High throughput physicochemical profiling for drug discovery

ADME/PK Insights of Crocetin: A Molecule Having an Unusual Chemical Structure with Druglike Features

Crocetin is a promising phyto-based molecule to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). The chemical structure of crocetin is incongruent with various standard structural features of CNS drugs. As poor pharmacokinetic behavior is the major hurdle for any candidate to become a drug, we elucidated its druggable characteristics by implementing in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches, as limited ADME/PK information is available. Results demonstrate several attributes of crocetin based on rules of drug-likeness, lipophilicity, pKa, P-gp inhibitory activity, plasma stability, RBC partitioning, metabolic stability, CYP inhibitory action, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, oral bioavailability, and pharmacokinetic interaction with marketed anti-Alzheimer's drugs (memantine, donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine). However, aqueous solubility, chemical stability, plasma protein binding, and P-gp induction are some concerns associated with this molecule that should be taken into consideration during its further development. Overall results indicate favorable ADME/PK behavior and potential druggable candidature of crocetin.

Solvent polarity and hydrophobicity of solutes are two sides of the same coin

The hydrophobicity of solutes measures the intensity of a solute's interaction with aqueous environment. The aqueous environment may change with its composition, leading to changes in its solvent properties largely characterized by polarity. As a result, the relative hydrophobicity of a solute is a function of the solute structure and the properties of the water-based solvent determined by the total composition of the aqueous phase. This aspect is commonly ignored by medicinal chemists even though it is essential for drug distribution between different biological tissues. Partitioning of solutes in aqueous two-phase systems provides the relative hydrophobicity estimates for any water-soluble compounds that can be used to improve predictions of the toxicity and other biological effects of these compounds.

Measurement and correlation of solubility data for deferiprone in propylene glycol and 2-propanol at different temperatures

This investigation dealt with the thermodynamic properties, saturated solubility values, and solvation behavior of deferiprone as an oral iron chelator agent in non-aqueous mixtures of propylene glycol and 2-propanol using experimental measurements and mathematical correlations. The solubility of deferiprone demonstrated a positive correlation with both temperature and propylene glycol mass fraction. Four mathematical models were employed to correlate the solid-liquid equilibrium data, and the low mean relative deviation values of less than 3.6% illustrate the good agreement of computed data with the experimental data. The apparent thermodynamic behavior of deferiprone dissolution was also investigated according to van't Hoff and Gibbs equation.

Exposure forecasting - ExpoCast - for data-poor chemicals in commerce and the environment

Estimates of exposure are critical to prioritize and assess chemicals based on risk posed to public health and the environment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for regulating thousands of chemicals in commerce and the environment for which exposure data are limited. Since 2009 the EPA's ExpoCast ("Exposure Forecasting") project has sought to develop the data, tools, and evaluation approaches required to generate rapid and scientifically defensible exposure predictions for the full universe of existing and proposed commercial chemicals. This review article aims to summarize issues in exposure science that have been addressed through initiatives affiliated with ExpoCast. ExpoCast research has generally focused on chemical exposure as a statistical systems problem intended to inform thousands of chemicals. The project exists as a companion to EPA's ToxCast ("Toxicity Forecasting") project which has used in vitro high-throughput screening technologies to characterize potential hazard posed by thousands of chemicals for which there are limited toxicity data. Rapid prediction of chemical exposures and in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) of ToxCast data allow for prioritization based upon risk of adverse outcomes due to environmental chemical exposure. ExpoCast has developed (1) integrated modeling approaches to reliably predict exposure and IVIVE dose, (2) highly efficient screening tools for chemical prioritization, (3) efficient and affordable tools for generating new exposure and dose data, and (4) easily accessible exposure databases. The development of new exposure models and databases along with the application of technologies like non-targeted analysis and machine learning have transformed exposure science for data-poor chemicals. By developing high-throughput tools for chemical exposure analytics and translating those tools into public health decisions ExpoCast research has served as a crucible for identifying and addressing exposure science knowledge gaps.

Growth Optimization and Secondary Metabolites Evaluation of Anabaena variabilis for Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition Activity

Cyanobacteria comprise a good natural resource of a potential variety of neuro-chemicals, including acetylcholinesterase inhibitors essential for Alzheimer’s disease treatment. Accordingly, eight different cyanobacterial species were isolated, identified, and evaluated on their growth on different standard nutrient media. It was found that the modified Navicula medium supported the highest growth of the test cyanobacteria. The effects of methylene chloride/methanol crude extracts of the test cyanobacteria on acetylcholinesterase activity were examined and compared. Anabaena variabilis (KU696637.1) crude extract recorded the highest acetylcholinesterase inhibition (62 ± 1.3%). Navicula medium chemical components were optimized through a Plackett–Burman factorial design. The biomass of Anabaena variabilis increased significantly when grown on the optimized medium compared to that of control. The chemical analysis of the fractions derived from Anabaena variabilis showed the presence of two compounds in significant amounts: the flavonoid 5,7-dihydroxy-2-phenyl-4H-chrome-4-one and the alkaloid 4-phenyl-2-(pyridin-3-yl) quinazoline. Molecular docking studies revealed that both compounds interact with the allosteric binding site of acetylcholinesterase at the periphery with π-π stackings with Tyr341 and Trp286 with good, predicted partition coefficient. The compounds obtained from this study open the door for promising drug candidates to treat Alzheimer’s disease for their better pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic properties.

Omega-3- and Resveratrol-Loaded Lipid Nanosystems for Potential Use as Topical Formulations in Autoimmune, Inflammatory, and Cancerous Skin Diseases

Resveratrol (RSV) and omega 3 (ω₃), because of their biological favorable properties, have become subjects of interest for researchers in dermocosmetic and pharmaceutical industries; however, these bioactives present technological limitations that hinder their effective delivery to the target skin layer. To overcome the stability and skin permeation limitations of free bioactives, this work proposes a combined strategy involving two different lipid nanosystems (liposomes and lipid nanoparticles) that include ω₃ in their lipid matrix. Additionaly, RSV is only encapsulated in liposomes that provid an adequate amphiphilic environment. Each formulation is thoroughly characterized regarding their physical–chemical properties. Subsequently, the therapeutic performance of the lipid nanosystems is evaluated based on their protective roles against lipid peroxidation, as well as inhibition of cicloxygenase (COX) and nitric oxid (NO) production in the RWA264.7 cell line. Finally, the lipid nanosystems are incorporated in hydrogel to allow their topical administration, then rheology, occlusion, and RSV release–diffusion assays are performed. Lipid nanoparticles provide occlusive effects at the skin surface. Liposomes provide sustained RSV release and their flexibility conferred by edge activator components enhances RSV diffusion, which is required to reach NO production cells and COX cell membrane enzymes. Overall, the inclusion of both lipid nanosystems in the same semisolid base constitutes a promising strategy for autoimmune, inflammatory, and cancerous skin diseases.

Improved translation of stability for conjugated antibodies using an in vitro whole blood assay

For antibody-drug conjugates to be efficacious and safe, they must be stable in circulation to carry the payload to the site of the targeted cell. Several components of a drug-conjugated antibody are known to influence stability: 1) the site of drug attachment on the antibody, 2) the linker used to attach the payload to the antibody, and 3) the payload itself. In order to support the design and optimization of a high volume of drug conjugates and avoid unstable conjugates prior to testing in animal models, we wanted to proactively identify these potential liabilities. Therefore, we sought to establish an in vitro screening method that best correlated with in vivo stability. While traditionally plasma has been used to assess in vitro stability, our evaluation using a variety of THIOMAB^TM antibody-drug conjugates revealed several disconnects between the stability assessed in vitro and the in vivo outcomes when using plasma. When drug conjugates were incubated in vitro for 24 h in mouse whole blood rather than plasma and then analyzed by affinity capture LC-MS, we found an improved correlation to in vivo stability with whole blood (R² = 0.87, coefficient of determination) compared to unfrozen or frozen mouse plasma (R² = 0.34, 0.01, respectively). We further showed that this whole blood assay was also able to predict in vivo stability of other preclinical species such as rat and cynomolgus monkey, as well as in human. The screening method utilized short (24 h) incubation times, as well as a custom analysis software, allowing increased throughput and in-depth biotransformation characterization. While some instabilities that were more challenging to identify remain, the method greatly enhanced the process of screening, optimizing, and lead candidate selection, resulting in the substantial reduction of animal studies.

Predicting PAMPA permeability using the 3D-RISM-KH theory: are we there yet?

The parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA), a non-cellular lab-based assay, is extensively used to measure the permeability of pharmaceutical compounds. PAMPA experiments provide a working mimic of a molecule passing through cells and PAMPA values are widely used to estimate drug absorption parameters. There is an increased interest in developing computational methods to predict PAMPA permeability values. We developed an in silico model to predict the permeability of compounds based on the PAMPA assay. We used the three-dimensional reference interaction site model (3D-RISM) theory with the Kovalenko-Hirata (KH) closure to calculate the excess chemical potentials of a large set of compounds and predicted their apparent permeability with good accuracy (mean absolute error or MAE = 0.69 units) when compared to a published experimental data set. Furthermore, our in silico PAMPA protocol performed very well in the binary prediction of 288 compounds as being permeable or impermeable (precision = 94%, accuracy = 93%). This suggests that our in silico protocol can mimic the PAMPA assay and could aid in the rapid discovery or screening of potentially therapeutic drug leads that can be delivered to a desired tissue.

The fabrication of phospholipid vesicle-based artificial cells and their functions

Phospholipid vesicles as artificial cells are used to simulate the cellular structure and function.

Application of Advanced Technologies in Natural Product Research: A Review with Special Emphasis on ADMET Profiling

The successful conversion of natural products (NPs) into lead compounds and novel pharmacophores has emboldened the researchers to harness the drug discovery process with a lot more enthusiasm. However, forfeit of bioactive NPs resulting from an overabundance of metabolites and their wide dynamic range have created the bottleneck in NP researches. Similarly, the existence of multidimensional challenges, including the evaluation of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety parameters, has been a concerning issue. Advancement of technology has brought the evolution of traditional natural product researches into the computer-based assessment exhibiting pretentious remarks about their efficiency in drug discovery. The early attention to the quality of the NPs may reduce the attrition rate of drug candidates by parallel assessment of ADMET profiling. This article reviews the status, challenges, opportunities, and integration of advanced technologies in natural product research. Indeed, emphasis will be laid on the current and futuristic direction towards the application of newer technologies in early-stage ADMET profiling of bioactive moieties from the natural sources. It can be expected that combinatorial approaches in ADMET profiling will fortify the natural product-based drug discovery in the near future.

Vacuum Compression Molding as a Screening Tool to Investigate Carrier Suitability for Hot-Melt Extrusion Formulations

Hot-melt extrusion (HME) is the most preferred and effective method for manufacturing amorphous solid dispersions at production scale, but it consumes large amounts of samples when used for formulation development. Herein, we show a novel approach to screen the polymers by overcoming the disadvantage of conventional HME screening by using a minimum quantity of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). Vacuum Compression Molding (VCM) is a fusion-based method to form solid specimens starting from powders. This study aimed to investigate the processability of VCM for the creation of amorphous formulations and to compare its results with HME-processed formulations. Mixtures of indomethacin (IND) with drug carriers (Parteck^® MXP, Soluplus^®, Kollidon^® VA 64, Eudragit^® EPO) were processed using VCM and extrusion technology. Thermal characterization was performed using differential scanning calorimetry, and the solid-state was analyzed via X-ray powder diffraction. Dissolution studies in the simulated gastric fluid were performed to evaluate the drug release. Both technologies showed similar results proving the effectiveness of VCM as a screening tool for HME-based formulations.

Design, Synthesis, and Structure-Activity Relationships of Thiazole Analogs as Anticholinesterase Agents for Alzheimer's Disease

Dementia is a neurological condition commonly correlated with Alzheimer's disease (AD), and it is seen with many other central nervous system (CNS) disorders. The restricted number of medications is not appropriate to offer enough relief to enhance the quality of life of patients suffering from this symptom; thus, all therapeutic choices should be carefully assessed. In this study, new thiazolylhydrazone derivatives (2a-2l) were designed and synthesized based on the cholinergic hypothesis. Their chemical structures were confirmed by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and HRMS spectrometric techniques. The ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination) parameters of the synthesized compounds were predicted by using QikProp 4.8 software. It was concluded that all compounds presented satisfactory drug-like characteristics. Furthermore, their inhibitory activities against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in vitro were also tested by modified the Ellman spectrophotometric method. According to the results, all compounds showed a weak inhibitory effect on BChE. On the other hand, most of the compounds (2a, 2b, 2d, 2e, 2g, 2i, and 2j) had a certain AChE inhibitory activity, and the IC50 values of them were calculated as 0.063 ± 0.003, 0.056 ± 0.002, 0.147 ± 0.006, 0.040 ± 0.001, 0.031 ± 0.001, 0.028 ± 0.001, and 0.138 ± 0.005 µM, respectively. Among these derivatives, compound 2i was found to be the most active agent in the series with an IC50 value of 0.028 ± 0.001 µM, which indicated an inhibition profile at a similar rate as the reference drug, donepezil. The potential binding modes of compounds 2a, 2b, 2e, 2g, and 2i with AChE were investigated and compared with each other by the molecular docking studies. The results showed that these compounds were strongly bound up with the AChE enzyme active site with the optimal conformations.

2-Aminooxazole as a Novel Privileged Scaffold in Antitubercular Medicinal Chemistry

To obtain effective eradication of numerous infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, it is important to supply the medicinal chemistry arsenal with novel chemical agents. Isosterism and bioisosterism are widely known concepts in the field of early drug discovery, and in several cases, rational isosteric replacements have contributed to improved efficacy and physicochemical characteristics throughout the hit-to-lead optimization process. However, sometimes the synthesis of isosteres might not be as straightforward as that of the parent compounds, and therefore, novel synthetic strategies must be elaborated. In this regard, we herein report the evaluation of a series of N-substituted 4-phenyl-2-aminooxazoles that, despite being isosteres of a widely used nucleus such as the 2-aminothiazole, have been only seldom explored. After elaboration of a convenient synthetic strategy, a small set of 2-aminothiazoles and their 2-aminooxazole counterparts were compared with regard to antitubercular activity and physicochemical characteristics.

Synthesis, in vitro enzyme activity and molecular docking studies of new benzylamine-sulfonamide derivatives as selective MAO-B inhibitors

Many studies have been conducted on the selective inhibition of human monoamine oxidase B (hMAO-B) enzyme using benzylamine-sulphonamide derivatives. Using various chemical modifications on BB-4h, which was reported previously by our team and showed a significant level of MAO-B inhibition, novel benzylamine-sulphonamide derivatives were designed, synthesised, and their MAO inhibition potentials were evaluated. Among the tested derivatives, compounds 4i and 4t achieved IC₅₀ values of 0.041 ± 0.001 µM and 0.065 ± 0.002 µM, respectively. The mechanism of hMAO-B inhibition by compounds 4i and 4t was studied using Lineweaver–Burk plot. The nature of inhibition was also determined to be non-competitive. Cytotoxicity tests were conducted and compounds 4i and 4t were found to be non-toxic. Molecular docking studies were also carried out for compound 4i, which was found as the most potent agent, within hMAO-B catalytic site.

A Fully Integrated Assay Panel for Early Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Profiling

Evaluation and optimization of physicochemical and metabolic properties of compounds are a crucial component of the drug development process. Continuous access to this information during the design-make-test-analysis cycle enables identification of chemical entities with suitable properties for efficient project progression. In this study, we describe an integrated and automated assay panel (DMPK Wave 1) that informs weekly on lipophilicity, solubility, human plasma protein binding, and metabolic stability in rat hepatocytes and human liver microsomes. All assays are running in 96-well format with ultraperformance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS)/MS as read-out. A streamlined overall workflow has been developed by optimizing all parts of the process, including shipping of compounds between sites, use of fit-for-purpose equipment and information systems, and technology for compound requesting, data analysis, and reporting. As a result, lead times can be achieved that well match project demands across sites independently of where compounds are synthesized. This robust screening strategy is run on a weekly basis and enables optimization of structure-activity relationships in parallel with DMPK properties to allow efficient and informed decision making.

Description of Druglike Properties of Safranal and Its Chemistry behind Low Oral Exposure

Safranal, a plant secondary metabolite isolated from saffron, has been reported for several promising pharmacological properties toward the management of Alzheimer's disease. In the present study, we observe and report for the first time about several druglike attributes of safranal, such as adherence to Lipinski's rule of five; optimum lipophilicity; high permeability; low blood-to-plasma ratio; less to moderate propensity to interact with P-glycoprotein (P-gp) or breast cancer-resistant protein (BCRP) transporters; and high plasma protein binding as common to most of the marketed drugs using in vitro and ex vivo models. In spite of the above attributes, in vivo oral absorption was found to be very poor, which is linked to the structural integrity of safranal in simulated gastric fluid, simulated intestinal fluid, plasma, and liver microsomes. Moreover, the presence of unsaturated aldehyde moiety in safranal remains in equilibrium with its hydroxylated acetal form. Further research work is required to find out the stable oral absorbable form of safranal by derivatization of its aldehyde group without losing its potency.

Synthesis, Pharmacological Characterization, and Structure-Activity Relationships of Noncanonical Selective Agonists for α7 nAChRs

A lack of selectivity of classical agonists for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) has prompted us to identify and develop a distinct scaffold of α7 nAChR-selective ligands. Noncanonical 2,4,6-substituted pyrimidine analogues were framed around compound 40 for a structure-activity relationship study. The new lead compounds activate selectively the α7 nAChRs with EC₅₀'s between 30 and 140 nM in a PNU-120596-dependent, cell-based calcium influx assay. After characterizing the expanded lead landscape, we ranked the compounds for rapid activation using Xenopus oocytes expressing human α7 nAChR with a two-electrode voltage clamp. This approach enabled us to define the molecular determinants governing rapid activation, agonist potency, and desensitization of α7 nAChRs after exposure to pyrimidine analogues, thereby distinguishing this subclass of noncanonical agonists from previously defined types of agonists (agonists, partial agonists, silent agonists, and ago-PAMs). By NMR, we analyzed pK_a values for ionization of lead candidates, demonstrating distinctive modes of interaction for this landscape of ligands.

Accelerated robotic discovery of type II porous liquids

High-throughput automation was used to streamline the synthesis, characterisation, and solubility testing, of new Type II porous liquids, accelerating their discovery.

Porous liquids are an emerging class of materials and to date little is known about how to best design their properties. For example, bulky solvents are required that are size-excluded from the pores in the liquid, along with high concentrations of the porous component, but both of these factors may also contribute to higher viscosities, which are undesirable. Hence, the inherent multivariate nature of porous liquids makes them amenable to high-throughput optimisation strategies. Here we develop a high-throughput robotic workflow, encompassing the synthesis, characterisation and property testing of highly-soluble, vertex-disordered porous organic cages dissolved in a range of cavity-excluded solvents. As a result, we identified 29 cage–solvent combinations that combine both higher cage-cavity concentrations and more acceptable carrier solvents than the best previous examples. The most soluble materials gave three times the pore concentration of the best previously reported scrambled cage porous liquid, as demonstrated by increased gas uptake. We were also able to explore alternative methods for gas capture and release, including liberation of the gas by increasing the temperature. We also found that porous liquids can form gels at higher concentrations, trapping the gas in the pores, which could have potential applications in gas storage and transportation.

Using Physicochemical Measurements to Influence Better Compound Design

During the past decade, the physicochemical quality of molecules under investigation at all stages of the drug discovery process has come under particular scrutiny. The issues associated with excessive lipophilicity and poor solubility in particular are many and varied, ranging from poor outcomes in screening campaigns to promiscuity, limited and/or poorly predictable pharmacokinetic exposure, and, ultimately, greater chances of clinical failure. In this review, contemporary methods to secure key measurements are described along with their relevance to understanding the behavior of molecules in environments pertinent to pharmacological activity. Together, the various measurements contribute to predictive models of both the physicochemical properties themselves and the outcomes they influence.

Tailored therapeutics based on 1,2,3-1H-triazoles: a mini review

Contemporary drug discovery approaches rely on library synthesis coupled with combinatorial methods and high-throughput screening to identify leads. However, due to the multitude of components involved, a majority of optimization techniques face persistent challenges related to the efficiency of synthetic processes and the purity of compound libraries. These methods have recently found an upgradation as fragment-based approaches for target-guided synthesis of lead molecules with active involvement of their biological target. The click chemistry approach serves as a promising tool for tailoring the therapeutically relevant biomolecules of interest, improving their bioavailability and bioactivity and redirecting them as efficacious drugs. 1,2,3-1H-Triazole nucleus, being a planar and biologically acceptable scaffold, plays a crucial role in the design of biomolecular mimetics and tailor-made molecules with therapeutic relevance. This versatile scaffold also forms an integral part of the current fragment-based approaches for drug design, kinetic target guided synthesis and bioorthogonal methodologies.

Is the Oil | Water Interface the Simplest and Best Suited Model for Understanding Biomembranes?

Many studies have been conducted by using the oil (O) | water (W) interface as a simple model for understanding ion transfer (IT) or electron transfer (ET) across biomembranes. In this review, we revisit the usability of the O | W interface as a biomembrane model. For understanding biomembrane IT, the O | W interface is the simplest and best suited model. For example, the standard Gibbs transfer energy of drug ions at the O | W interface is a useful measure for evaluating their membrane permeability in a conventional in vitro assay, called PAMPA. However, the O | W interface is not necessarily a good model for understanding biomembrane ET. This is because no net current can be observed with the O | W interface, owing to the ET-coupled proton transfer. In such a case, the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) formed on a metal electrode serves as a better model for understanding biomembrane ET.

High-throughput paper spray mass spectrometry via induced voltage

RATIONALE

Paper spray (PS) has been developed as a method of choice for point-of-care analysis in many real cases, where its applications can be further expanded with delicate high-throughput design. To achieve this goal, we developed a new PS regime, with the assembly of an induced high voltage into the ion source. Compared with regular DC high voltage, the newly developed setup is capable of high-throughput, simple configuration and rapid switching between individual papers without complicated electric/mechanic design.

METHODS

A device of high-throughput induced PS (IPS) was designed by using a two-dimensional (2D) rotating platform equipped with a circular glass plate. The paper substrate was placed on the circular glass plate and separated from the electrode. The method avoids physical contact between the electrode and the sample. Charged droplets were generated at the paper tip once an induced high voltage was applied to a wet paper.

RESULTS

A relatively rapid analytical speed of 2.6 s per sample was achieved via IPS-MS. Rapid quantification of amitriptyline (AMT) in complicated matrices was obtained within 1 min using an isotope internal standard method. Limits of detection for AMt in urine, FBS and blood were calculated to be 1.04, 0.84 and 1.33 ng/mL, respectively. In addition, high-throughput IPS-MS can be used for chemical reaction monitoring.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated the versatility of high-throughput IPS-MS in ambient ionization, which successfully simplified the experimental installation and facilitated the experimental operation. Therefore, we believe that high-throughput IPS-MS analysis will be widely used for discovering drugs and screening reactions, and the present design has the potential for applications in paper chip-MS analysis.

Development and Validation of Liquid Chromatography-Based Methods to Assess the Lipophilicity of Cytotoxic Platinum(IV) Complexes

Lipophilicity is a crucial parameter for drug discovery, usually determined by the logarithmic partition coefficient (Log P) between octanol and water. However, the available detection methods have restricted the widespread use of the partition coefficient in inorganic medicinal chemistry, and recent investigations have shifted towards chromatographic lipophilicity parameters, frequently without a conversion to derive Log P. As high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) instruments are readily available to research groups, a HPLC-based method is presented and validated to derive the partition coefficient of a set of 19 structurally diverse and cytotoxic platinum(IV) complexes exhibiting a dynamic range of at least four orders of magnitude. The chromatographic lipophilicity parameters φ0 and Log kw were experimentally determined for the same set of compounds, and a correlation was obtained that allows interconversion between the two lipophilicity scales, which was applied to an additional set of 34 platinum(IV) drug candidates. Thereby, a φ0 = 58 corresponds to Log P = 0. The same approaches were successfully evaluated to determine the distribution coefficient (Log D) of five ionisable platinum(IV) compounds to sample pH-dependent effects on the lipophilicity. This study provides straight-forward HPLC-based methods to determine the lipophilicity of cytotoxic platinum(IV) complexes in the form of Log P and φ0 that can be interconverted and easily expanded to other metal-based compound classes.

Determining molecular properties with differential mobility spectrometry and machine learning

The fast and accurate determination of molecular properties is highly desirable for many facets of chemical research, particularly in drug discovery where pre-clinical assays play an important role in paring down large sets of drug candidates. Here, we present the use of supervised machine learning to treat differential mobility spectrometry - mass spectrometry data for ten topological classes of drug candidates. We demonstrate that the gas-phase clustering behavior probed in our experiments can be used to predict the candidates' condensed phase molecular properties, such as cell permeability, solubility, polar surface area, and water/octanol distribution coefficient. All of these measurements are performed in minutes and require mere nanograms of each drug examined. Moreover, by tuning gas temperature within the differential mobility spectrometer, one can fine tune the extent of ion-solvent clustering to separate subtly different molecular geometries and to discriminate molecules of very similar physicochemical properties.

Rapid experimental measurements of physicochemical properties to inform models and testing

The structures and physicochemical properties of chemicals are important for determining their potential toxicological effects, toxicokinetics, and route(s) of exposure. These data are needed to prioritize the risk for thousands of environmental chemicals, but experimental values are often lacking. In an attempt to efficiently fill data gaps in physicochemical property information, we generated new data for 200 structurally diverse compounds, which were rigorously selected from the USEPA ToxCast chemical library, and whose structures are available within the Distributed Structure-Searchable Toxicity Database (DSSTox). This pilot study evaluated rapid experimental methods to determine five physicochemical properties, including the log of the octanol:water partition coefficient (known as log(Kow) or logP), vapor pressure, water solubility, Henry's law constant, and the acid dissociation constant (pKa). For most compounds, experiments were successful for at least one property; log(Kow) yielded the largest return (176 values). It was determined that 77 ToxPrint structural features were enriched in chemicals with at least one measurement failure, indicating which features may have played a role in rapid method failures. To gauge consistency with traditional measurement methods, the new measurements were compared with previous measurements (where available). Since quantitative structure-activity/property relationship (QSAR/QSPR) models are used to fill gaps in physicochemical property information, 5 suites of QSPRs were evaluated for their predictive ability and chemical coverage or applicability domain of new experimental measurements. The ability to have accurate measurements of these properties will facilitate better exposure predictions in two ways: 1) direct input of these experimental measurements into exposure models; and 2) construction of QSPRs with a wider applicability domain, as their predicted physicochemical values can be used to parameterize exposure models in the absence of experimental data.

Brief overview of solubility methods: Recent trends in equilibrium solubility measurement and predictive models

Solubility is a crucial physicochemical parameter affecting the whole process of drug discovery and development. Thus, understanding of the methods and concepts to measure and predict this propensity are of utmost importance for the pharmaceutical scientist. Despite their inherent limitations, kinetic solubility screening methods became routine assays by mimicking bioassay conditions and guiding the lead optimization process. In contrast, thermodynamic solubility methods show a clear evolution: miniaturized high throughput assays coupled to analytical techniques such as solid-state characterization, ultra performance liquid chromatography, or polychromatic turbidimetry, have been developed, thereby enabling a more complex physicochemical profiling at the early discovery stage. Solubility prediction still poses a significant challenge at the industrial level. Classification and critical evaluation of recent in silico models are provided. Discussion of experimental and computational methods: was based on relevant industrial references.

Salt formation improved the properties of a candidate drug during early formulation development

The purpose of this study was to investigate if AZD5329, a dual neurokinin NK1/2 receptor antagonist, is a suitable candidate for further development as an oral immediate release (IR) solid dosage form as a final product. The neutral form of AZD5329 has only been isolated as amorphous material. In order to search for a solid material with improved physical and chemical stability and more suitable solid-state properties, a salt screen was performed. Crystalline material of a maleic acid salt and a fumaric acid salt of AZD5329 were obtained. X-ray powder diffractiometry, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic vapor sorption were used to investigate the physicochemical characteristics of the two salts. The fumarate salt of AZD5329 is anhydrous, the crystallization is reproducible and the hygroscopicity is acceptable. Early polymorphism assessment work using slurry technique did not reveal any better crystal modification or crystallinity for the fumarate salt. For the maleate salt, the form isolated originally was found to be a solvate, but an anhydrous form was found in later experiments; by suspension in water or acetone, by drying of the solvate to 100-120 °C or by subjecting the solvate form to conditions of 40 °C/75%RH for 3 months. The dissolution behavior and the chemical stability (in aqueous solutions, formulations and solid-state) of both salts were also studied and found to be satisfactory. The compound displays sensitivity to low pH, and the salt of the maleic acid, which is the stronger acid, shows more degradation during stability studies, in line with this observation. The presented data indicate that the substance fulfils basic requirements for further development of an IR dosage form, based on the characterization on crystalline salts of AZD5329.

Accessing lipophilicity of drugs with biomimetic models: A comparative study using liposomes and micelles

Lipophilicity is a physicochemical property of crucial importance in drug discovery and drug design. Biomimetic models, such as liposomes and micelles, constitute a valuable tool for the assessment of lipophilicity through the determination of partition coefficients (log K_p). However, the lack of standardization hampers the judgment about which model or method has the best and broadest passive drug permeation predictive capacity. This work provides a comparative analysis between the methodologies based on biomimetic models to determine the partition coefficient (log K_p). For that purpose, a set of reference substances preconized by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines was used. The biomimetic models employed were liposomes and micelles composed by 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (DMPC) and hexadecylphosphocholine (HePC), respectively. Both lipids were used as representative phospholipids of natural membranes. The partition coefficients between biomimetic models and aqueous phases were determined by derivative spectroscopy at physiological conditions (37 °C and pH 7.4). The partition coefficients obtained using biomimetic models are quite different and more reliable than the ones obtained using an octanol/water system. Comparing the performance of the two biomimetic models, micelles revealed to be suitable only for substances with high molar absorption coefficient and log K_p > 3, but in general liposomes are the best model for accessing lipophilicity of drugs. Furthermore, a comparison between experimental data and the partition coefficients determined by the computational method COSMOmic is also provided and discussed. As a final summarizing result, a decision tree is provided in order to guide the selection of a tool for assessing the lipophilicity of drugs.

Development and validation of a highly sensitive LC-ESI-MS/MS method for estimation of IIIM-MCD-211, a novel nitrofuranyl methyl piperazine derivative with potential activity against tuberculosis: Application to drug development

In the present study, a simple, sensitive, specific and rapid liquid chromatography (LC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) method was developed and validated according to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines for estimation of IIIM-MCD-211 (a potent oral candidate with promising action against tuberculosis) in mice plasma using carbamazepine as internal standard (IS). Bioanalytical method consisted of one step protein precipitation for sample preparation followed by quantitation in LC-MS/MS using positive electrospray ionization technique (ESI) operating in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Elution was achieved in gradient mode on High Resolution Chromolith RP-18e column with mobile phase comprised of acetonitrile and 0.1% (v/v) formic acid in water at the flow rate of 0.4mL/min. Precursor to product ion transitions (m/z 344.5/218.4 and m/z 237.3/194.2) were used to measure analyte and IS, respectively. All validation parameters were well within the limit of acceptance criteria. The method was successfully applied to assess the pharmacokinetics of the candidate in mice following oral (10mg/kg) and intravenous (IV; 2.5mg/kg) administration. It was also effectively used to quantitate metabolic stability of the compound in mouse liver microsomes (MLM) and human liver microsomes (HLM) followed by its in-vitro-in-vivo extrapolation.

Aqueous Solubility Enhancement for Bioassays of Insoluble Inhibitors and QSPR Analysis: A TNF-α Study

The aim of this study is to improve the aqueous solubility of a group of compounds without interfering with their bioassay as well as to create a relevant prediction model. A series of 55 potential small-molecule inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α; SPD304 and 54 analogues), many of which cannot be bioassayed because of their poor solubility, was used for this purpose. The solubility of many of the compounds was sufficiently improved to allow measurement of their respective dissociation constants (K_d). Parameters such as dissolution time, initial state of the solute (solid/liquid), co-solvent addition (DMSO and PEG3350), and sample filtration were evaluated. Except for filtration, the remaining parameters affected aqueous solubility, and a solubilization protocol was established according to these. The aqueous solubility of the 55 compounds in 5% DMSO was measured with this protocol, and a predictive quantitative structure property relationship model was developed and fully validated based on these data. This classification model separates the insoluble from the soluble compounds and predicts the solubility of potential small-molecule inhibitors of TNF-α in aqueous solution (containing 5% DMSO as co-solvent) with an accuracy of 81.2%. The domain of applicability of the model indicates the type of compounds for which estimation of aqueous solubility can be confidently predicted.

Assessing Physicochemical Properties of Drug Molecules via Microsolvation Measurements with Differential Mobility Spectrometry

The microsolvated state of a molecule, represented by its interactions with only a small number of solvent molecules, can play a key role in determining the observable bulk properties of the molecule. This is especially true in cases where strong local hydrogen bonding exists between the molecule and the solvent. One method that can probe the microsolvated states of charged molecules is differential mobility spectrometry (DMS), which rapidly interrogates an ion's transitions between a solvated and desolvated state in the gas phase (i.e., few solvent molecules present). However, can the results of DMS analyses of a class of molecules reveal information about the bulk physicochemical properties of those species? Our findings presented here show that DMS behaviors correlate strongly with the measured solution phase pK_a and pK_b values, and cell permeabilities of a set of structurally related drug molecules, even yielding high-resolution discrimination between isomeric forms of these drugs. This is due to DMS's ability to separate species based upon only subtle (yet predictable) changes in structure: the same subtle changes that can influence isomers' different bulk properties. Using 2-methylquinolin-8-ol as the core structure, we demonstrate how DMS shows promise for rapidly and sensitively probing the physicochemical properties of molecules, with particular attention paid to drug candidates at the early stage of drug development. This study serves as a foundation upon which future drug molecules of different structural classes could be examined.

Automated Solubility Determination Using a Customized Robotic System and a Turbidity Probe

In chemical development, broad knowledge of solubilities of all reactants, reagents, and products is important because these data are needed for cleaning operations of multipurpose equipment in pilot and production plants. A fully automated workflow on a high-throughput robotic system for determination of solid material solubility in different aqueous and organic solvents is described. Automated solid dispensing, weighing, and solvent addition are performed followed by direct measurement of turbidity with an integrated three-wavelength turbidity probe. Finally, a report is generated containing all solubility information of the solid in a clearly arranged manner. (JALA 2005;10:408–11)

High-Throughput Measurement of Drug pKa Values for ADME Screening

Combinatorial chemistry is now widely used to synthesize large numbers of new chemical entities. New methods have been developed for early-stage pharma-cokinetic tests, to help decide which molecules have the properties required to make them efficacious and successful in the marketplace. Of the various physicochemical tests that are used to assess ADME, pKa (aqueous ionization constant) is the key to understanding how other properties will be affected by pH. A new method is described for rapid measurement of pKa of samples drawn from 96 well DMSO stock solutions.

A System for Dispensing Sub-Milligram Doses of Active Pharmaceutical Powders for Early Stage Solubility Assays

At early stages of drug development, the solubility of compounds is an important screening criterion. However, because scientists lack the automated tools needed to perform comprehensive early stage solubility studies, they are only able to perform a small number of experiments by hand, thus exploring only a fraction of the potential formulation design space. To allow a larger formulation design space to be explored at relatively early stages of pharmaceutical development (when 100 mg of a prototype compound is available), TransForm has created the AquaSFinX™ and SFinX™ micro-solubility platforms. In this article, a novel solid deposition system is described which is an enabling component of TransForm's solubility platforms. Given 100 mg of a starting material, the deposition system can dispense over six hundred 50-μg plugs of powder into 384-well or 1,536-well plates with well openings as small as 1.5 mm. Currently no commercial powder deposition system can provide this functionality. Including the time required to characterize and run the system, the dispense times range from around 2 minutes per dose for small runs involving 100 mg of starting material, to 18 seconds per dose for larger runs involving a gram or more of starting material.

Evaluation of the artificial membrane permeability of drugs by digital simulation

A digital simulation method has been developed for evaluating the membrane permeability of drugs in the parallel artificial membrane permeation assay (PAMPA). The simulation results have shown that the permeability coefficient (log Ppampa) of drugs is linearly increased with increasing their distribution coefficient (log KD,M) to the lipid membrane, i.e., the hydrophobicity of the drug molecules. However, log Ppampa shows signs of leveling off for highly hydrophobic drugs. Such a dependence of log Ppampa is in harmony with the reported experimental data, and has been well explained in terms of the change in the rate-determining step from the diffusion in the membrane to that in the unstirred water layer (UWL) on both sides of the membrane. Additionally, the effects of several factors, including lag time, diffusion coefficient, pH, and pKa, on the permeability coefficient have been well simulated. It has thus been suggested that the proposed method should be promising for in silico evaluation of the membrane permeability of drugs.