimilatory nitrate reductase

Flavodoxins synthesized by Azotobacter vinelandii strain UW 36 during growth on nitrate as nitrogen source were separated by FPLC on a Mono Q column into two species, flavodoxin 1 (AvFld 1) and flavodoxin 2 (AvFld 2). Both proteins migrated as single bands on SDS/PAGE. AvFld 1 was approx. 5-fold more abundant than AvFld 2 in the unresolved flavodoxin mixture. N-terminal amino acid analysis showed the sequence of AvFld 2 to correspond to the nif F gene product, an electron donor to nitrogenase. The sequences also show that these species corresponded to the flavodoxins Fld A and Fld B isolated from N2-grown cultures of the closely related organism Azotobacter throococcum [Bagby, Barker, Hill, Eady and Thorneley (1991) Biochem.J.277, 313-319]. Electrospray mass spectrometry gave M, values for the polypeptides of 19430 +/- 3 and 19533 +/- 5 respectively. 31P-NMR measurements showed that in addition to the phosphate associated with the FMN (delta = -136.3 p.p.m. and -135.48 p.p.m.), AvFld 1 had a signal at delta = -142.1 p.p.m. and AvFld 2 at delta = -138.59 p.p.m. present in substoichiometric amounts with FMN. These appeared to arise from unstable species since they were readily lost on further manipulation of the proteins. The mid-point potentials of the semiquinone hydroquinone redox couples were -330 mV and -493 mV for AvFld 1 and AvFld 2 respectively, but only AvFld 1 was competent in donating electrons to the purified assimilatory nitrate reductase of A. vinelandii to catalyse the reduction of nitrate to nitrite. Flavodoxin isolated from NH4(+)-grown cells (Fld 3) also functioned as electron donor at half the rate of AvFld 1, but ferredoxin 1 from A. chroococcum did not.

Crystal structure of flavodoxin from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 in two oxidation states

The crystal structures of the flavodoxin from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 have been determined and refined for both oxidized and semi-reduced forms to final crystallographic R-factors of 17.9% (0.8-0.205-nm resolution) and 19.4% (0.8-0.215-nm resolution) respectively. Native flavodoxin crystals were grown from ammonium sulfate with cell constants a = b = 9.59 nm, c=3.37nm (oxidized crystals) and they belong to space group P3(2)21. Semireduced crystals showed some changes in cell dimensions: a = b = 9.51 nm, c=3.35 nm. The three-dimensional structures are similar to other known flavodoxins and deviations are found essentially in the isoalloxazine ring environment. Conformational changes are observed between both redox states and a flip of the Gly61-Met62 peptide bond occurs upon one-electron reduction of the FMN group. These changes influence the redox potential of the oxidized/semiquinone couple. Modulation of the redox potentials is known to be related to the association constant of the FMN group to the protein. The flavodoxin from D. desulfuricans now studied has a large span between E2 (oxidized --> semiquinone) and E1 (semiquinone --> hydroquinone) redox potentials, both these values being substantially more positive within known flavodoxins. A comparison of their FMN environment was made in both oxidation states in order to correlate functional and structural differences.