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Kumar S, Behl T, Sehgal A, Chigurupati S, Singh S, Mani V, Aldubayan M, Alhowail A, Kaur S, Bhatia S, Al-Harrasi A, Subramaniyan V, Fuloria S, Fuloria NK, Sekar M, Abdel Daim MM. Exploring the focal role of LRRK2 kinase in Parkinson's disease. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:32368-32382. [PMID: 35147886 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-19082-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The major breakthroughs in our knowledge of how biology plays a role in Parkinson's disease (PD) have opened up fresh avenues designed to know the pathogenesis of disease and identify possible therapeutic targets. Mitochondrial abnormal functioning is a key cellular feature in the pathogenesis of PD. An enzyme, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), involved in both the idiopathic and familial PD risk, is a therapeutic target. LRRK2 has a link to the endolysosomal activity. Enhanced activity of the LRRK2 kinase, endolysosomal abnormalities and aggregation of autophagic vesicles with imperfectly depleted substrates, such as α-synuclein, are all seen in the substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons in PD. Despite the fact that LRRK2 is involved in endolysosomal and autophagic activity, it is undefined if inhibiting LRRK2 kinase activity will prevent endolysosomal dysfunction or minimise the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. The inhibitor's capability of LRRK2 kinase to inhibit endolysosomal and neuropathological alterations in human PD indicates that LRRK2 inhibitors could have significant therapeutic usefulness in PD. G2019S is perhaps the maximum common mutation in PD subjects. Even though LRRK2's well-defined structure has still not been established, numerous LRRK2 inhibitors have been discovered. This review summarises the role of LRRK2 kinase in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Kumar
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India.
| | - Tapan Behl
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India
| | - Aayush Sehgal
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India
| | - Sridevi Chigurupati
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Sukhbir Singh
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India
| | - Vasudevan Mani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Maha Aldubayan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Alhowail
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Satvinder Kaur
- GHG Khalsa College of Pharmacy, Gurusar Sadhar, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
| | - Saurabh Bhatia
- Natural & Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman
- School of Health Science, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Ahmed Al-Harrasi
- Natural & Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman
| | | | - Shivkanya Fuloria
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Centre of Excellence for Biomaterials Engineering, AIMST University, Bedon, Kedah, Malaysia
| | - Neeraj Kumar Fuloria
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Centre of Excellence for Biomaterials Engineering, AIMST University, Bedon, Kedah, Malaysia
| | - Mahendran Sekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistrty, Faculty of Pharmacy and Health Science, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Royal College of Medicine Perak, Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Mohamed M Abdel Daim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmacy Program, Batterjee Medical College, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
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Boas SM, Joyce KL, Cowell RM. The NRF2-Dependent Transcriptional Regulation of Antioxidant Defense Pathways: Relevance for Cell Type-Specific Vulnerability to Neurodegeneration and Therapeutic Intervention. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 11:antiox11010008. [PMID: 35052512 PMCID: PMC8772787 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress has been implicated in the etiology and pathobiology of various neurodegenerative diseases. At baseline, the cells of the nervous system have the capability to regulate the genes for antioxidant defenses by engaging nuclear factor erythroid 2 (NFE2/NRF)-dependent transcriptional mechanisms, and a number of strategies have been proposed to activate these pathways to promote neuroprotection. Here, we briefly review the biology of the transcription factors of the NFE2/NRF family in the brain and provide evidence for the differential cellular localization of NFE2/NRF family members in the cells of the nervous system. We then discuss these findings in the context of the oxidative stress observed in two neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson's disease (PD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and present current strategies for activating NFE2/NRF-dependent transcription. Based on the expression of the NFE2/NRF family members in restricted populations of neurons and glia, we propose that, when designing strategies to engage these pathways for neuroprotection, the relative contributions of neuronal and non-neuronal cell types to the overall oxidative state of tissue should be considered, as well as the cell types which have the greatest intrinsic capacity for producing antioxidant enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Boas
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, 2000 9th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35205, USA; (S.M.B.); (K.L.J.)
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 2nd Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Kathlene L. Joyce
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, 2000 9th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35205, USA; (S.M.B.); (K.L.J.)
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 2nd Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Rita M. Cowell
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, 2000 9th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35205, USA; (S.M.B.); (K.L.J.)
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 2nd Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
- Correspondence:
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Constitutive silencing of LRRK2 kinase activity leads to early glucocerebrosidase deregulation and late impairment of autophagy in vivo. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 159:105487. [PMID: 34419621 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are associated with Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 modulates the autophagy-lysosome pathway (ALP), a clearance process subserving the quality control of cellular proteins and organelles. Since dysfunctional ALP might lead to α-synuclein accumulation and, hence, Parkinson's disease, LRRK2 kinase modulation of ALP, its age-dependence and relation with pSer129 α-synuclein inclusions were investigated in vivo. Striatal ALP markers were analyzed by Western blotting in 3, 12 and 20-month-old LRRK2 G2019S knock-in mice (bearing enhanced kinase activity), LRRK2 knock-out mice, LRRK2 D1994S knock-in (kinase-dead) mice and wild-type controls. The lysosomotropic agent chloroquine was used to investigate the autophagic flux in vivo. Quantitative Real-time PCR was used to quantify the transcript levels of key ALP genes. The activity of the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase was measured using enzymatic assay. Immunohistochemistry was used to co-localize LC3B puncta with pSer129 α-synuclein inclusion in striatal and nigral neurons. No genotype differences in ALP markers were observed at 3 months. Conversely, increase of LC3-I, p62, LAMP2 and GAPDH levels, decrease of p-mTOR levels and downregulation of mTOR and TFEB expression was observed in 12-month-old kinase-dead mice. The LC3-II/I ratio was reduced following administration of chloroquine, suggesting a defective autophagic flux. G2019S knock-in mice showed LAMP2 accumulation and downregulation of ALP key genes MAP1LC3B, LAMP2, mTOR, TFEB and GBA1. Subacute administration of the LRRK2 kinase inhibitor MLi-2 in wild-type and G2019S knock-in mice did not replicate the pattern of kinase-dead mice. Lysosomal glucocerebrosidase activity was increased in 3 and 12-month-old knock-out and kinase-dead mice. LC3B puncta accumulation and pSer129 α-synuclein inclusions were dissociated in striatal neurons of kinase-dead and G2019S knock-in mice. We conclude that constitutive LRRK2 kinase silencing results in early deregulation of GCase activity followed by late impairment of macroautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy.
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LIM-Kinases in Synaptic Plasticity, Memory, and Brain Diseases. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082079. [PMID: 34440848 PMCID: PMC8391678 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning and memory require structural and functional modifications of synaptic connections, and synaptic deficits are believed to underlie many brain disorders. The LIM-domain-containing protein kinases (LIMK1 and LIMK2) are key regulators of the actin cytoskeleton by affecting the actin-binding protein, cofilin. In addition, LIMK1 is implicated in the regulation of gene expression by interacting with the cAMP-response element-binding protein. Accumulating evidence indicates that LIMKs are critically involved in brain function and dysfunction. In this paper, we will review studies on the roles and underlying mechanisms of LIMKs in the regulation of long-term potentiation (LTP) and depression (LTD), the most extensively studied forms of long-lasting synaptic plasticity widely regarded as cellular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. We will also discuss the involvement of LIMKs in the regulation of the dendritic spine, the structural basis of synaptic plasticity, and memory formation. Finally, we will discuss recent progress on investigations of LIMKs in neurological and mental disorders, including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Williams–Beuren syndrome, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorders.
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5
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Oliveira SR, Dionísio PA, Gaspar MM, Correia Guedes L, Coelho M, Rosa MM, Ferreira JJ, Amaral JD, Rodrigues CMP. miR-335 Targets LRRK2 and Mitigates Inflammation in Parkinson's Disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:661461. [PMID: 34211970 PMCID: PMC8239393 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.661461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is mainly driven by dopaminergic neuronal degeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta accompanied by chronic neuroinflammation. Despite being mainly sporadic, approximately 10% of all cases are defined as heritable forms of PD, with mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase (LRRK2) gene being the most frequent known cause of familial PD. MicroRNAs (miRNAs or miRs), including miR-335, are frequently deregulated in neurodegenerative diseases, such as PD. Here, we aimed to dissect the protective role of miR-335 during inflammation and/or neurodegenerative events in experimental models of PD. Our results showed that miR-335 is significantly downregulated in different PD-mimicking conditions, including BV2 microglia cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and/or overexpressing wild-type LRRK2. Importantly, these results were confirmed in serum of mice injected with 1-methyl-1-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydripyridine hydrochloride (MPTP), and further validated in patients with idiopathic PD (iPD) and those harboring mutations in LRRK2 (LRRK2-PD), thus corroborating potential clinical relevance. Mechanistically, miR-335 directly targeted LRRK2 mRNA. In the BV2 and N9 microglia cell lines, miR-335 strongly counteracted LPS-induced proinflammatory gene expression, and downregulated receptor interacting protein 1 (RIP1) and RIP3, two important players of necroptotic and inflammatory signaling pathways. Further, miR-335 inhibited LPS-mediated ERK1/2 activation. LRRK2-Wt-induced proinflammatory gene expression was also significantly reduced by miR-335 overexpression. Finally, in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, miR-335 decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory genes triggered by α-synuclein. In conclusion, we revealed novel roles for miR-335 in both microglia and neuronal cells that strongly halt the effects of classical inflammatory stimuli or LRRK2-Wt overexpression, thus attenuating chronic neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara R Oliveira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Pedro A Dionísio
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria M Gaspar
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Leonor Correia Guedes
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.,Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Neurology, Hospital de Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Miguel Coelho
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.,Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Neurology, Hospital de Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Mário M Rosa
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.,Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Neurology, Hospital de Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal.,Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joaquim J Ferreira
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.,Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana D Amaral
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Cecília M P Rodrigues
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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Razali K, Othman N, Mohd Nasir MH, Doolaanea AA, Kumar J, Ibrahim WN, Mohamed Ibrahim N, Mohamed WMY. The Promise of the Zebrafish Model for Parkinson's Disease: Today's Science and Tomorrow's Treatment. Front Genet 2021; 12:655550. [PMID: 33936174 PMCID: PMC8082503 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.655550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly is Parkinson's disease (PD). Its etiology is unclear and there are no available disease-modifying medicines. Therefore, more evidence is required concerning its pathogenesis. The use of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is the basis of most animal models of PD. MPTP is metabolized by monoamine oxidase B (MAO B) to MPP + and induces the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in mammals. Zebrafish have been commonly used in developmental biology as a model organism, but owing to its perfect mix of properties, it is now emerging as a model for human diseases. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are cheap and easy to sustain, evolve rapidly, breed transparent embryos in large amounts, and are readily manipulated by different methods, particularly genetic ones. Furthermore, zebrafish are vertebrate species and mammalian findings obtained from zebrafish may be more applicable than those derived from genetic models of invertebrates such as Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans. The resemblance cannot be taken for granted, however. The goal of the present review article is to highlight the promise of zebrafish as a PD animal model. As its aminergic structures, MPTP mode of action, and PINK1 roles mimic those of mammalians, zebrafish seems to be a viable model for studying PD. The roles of zebrafish MAO, however, vary from those of the two types of MAO present in mammals. The benefits unique to zebrafish, such as the ability to perform large-scale genetic or drug screens, should be exploited in future experiments utilizing zebrafish PD models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khairiah Razali
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyyah of Medicine, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuantan, Malaysia
| | - Noratikah Othman
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyyah of Nursing, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuantan, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Hamzah Mohd Nasir
- Central Research and Animal Facility (CREAM), Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuantan, Malaysia
| | - Abd Almonem Doolaanea
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuantan, Malaysia
| | - Jaya Kumar
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, UKM Medical Centre (UKMMC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Wisam Nabeel Ibrahim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
- Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Research Unit, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Wael M. Y. Mohamed
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyyah of Medicine, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuantan, Malaysia
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Menoufia Medical School, Menoufia University, Menoufia, Egypt
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7
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Anasamy T, Chee CF, Wong YF, Heh CH, Kiew LV, Lee HB, Chung LY. Triorganotin complexes in cancer chemotherapy: Mechanistic insights and future perspectives. Appl Organomet Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/aoc.6089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Theebaa Anasamy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Chin Fei Chee
- Nanotechnology and Catalysis Research Centre University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Yuen Fei Wong
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Choon Han Heh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Lik Voon Kiew
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Hong Boon Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences Taylor's University Subang Jaya Selangor Malaysia
| | - Lip Yong Chung
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
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Thayer JA, Awad O, Hegdekar N, Sarkar C, Tesfay H, Burt C, Zeng X, Feldman RA, Lipinski MM. The PARK10 gene USP24 is a negative regulator of autophagy and ULK1 protein stability. Autophagy 2019; 16:140-153. [PMID: 30957634 PMCID: PMC6984603 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2019.1598754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies indicate a causative relationship between defects in autophagy and dopaminergic neuron degeneration in Parkinson disease (PD). However, it is not fully understood how autophagy is regulated in the context of PD. Here we identify USP24 (ubiquitin specific peptidase 24), a gene located in the PARK10 (Parkinson disease 10 [susceptibility]) locus associated with late onset PD, as a novel negative regulator of autophagy. Our data indicate that USP24 regulates autophagy by affecting ubiquitination and stability of the ULK1 protein. Knockdown of USP24 in cell lines and in human induced-pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) differentiated into dopaminergic neurons resulted in elevated ULK1 protein levels and increased autophagy flux in a manner independent of MTORC1 but dependent on the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) activity. Surprisingly, USP24 knockdown also improved neurite extension and/or maintenance in aged iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, we observed elevated levels of USP24 in the substantia nigra of a subpopulation of idiopathic PD patients, suggesting that USP24 may negatively regulate autophagy in PD. Abbreviations: Bafilomycin/BafA: bafilomycin A1; DUB: deubiquitinating enzyme; iPSC: induced pluripotent stem cells; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; MTORC1: MTOR complex 1; nt: non-targeting; PD: Parkinson disease; p-ATG13: phospho-ATG13; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate; RPS6: ribosomal protein S6; SNPs: single nucleotide polymorphisms; TH: tyrosine hydroxylase; USP24: ubiquitin specific peptidase 24
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Thayer
- Department of Anesthesiology & Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ola Awad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Nivedita Hegdekar
- Department of Anesthesiology & Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Chinmoy Sarkar
- Department of Anesthesiology & Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Henok Tesfay
- Department of Anesthesiology & Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Cameran Burt
- Department of Anesthesiology & Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Marta M Lipinski
- Department of Anesthesiology & Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Kim J, Pajarillo E, Rizor A, Son DS, Lee J, Aschner M, Lee E. LRRK2 kinase plays a critical role in manganese-induced inflammation and apoptosis in microglia. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210248. [PMID: 30645642 PMCID: PMC6333340 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term exposure to elevated levels of manganese (Mn) causes manganism, a neurodegenerative disorder with Parkinson's disease (PD)-like symptoms. Increasing evidence suggests that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), which is highly expressed in microglia and macrophages, contributes to the inflammation and neurotoxicity seen in autosomal dominant and sporadic PD. As gene-environment interactions have emerged as important modulators of PD-associated toxicity, LRRK2 may also mediate Mn-induced inflammation and pathogenesis. In this study, we investigated the role of LRRK2 in Mn-induced toxicity using human microglial cells (HMC3), LRRK2-wild-type (WT) and LRRK2-knockout (KO) RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Results showed that Mn activated LRRK2 kinase by phosphorylation of its serine residue at the 1292 position (S1292) as a marker of its kinase activity in macrophage and microglia, while inhibition with GSK2578215A (GSK) and MLi-2 abolished Mn-induced LRRK2 activation. LRRK2 deletion and its pharmacological inhibition attenuated Mn-induced apoptosis in macrophages and microglia, along with concomitant decreases in the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) protein. LRRK2 deletion also attenuated Mn-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. Mn-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 and ERK signaling proteins was significantly attenuated in LRRK2 KO cells and GSK-treated cells. Moreover, inhibition of MAPK p38 and ERK as well as LRRK2 attenuated Mn-induced oxidative stress and cytotoxicity. These findings suggest that LRRK2 kinase activity plays a critical role in Mn-induced toxicity via downstream activation of MAPK signaling in macrophage and microglia. Collectively, these results suggest that LRRK2 could be a potential molecular target for developing therapeutics to treat Mn-related neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judong Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Edward Pajarillo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Asha Rizor
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Deok-Soo Son
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Jayden Lee
- Department of Speech, Language & Hearing Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Eunsook Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
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Wauters L, Versées W, Kortholt A. Roco Proteins: GTPases with a Baroque Structure and Mechanism. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20010147. [PMID: 30609797 PMCID: PMC6337361 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20010147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a common cause of genetically inherited Parkinson’s Disease (PD). LRRK2 is a large, multi-domain protein belonging to the Roco protein family, a family of GTPases characterized by a central RocCOR (Ras of complex proteins/C-terminal of Roc) domain tandem. Despite the progress in characterizing the GTPase function of Roco proteins, there is still an ongoing debate concerning the working mechanism of Roco proteins in general, and LRRK2 in particular. This review consists of two parts. First, an overview is given of the wide evolutionary range of Roco proteins, leading to a variety of physiological functions. The second part focusses on the GTPase function of the RocCOR domain tandem central to the action of all Roco proteins, and progress in the understanding of its structure and biochemistry is discussed and reviewed. Finally, based on the recent work of our and other labs, a new working hypothesis for the mechanism of Roco proteins is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Wauters
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, NL-9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands.
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Wim Versées
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Arjan Kortholt
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, NL-9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands.
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11
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Kritzinger A, Ferger B, Gillardon F, Stierstorfer B, Birk G, Kochanek S, Ciossek T. Age-related pathology after adenoviral overexpression of the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 in the mouse striatum. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 66:97-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Rui Q, Ni H, Gao F, Dang B, Li D, Gao R, Chen G. LRRK2 Contributes to Secondary Brain Injury Through a p38/Drosha Signaling Pathway After Traumatic Brain Injury in Rats. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:51. [PMID: 29545743 PMCID: PMC5837969 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is widely expressed in the brain and exerts neurotoxicity in Parkinson's disease. The p38/Drosha signaling activation has been reported to increase cell death under stress. This study was designed to investigate the potential role and mechanism of LRRK2 in secondary brain injury after traumatic brain injury (TBI). A total of 130 male Sprague-Dawley rats were examined using a weight-drop model of TBI. The rats received the specific LRRK2 inhibitor PF-06447475 or LRRK2 pDNA alone or in combination with Drosha pDNA. Real-time PCR, western blot, immunofluorescence, neuronal apoptosis, brain water content, and neurological score analyses were conducted. Our results showed that after TBI, endogenous LRRK2 expression and p38 phosphorylation were increased, whereas Drosha expression was inhibited. Administration of the LRRK2 inhibitor PF-06447475 significantly reduced neuronal apoptosis, brain water content, and blood-brain barrier permeability 12 h after TBI and ameliorated neurological deficits 72 h after TBI, which was concomitant with decreased p38 phosphorylation and increased Drosha expression. Conversely, LRRK2 overexpression induced the opposite effect. Moreover, the neurotoxic effects of LRRK2 on TBI were also eliminated by Drosha overexpression. Altogether, these findings demonstrate the importance of TBI-induced LRRK2 upregulation during the induction of post-traumatic neurological injury, which may be partially mediated through a p38/Drosha signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Rui
- Department of Laboratory, The First People’s Hospital of Zhangjiagang, Suzhou, China
| | - Haibo Ni
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First People’s Hospital of Zhangjiagang, Suzhou, China
| | - Fan Gao
- Department of Rehabilitation, Zhangjiagang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Suzhou, China
| | - Baoqi Dang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Zhangjiagang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Suzhou, China
| | - Di Li
- Department of Translational Medicine Center, The First People’s Hospital of Zhangjiagang, Suzhou, China
| | - Rong Gao
- Department of Laboratory, The First People’s Hospital of Zhangjiagang, Suzhou, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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Jeong GR, Jang EH, Bae JR, Jun S, Kang HC, Park CH, Shin JH, Yamamoto Y, Tanaka-Yamamoto K, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Hur EM, Lee BD. Dysregulated phosphorylation of Rab GTPases by LRRK2 induces neurodegeneration. Mol Neurodegener 2018; 13:8. [PMID: 29439717 PMCID: PMC5811984 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-018-0240-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial and sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). Elevated kinase activity is associated with LRRK2 toxicity, but the substrates that mediate neurodegeneration remain poorly defined. Given the increasing evidence suggesting a role of LRRK2 in membrane and vesicle trafficking, here we systemically screened Rab GTPases, core regulators of vesicular dynamics, as potential substrates of LRRK2 and investigated the functional consequence of such phosphorylation in cells and in vivo. Methods In vitro LRRK2 kinase assay with forty-five purified human Rab GTPases was performed to identify Rab family proteins as substrates of LRRK2. We identified the phosphorylation site by tandem mass-spectrometry and confirmed it by assessing phosphorylation in the in vitro LRRK2 kinase assay and in cells. Effects of Rab phosphorylation on neurodegeneration were examined in primary cultures and in vivo by intracranial injection of adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) expressing wild-type or phosphomutants of Rab35. Results Our screening revealed that LRRK2 phosphorylated several Rab GTPases at a conserved threonine residue in the switch II region, and by using the kinase-inactive LRRK2-D1994A and the pathogenic LRRK2-G2019S along with Rab proteins in which the LRRK2 site was mutated, we verified that a subset of Rab proteins, including Rab35, were authentic substrates of LRRK2 both in vitro and in cells. We also showed that phosphorylation of Rab regulated GDP/GTP-binding property in cells. Moreover, in primary cortical neurons, mutation of the LRRK2 site in several Rabs caused neurotoxicity, which was most severely induced by phosphomutants of Rab35. Furthermore, intracranial injection of the AAV-Rab35 -T72A or AAV-Rab35-T72D into the substantia nigra substantially induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in vivo. Conclusions Here we show that a subset of Rab GTPases are authentic substrates of LRRK2 both in vitro and in cells. We also provide evidence that dysregulation of Rab phosphorylation in the LRRK2 site induces neurotoxicity in primary neurons and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in vivo. Our study suggests that Rab GTPases might mediate LRRK2 toxicity in the progression of PD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13024-018-0240-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ga Ram Jeong
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eun-Hae Jang
- Center for Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea.,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jae Ryul Bae
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Soyoung Jun
- Center for Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea.,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ho Chul Kang
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
| | | | - Joo-Ho Shin
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Single Cell Network Research Center, SungKyunKwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Yukio Yamamoto
- Center for Functional Connectomics, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Keiko Tanaka-Yamamoto
- Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea.,Center for Functional Connectomics, KIST, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neurodegeneration and Stem Cell Program, Institute for Cell Engineering and Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neurodegeneration and Stem Cell Program, Institute for Cell Engineering and Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Eun-Mi Hur
- Center for Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea. .,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul, South Korea. .,Division of Bio-Medical Science &Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Byoung Dae Lee
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea. .,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, South Korea.
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14
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Williams ET, Chen X, Moore DJ. VPS35, the Retromer Complex and Parkinson's Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2018; 7:219-233. [PMID: 28222538 PMCID: PMC5438477 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-161020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the vacuolar protein sorting 35 ortholog (VPS35) gene encoding a core component of the retromer complex, have recently emerged as a new cause of late-onset, autosomal dominant familial Parkinson’s disease (PD). A single missense mutation, AspD620Asn (D620N), has so far been unambiguously identified to cause PD in multiple individuals and families worldwide. The exact molecular mechanism(s) by which VPS35 mutations induce progressive neurodegeneration in PD are not yet known. Understanding these mechanisms, as well as the perturbed cellular pathways downstream of mutant VPS35, is important for the development of appropriate therapeutic strategies. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge surrounding VPS35 and its role in PD. We provide a critical discussion of the emerging data regarding the mechanisms underlying mutant VPS35-mediated neurodegeneration gleaned from genetic cell and animal models and highlight recent advances that may provide insight into the interplay between VPS35 and several other PD-linked gene products (i.e. α-synuclein, LRRK2 and parkin) in PD. Present data support a role for perturbed VPS35 and retromer function in the pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin T Williams
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA.,Van Andel Institute Graduate School, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Xi Chen
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Darren J Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
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15
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Nguyen APT, Daniel G, Valdés P, Islam MS, Schneider BL, Moore DJ. G2019S LRRK2 enhances the neuronal transmission of tau in the mouse brain. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 27:120-134. [PMID: 29088368 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene cause late-onset, autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 mutations typically give rise to Lewy pathology in the brains of PD subjects yet can induce tau-positive neuropathology in some cases. The pathological interaction between LRRK2 and tau remains poorly defined. To explore this interaction in vivo, we crossed a well-characterized human P301S-tau transgenic mouse model of tauopathy with human G2019S-LRRK2 transgenic mice or LRRK2 knockout (KO) mice. We find that endogenous or pathogenic LRRK2 expression has minimal effects on the steady-state levels, solubility and abnormal phosphorylation of human P301S-tau throughout the mouse brain. We next developed a new model of tauopathy by delivering AAV2/6 vectors expressing human P301S-tau to the hippocampal CA1 region of G2019S-LRRK2 transgenic or LRRK2 KO mice. P301S-tau expression induces hippocampal tau pathology and marked degeneration of CA1 pyramidal neurons in mice, however, this occurs independently of endogenous or pathogenic LRRK2 expression. We further developed new AAV2/6 vectors co-expressing human WT-tau and GFP to monitor the neuron-to-neuron transmission of tau within defined hippocampal neuronal circuits. While endogenous LRRK2 is not required for tau transmission, we find that G2019S-LRRK2 markedly enhances the neuron-to-neuron transmission of tau in mice. Our data suggest that mutant tau-induced neuropathology occurs independently of LRRK2 expression in two mouse models of tauopathy but identifies a novel pathogenic role for G2019S-LRRK2 in promoting the neuronal transmission of WT-tau protein. These findings may have important implications for understanding the development of tau neuropathology in LRRK2-linked PD brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- An Phu Tran Nguyen
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | | | - Pamela Valdés
- Neurodegenerative Disease Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Md Shariful Islam
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Neurodegenerative Disease Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Darren J Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research
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16
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Rui Q, Ni H, Li D, Gao R, Chen G. The Role of LRRK2 in Neurodegeneration of Parkinson Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 16:1348-1357. [PMID: 29473513 PMCID: PMC6251048 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180222165418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene and α-synuclein gene (SNCA) are the key influencing factors of Parkinson's disease (PD). It is reported that dysfunction of LRRK2 may influence the accumulation of α-synuclein and its pathology to alter cellular functions and signaling pathways by the kinase activation of LRRK2. The accumulation of α-synuclein is one of the main stimulants of microglial activation. Microglia are macrophages that reside in the brain, and activation of microglia is believed to contribute to neuroinflammation and neuronal death in PD. Therefore, clarifying the complex relationship among LRRK2, α-synuclein and microglials could offer targeted clinical therapies for PD. Here, we provide an updated review focused on the discussion of the evidence supporting some of the key mechanisms that are important for LRRK2-dependent neurodegeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Rong Gao
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Neurosurgery, The First People’s Hospital of Zhangjiagang City, No.68 Jiyang Western Road, Suzhou, P.R. China; Tel: +86-18921962599; E-mail:
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Bhayye SS, Roy K, Saha A. Molecular dynamics simulation study reveals polar nature of pathogenic mutations responsible for stabilizing active conformation of kinase domain in leucine-rich repeat kinase II. Struct Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11224-017-1059-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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18
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Age-Dependent Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration and Impairment of the Autophagy-Lysosomal Pathway in LRRK-Deficient Mice. Neuron 2017; 96:796-807.e6. [PMID: 29056298 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
LRRK2 mutations are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease, but LRRK2's normal physiological role in the brain is unclear. Here, we show that inactivation of LRRK2 and its functional homolog LRRK1 results in earlier mortality and age-dependent, selective neurodegeneration. Loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus is accompanied with increases in apoptosis, whereas the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are unaffected. Furthermore, selective age-dependent neurodegeneration is only present in LRRK-/-, not LRRK1-/- or LRRK2-/- brains, and it is accompanied by increases in α-synuclein and impairment of the autophagy-lysosomal pathway. Quantitative electron microscopy (EM) analysis revealed age-dependent increases of autophagic vacuoles in the SNpc of LRRK-/- mice before the onset of DA neuron loss. These findings revealed an essential role of LRRK in the survival of DA neurons and in the regulation of the autophagy-lysosomal pathway in the aging brain.
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19
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Mechanisms of LRRK2-dependent neurodegeneration: role of enzymatic activity and protein aggregation. Biochem Soc Trans 2017; 45:163-172. [PMID: 28202670 DOI: 10.1042/bst20160264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) with autosomal dominant inheritance. Accordingly, LRRK2 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for disease modification in PD. Since the first discovery of LRRK2 mutations some 12 years ago, LRRK2 has been the subject of intense investigation. It has been established that LRRK2 can function as a protein kinase, with many putative substrates identified, and can also function as a GTPase that may serve in part to regulate kinase activity. Familial mutations influence both of these enzymatic activities, suggesting that they may be important for the development of PD. Many LRRK2 models have been established to understand the pathogenic effects and mechanisms of familial mutations. Here, we provide a focused discussion of the evidence supporting a role for kinase and GTPase activity in mediating the pathogenic effects of familial LRRK2 mutations in different model systems, with an emphasis on rodent models of PD. We also critically discuss the contribution and relevance of protein aggregation, namely of α-synuclein and tau-proteins, which are known to form aggregates in PD brains harboring LRRK2 mutations, to neurodegeneration in LRRK2 rodent models. We aim to provide a clear and unbiased review of some of the key mechanisms that are important for LRRK2-dependent neurodegeneration in PD.
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20
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Pierce S, Coetzee GA. Parkinson's disease-associated genetic variation is linked to quantitative expression of inflammatory genes. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175882. [PMID: 28407015 PMCID: PMC5391096 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have linked dozens of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with Parkinson’s disease (PD) risk. Ascertaining the functional and eventual causal mechanisms underlying these relationships has proven difficult. The majority of risk SNPs, and nearby SNPs in linkage disequilibrium (LD), are found in intergenic or intronic regions and confer risk through allele-dependent expression of multiple unknown target genes. Combining GWAS results with publicly available GTEx data, generated through eQTL (expression quantitative trait loci) identification studies, enables a direct association of SNPs to gene expression levels and aids in narrowing the large population of potential genetic targets for hypothesis-driven experimental cell biology. Separately, overlapping of SNPs with putative enhancer segmentations can strengthen target filtering. We report here the results of analyzing 7,607 PD risk SNPs along with an additional 23,759 high linkage disequilibrium-associated variants paired with eQTL gene expression. We found that enrichment analysis on the set of genes following target filtering pointed to a single large LD block at 6p21 that contained multiple HLA-MHC-II genes. These MHC-II genes remain associated with PD when the genes were filtered for correlation between GWAS significance and eQTL levels, strongly indicating a direct effect on PD etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Pierce
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, United States
| | - Gerhard A. Coetzee
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, United States
- * E-mail:
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21
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Fruhmann G, Seynnaeve D, Zheng J, Ven K, Molenberghs S, Wilms T, Liu B, Winderickx J, Franssens V. Yeast buddies helping to unravel the complexity of neurodegenerative disorders. Mech Ageing Dev 2017; 161:288-305. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Mortiboys H, Furmston R, Bronstad G, Aasly J, Elliott C, Bandmann O. UDCA exerts beneficial effect on mitochondrial dysfunction in LRRK2(G2019S) carriers and in vivo. Neurology 2015; 85:846-52. [PMID: 26253449 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000001905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To further characterize mitochondrial dysfunction in LRRK2(G2019S) mutant Parkinson disease (PD) patient tissue (M-LRRK2(G2019S)), determine whether ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) also exerts a beneficial effect on mitochondrial dysfunction in nonmanifesting LRRK2(G2019S) mutation carriers (NM-LRRK2(G2019S)), and assess UDCA for its beneficial effect on neuronal dysfunction in vivo. METHODS Intracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) levels, oxygen consumption, and activity of the individual complexes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain as well as mitochondrial morphology were measured in M-LRRK2(G2019S), NM-LRRK2(G2019S), and controls. UDCA was assessed for its rescue effect on intracellular ATP levels in NM-LRRK2(G2019S) and in a LRRK2 transgenic fly model with dopaminergic expression of LRRK2(G2019S). RESULTS Crucial parameters of mitochondrial function were similarly reduced in both M-LRRK2(G2019S) and NM-LRRK2(G2019S) with a specific decrease in respiratory chain complex IV activity. Mitochondrial dysfunction precedes changes in mitochondrial morphology but is normalized after siRNA-mediated knockdown of LRRK2. UDCA improved mitochondrial function in NM-LRRK2(G2019) and rescued the loss of visual function in LRRK2(G2019S) flies. CONCLUSION There is clear preclinical impairment of mitochondrial function in NM-LRRK2(G2019S) that is distinct from the mitochondrial impairment observed in parkin-related PD. The beneficial effect of UDCA on mitochondrial function in both NM-LRRK2(G2019S) and M-LRRK2(G2019S) as well as on the function of dopaminergic neurons expressing LRRK2(G2019S) suggests that UDCA is a promising drug for future neuroprotective trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Mortiboys
- From the Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN) (H.M., O.B.), University of Sheffield; the Department of Biology (R.F., C.E.), University of York, UK; Neurozym Biotech AS (G.B.), Snaasa; and the Department of Neurology (J.A.), St Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rebecca Furmston
- From the Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN) (H.M., O.B.), University of Sheffield; the Department of Biology (R.F., C.E.), University of York, UK; Neurozym Biotech AS (G.B.), Snaasa; and the Department of Neurology (J.A.), St Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Gunnar Bronstad
- From the Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN) (H.M., O.B.), University of Sheffield; the Department of Biology (R.F., C.E.), University of York, UK; Neurozym Biotech AS (G.B.), Snaasa; and the Department of Neurology (J.A.), St Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan Aasly
- From the Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN) (H.M., O.B.), University of Sheffield; the Department of Biology (R.F., C.E.), University of York, UK; Neurozym Biotech AS (G.B.), Snaasa; and the Department of Neurology (J.A.), St Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Chris Elliott
- From the Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN) (H.M., O.B.), University of Sheffield; the Department of Biology (R.F., C.E.), University of York, UK; Neurozym Biotech AS (G.B.), Snaasa; and the Department of Neurology (J.A.), St Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Oliver Bandmann
- From the Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN) (H.M., O.B.), University of Sheffield; the Department of Biology (R.F., C.E.), University of York, UK; Neurozym Biotech AS (G.B.), Snaasa; and the Department of Neurology (J.A.), St Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
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Shaikh KT, Yang A, Youshin E, Schmid S. Transgenic LRRK2 (R1441G) rats-a model for Parkinson disease? PeerJ 2015; 3:e945. [PMID: 26020005 PMCID: PMC4435452 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is the most common movement disorder, characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. While the cause of this disease is largely unknown, a rare autosomal dominant familial form of PD is caused by a genetic mutation in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene that presumably leads to a gain-of-function of LRRK2 kinase activity. Here, we explored the potential of over expression of this human gene in a new transgenic rat model to serve as an animal model for PD. Commercially available BAC transgenic rats expressing human LRRK2 with the familial PD mutation, R1441G, and their wild-type siblings were tested for deficits in motor function, sensorimotor gating, and higher cognitive function reminiscent of PD through the ages of 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. At 12 months of age, rats were exposed to intraperitoneal injections of the environmental toxin Paraquat or saline. Our results indicate that LRRK2 (R1441G) transgenic rats do not show signs of neurodegeneration and do not develop significant motor or cognitive deficits until the age of 16 months. In addition, LRRK2 (R1441G) transgenic rats did not show increased vulnerability to sub-toxic doses of Paraquat. Gene expression studies indicate that despite genomic presence and initial expression of the transgene, its expression was greatly reduced in our aged rats. We conclude that the transgenic LRRK2 (R1441G) rat is not a valid model for studying the pathology of PD and discuss this in relation to other transgenic rat models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal T Shaikh
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
| | - Alvin Yang
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
| | - Ekaterina Youshin
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
| | - Susanne Schmid
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
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Wallings R, Manzoni C, Bandopadhyay R. Cellular processes associated with LRRK2 function and dysfunction. FEBS J 2015; 282:2806-26. [PMID: 25899482 PMCID: PMC4522467 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)-encoding gene are the most common cause of monogenic Parkinson's disease. The identification of LRRK2 polymorphisms associated with increased risk for sporadic Parkinson's disease, as well as the observation that LRRK2-Parkinson's disease has a pathological phenotype that is almost indistinguishable from the sporadic form of disease, suggested LRRK2 as the culprit to provide understanding for both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease cases. LRRK2 is a large protein with both GTPase and kinase functions. Mutations segregating with Parkinson's disease reside within the enzymatic core of LRRK2, suggesting that modification of its activity impacts greatly on disease onset and progression. Although progress has been made since its discovery in 2004, there is still much to be understood regarding LRRK2's physiological and neurotoxic properties. Unsurprisingly, given the presence of multiple enzymatic domains, LRRK2 has been associated with a diverse set of cellular functions and signalling pathways including mitochondrial function, vesicle trafficking together with endocytosis, retromer complex modulation and autophagy. This review discusses the state of current knowledge on the role of LRRK2 in health and disease with discussion of potential substrates of phosphorylation and functional partners with particular emphasis on signalling mechanisms. In addition, the use of immune cells in LRRK2 research and the role of oxidative stress as a regulator of LRRK2 activity and cellular function are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Wallings
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies and Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Claudia Manzoni
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, UK.,UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies and Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK
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Garcia-Miralles M, Coomaraswamy J, Häbig K, Herzig MC, Funk N, Gillardon F, Maisel M, Jucker M, Gasser T, Galter D, Biskup S. No dopamine cell loss or changes in cytoskeleton function in transgenic mice expressing physiological levels of wild type or G2019S mutant LRRK2 and in human fibroblasts. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118947. [PMID: 25830304 PMCID: PMC4382199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations within the LRRK2 gene have been identified in Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients and have been implicated in the dysfunction of several cellular pathways. Here, we explore how pathogenic mutations and the inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity affect cytoskeleton dynamics in mouse and human cell systems. We generated and characterized a novel transgenic mouse model expressing physiological levels of human wild type and G2019S-mutant LRRK2. No neuronal loss or neurodegeneration was detected in midbrain dopamine neurons at the age of 12 months. Postnatal hippocampal neurons derived from transgenic mice showed no alterations in the seven parameters examined concerning neurite outgrowth sampled automatically on several hundred neurons using high content imaging. Treatment with the kinase inhibitor LRRK2-IN-1 resulted in no significant changes in the neurite outgrowth. In human fibroblasts we analyzed whether pathogenic LRRK2 mutations change cytoskeleton functions such as cell adhesion. To this end we compared the adhesion characteristics of human skin fibroblasts derived from six PD patients carrying one of three different pathogenic LRRK2 mutations and from four age-matched control individuals. The mutant LRRK2 variants as well as the inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity did not reveal any significant cell adhesion differences in cultured fibroblasts. In summary, our results in both human and mouse cell systems suggest that neither the expression of wild type or mutant LRRK2, nor the inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity affect neurite complexity and cellular adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Garcia-Miralles
- Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Janaky Coomaraswamy
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Karina Häbig
- Department of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, Institute of Human Genetics, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Martin C. Herzig
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Natalja Funk
- Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Frank Gillardon
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, CNS Research, 88397 Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Martina Maisel
- Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Mathias Jucker
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Gasser
- Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Dagmar Galter
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Saskia Biskup
- Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research and DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Tsika E, Nguyen APT, Dusonchet J, Colin P, Schneider BL, Moore DJ. Adenoviral-mediated expression of G2019S LRRK2 induces striatal pathology in a kinase-dependent manner in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 77:49-61. [PMID: 25731749 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene cause late-onset, autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 contains functional GTPase and kinase domains. The most common G2019S mutation enhances the kinase activity of LRRK2 in vitro whereas G2019S LRRK2 expression in cultured neurons induces toxicity in a kinase-dependent manner. These observations suggest a potential role for kinase activity in LRRK2-associated PD. We have recently developed a novel rodent model of PD with progressive neurodegeneration induced by the adenoviral-mediated expression of G2019S LRRK2. In the present study, we further characterize this LRRK2 model and determine the contribution of kinase activity to LRRK2-mediated neurodegeneration. Recombinant human adenoviral vectors were employed to deliver human wild-type, G2019S or kinase-inactive G2019S/D1994N LRRK2 to the rat striatum. LRRK2-dependent pathology was assessed in the striatum, a region where LRRK2 protein is normally enriched in the mammalian brain. Human LRRK2 variants are robustly expressed throughout the rat striatum. Expression of G2019S LRRK2 selectively induces the accumulation of neuronal ubiquitin-positive inclusions accompanied by neurite degeneration and the altered distribution of axonal phosphorylated neurofilaments. Importantly, the introduction of a kinase-inactive mutation (G2019S/D1994N) completely ameliorates the pathological effects of G2019S LRRK2 in the striatum supporting a kinase activity-dependent mechanism for this PD-associated mutation. Collectively, our study further elucidates the pathological effects of the G2019S mutation in the mammalian brain and supports the development of kinase inhibitors as a potential therapeutic approach for treating LRRK2-associated PD. This adenoviral rodent model provides an important tool for elucidating the molecular basis of LRRK2-mediated neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elpida Tsika
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - An Phu Tran Nguyen
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Julien Dusonchet
- Neurodegenerative Studies Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Colin
- Neurodegenerative Studies Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Neurodegenerative Studies Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Darren J Moore
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA.
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27
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Daniel G, Moore DJ. Modeling LRRK2 Pathobiology in Parkinson's Disease: From Yeast to Rodents. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 22:331-368. [PMID: 24850078 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2014_311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, PARK8) gene represent the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) with autosomal dominant inheritance, whereas common variation at the LRRK2 genomic locus influences the risk of developing idiopathic PD. LRRK2 is a member of the ROCO protein family and contains multiple domains, including Ras-of-Complex (ROC) GTPase, kinase, and protein-protein interaction domains. In the last decade, the biochemical characterization of LRRK2 and the development of animal model s have provided important insight into the pathobiology of LRRK2. In this review, we comprehensively describe the different models employed to understand LRRK2-associated PD, including yeast, invertebrates, transgenic and viral-based rodents, and patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells. We discuss how these models have contributed to understanding LRRK2 pathobiology and the advantages and limitations of each model for exploring aspects of LRRK2-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Daniel
- School of Life Sciences, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
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28
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Delgado O, Delgado F, Vega JA, Trabanco AA. N-Bridged 5,6-bicyclic pyridines: Recent applications in central nervous system disorders. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 97:719-31. [PMID: 25542766 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Revised: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The search for novel heterobicyclic compounds within the drug-like chemical space continues to be an area of interest in medicinal chemistry. Unsaturated N-bridgehead heterocycles are well represented in marketed drugs for a variety of therapeutic areas, and continue to play an important role in central nervous system (CNS) drug discovery programs. Examples of medicinal chemistry strategies that make use of N-bridged 5,6-bicyclic pyridines are discussed here in this Minireview, which covers the literature from 2010 up to 2014. B1-class imidazopyridines and B3-class pyrazolopyridines have proven to be at the forefront of molecular prototypes that are capable of interacting with disease relevant targets in neurodegeneration and neuropsychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Delgado
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen-Cilag S.A., C/Jarama 75, 45007 Toledo, Spain
| | - Francisca Delgado
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen-Cilag S.A., C/Jarama 75, 45007 Toledo, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Vega
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen-Cilag S.A., C/Jarama 75, 45007 Toledo, Spain
| | - Andrés A Trabanco
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen-Cilag S.A., C/Jarama 75, 45007 Toledo, Spain.
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29
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Su YC, Guo X, Qi X. Threonine 56 phosphorylation of Bcl-2 is required for LRRK2 G2019S-induced mitochondrial depolarization and autophagy. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1852:12-21. [PMID: 25446991 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Revised: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The G2019S leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutation is the most common cause of genetic Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the molecular mechanism underlying LRRK2 G2019S-induced cellular pathology is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrated that LRRK2 G2019S bound to and phosphorylated Bcl-2, a mitochondrial anti-apoptotic protein, at Threonine 56. Either stable expression of Bcl-2 or transient expression of a Bcl-2 phosphor mutant (Bcl-2(T56A)) abolished LRRK2 G2019S-induced mitochondrial depolarization and autophagy. Together, our findings reveal a previously unidentified target of LRRK2 G2019S, showing that Bcl-2 serves as a point of crosstalk between LRRK2 G2019S-mediated mitochondrial disorder and dysregulation of autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chin Su
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Xing Guo
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Xin Qi
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.,Center for Mitochondrial Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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30
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Rudenko IN, Cookson MR. Heterogeneity of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutations: genetics, mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11:738-50. [PMID: 24957201 PMCID: PMC4391379 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0284-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Variation within and around the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene is associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we discuss the prevalence of LRRK2 substitutions in different populations and their association with PD, as well as molecular and cellular mechanisms of pathologically relevant LRRK2 mutations. Kinase activation was proposed as a universal molecular mechanism for all pathogenic LRRK2 mutations, but later reports revealed heterogeneity in the effect of mutations on different activities of LRRK2. One mutation (G2019S) increases kinase activity, whereas mutations in the Ras of complex proteins (ROC)-C-terminus of ROC (COR) bidomain impair the GTPase function of LRRK2. Some risk factor variants, including G2385R in the WD40 domain, actually decrease the kinase activity of LRRK2. We suggest a model where LRRK2 mutations exert different molecular mechanisms but interfere with normal cellular function of LRRK2 at different levels of the same downstream pathway. Finally, we discuss the current state of therapeutic approaches for LRRK2-related PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iakov N. Rudenko
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
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31
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Galatsis P, Henderson JL, Kormos BL, Han S, Kurumbail RG, Wager TT, Verhoest PR, Noell GS, Chen Y, Needle E, Berger Z, Steyn SJ, Houle C, Hirst WD. Kinase domain inhibition of leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) using a [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-b]pyridazine scaffold. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:4132-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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32
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Tsika E, Kannan M, Foo CSY, Dikeman D, Glauser L, Gellhaar S, Galter D, Knott GW, Dawson TM, Dawson VL, Moore DJ. Conditional expression of Parkinson's disease-related R1441C LRRK2 in midbrain dopaminergic neurons of mice causes nuclear abnormalities without neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 71:345-58. [PMID: 25174890 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene cause late-onset, autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). The clinical and neurochemical features of LRRK2-linked PD are similar to idiopathic disease although neuropathology is somewhat heterogeneous. Dominant mutations in LRRK2 precipitate neurodegeneration through a toxic gain-of-function mechanism which can be modeled in transgenic mice overexpressing human LRRK2 variants. A number of LRRK2 transgenic mouse models have been developed that display abnormalities in dopaminergic neurotransmission and alterations in tau metabolism yet without consistently inducing dopaminergic neurodegeneration. To directly explore the impact of mutant LRRK2 on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway, we developed conditional transgenic mice that selectively express human R1441C LRRK2 in dopaminergic neurons from the endogenous murine ROSA26 promoter. The expression of R1441C LRRK2 does not induce the degeneration of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons or striatal dopamine deficits in mice up to 2years of age, and fails to precipitate abnormal protein inclusions containing alpha-synuclein, tau, ubiquitin or autophagy markers (LC3 and p62). Furthermore, mice expressing R1441C LRRK2 exhibit normal motor activity and olfactory function with increasing age. Intriguingly, the expression of R1441C LRRK2 induces age-dependent abnormalities of the nuclear envelope in nigral dopaminergic neurons including reduced nuclear circularity and increased invaginations of the nuclear envelope. In addition, R1441C LRRK2 mice display increased neurite complexity of cultured midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Collectively, these novel R1441C LRRK2 conditional transgenic mice reveal altered dopaminergic neuronal morphology with advancing age, and provide a useful tool for exploring the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the R1441C LRRK2 mutation in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elpida Tsika
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Meghna Kannan
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Caroline Shi-Yan Foo
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dustin Dikeman
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Liliane Glauser
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Gellhaar
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Dagmar Galter
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Graham W Knott
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Electron Microscopy, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA 70130-2685, USA
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA 70130-2685, USA
| | - Darren J Moore
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA.
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Ribosomal protein s15 phosphorylation mediates LRRK2 neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Cell 2014; 157:472-485. [PMID: 24725412 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 12/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a common cause of familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Elevated LRRK2 kinase activity and neurodegeneration are linked, but the phosphosubstrate that connects LRRK2 kinase activity to neurodegeneration is not known. Here, we show that ribosomal protein s15 is a key pathogenic LRRK2 substrate in Drosophila and human neuron PD models. Phosphodeficient s15 carrying a threonine 136 to alanine substitution rescues dopamine neuron degeneration and age-related locomotor deficits in G2019S LRRK2 transgenic Drosophila and substantially reduces G2019S LRRK2-mediated neurite loss and cell death in human dopamine and cortical neurons. Remarkably, pathogenic LRRK2 stimulates both cap-dependent and cap-independent mRNA translation and induces a bulk increase in protein synthesis in Drosophila, which can be prevented by phosphodeficient T136A s15. These results reveal a novel mechanism of PD pathogenesis linked to elevated LRRK2 kinase activity and aberrant protein synthesis in vivo.
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34
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Esteves AR, Swerdlow RH, Cardoso SM. LRRK2, a puzzling protein: insights into Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Exp Neurol 2014; 261:206-16. [PMID: 24907399 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, ubiquitous protein of unknown function. Mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 have been linked to familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) cases. The LRRK2 protein is a single polypeptide that displays GTPase and kinase activity. Kinase and GTPase domains are involved in different cellular signaling pathways. Despite several experimental studies associating LRRK2 protein with various intracellular membranes and vesicular structures such as endosomal/lysosomal compartments, the mitochondrial outer membrane, lipid rafts, microtubule-associated vesicles, the golgi complex, and the endoplasmic reticulum its broader physiologic function(s) remain unidentified. Additionally, the cellular distribution of LRRK2 may indicate its role in several different pathways, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the autophagic-lysosomal pathway, intracellular trafficking, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This review discusses potential mechanisms through which LRRK2 may mediate neurodegeneration and cause PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raquel Esteves
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Russell H Swerdlow
- University of Kansas Alzheimer's Disease Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Sandra M Cardoso
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Jiang E, Li F, Jing C, Li P, Cui H, Wang B, Ding M, Pang H. High-Resolution Melting Analysis as a Developed Method for Genotyping the PD Susceptibility Loci in LRRK2 Gene. J Clin Lab Anal 2014; 29:299-304. [PMID: 24849765 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.21769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been reported as a highly relevant point for the mechanisms of Parkinson's disease (PD). The invention of saturating dye makes it possible to identify heteroduplex DNA without redistribution during melting, which allows using high-resolution melting (HRM) to detect SNPs. However, the HRM analysis for detection of those SNPs associated with PD was rarely applied. METHODS Two SNPs, G2385R and R1628P, located in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene were individually and multiplexedly genotyped using HRM analysis. The sequence variant observed in unexpected HRM curves was confirmed by DNA sequencing. RESULTS HRM analysis identified successfully all genotypes both on R1628P and G2385R loci. The unexpected HRM curves appeared in R1628P amplicon generated from combinations of R1628P and rs11176013 loci. A multiplexed HRM assay that genotyped R1628P, rs11176013, and G2385R loci was efficiently established. CONCLUSIONS The present HRM assay is a reliable and rapid method for genotyping R1628P and G2385R loci in LRRK2 gene, and multiplex HRM analysis results in high throughput and has the potential to facilitate a wide range of genotyping studies on PD susceptibility genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enzhu Jiang
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
| | - Fengrui Li
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Baotou Medical College, Baotou, P.R. China
| | - Chenchen Jing
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
| | - Pei Li
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
| | - Honggang Cui
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
| | - Baojie Wang
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
| | - Mei Ding
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
| | - Hao Pang
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, P.R. China
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36
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No association between genetic variants of the LRRK2 gene and schizophrenia in Han Chinese. Neurosci Lett 2014; 566:210-5. [PMID: 24631561 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction was widely reported in schizophrenia patients in recent studies. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a mitochondrial protein, and mutations in the LRRK2 gene can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. LRRK2 mutations have been reported to be the most frequent genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). We were interested in whether LRRK2 variants also play a role in schizophrenia. In this study, we genotyped 12 genetic variants (including 4 tag SNPs and 8 disease-associated variants) in the LRRK2 gene in a total of 2449 samples composed of two independent Han Chinese schizophrenia case-control cohorts (486 schizophrenia patients and 480 healthy controls from Hunan Province; 624 schizophrenia patients and 859 healthy controls from Shanghai). We compared the genotype, allele and haplotype frequencies of those SNPs between cases and controls. Statistical analyses revealed no association between LRRK2 variants/haplotypes and schizophrenia in these two schizophrenia case-control cohorts and the combined samples. Our results indicated that the LRRK2 variants are unlikely to be actively involved in schizophrenia in Han Chinese.
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Bhayye SS, Roy K, Saha A. Exploring structural requirement, pharmacophore modeling, and de novo design of LRRK2 inhibitors using homology modeling approach. Med Chem Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-014-0955-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Pereira C, Miguel Martins L, Saraiva L. LRRK2, but not pathogenic mutants, protects against H2O2 stress depending on mitochondrial function and endocytosis in a yeast model. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2014; 1840:2025-31. [PMID: 24576675 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in LRRK2 are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Studies in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of cellular dysfunction associated with the expression of faulty PD genes. METHODS We developed a yeast model for full-length LRRK2 studies. We expressed wild-type (wt) LRRK2 and mutations and evaluated their role during oxidative stress conditions. The involvement of mitochondria was assessed by using rho-zero mutants and by evaluating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial membrane potential by flow cytometry. The involvement of endocytosis was also studied by testing several endocytic mutants and by following the vacuolar delivery of the probe FM4-64. RESULTS Expression of LRRK2 in yeast was associated to increased hydrogen peroxide resistance. This phenotype, which was dependent on mitochondrial function, was not observed for PD-mutants G2019S and R1441C or in the absence of the kinase activity and the WD40 repeat domain. Expression of the pathogenic mutants stimulated ROS production and increased mitochondrial membrane potential. For the PD-mutants, but not for wild-type LRRK2, endocytic defects were also observed. Additionally, several endocytic proteins were required for LRRK2-mediated protection against hydrogen peroxide. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that LRRK2 confers cellular protection during oxidative stress depending on mitochondrial function and endocytosis. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Both the loss of capacity of LRRK2 pathogenic mutants to protect against oxidative stress and their enhancement of dysfunction may be important for the development of PD during the aging process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Pereira
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Microbiologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - L Miguel Martins
- Cell Death Regulation Laboratory, MRC Toxicology Unit, Leicester, UK
| | - Lucília Saraiva
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Microbiologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Winther M, Walmod PS. Neural cell adhesion molecules belonging to the family of leucine-rich repeat proteins. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 8:315-95. [PMID: 25300143 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8090-7_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are motifs that form protein-ligand interaction domains. There are approximately 140 human genes encoding proteins with extracellular LRRs. These encode cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), proteoglycans, G-protein-coupled receptors, and other types of receptors. Here we give a brief description of 36 proteins with extracellular LRRs that all can be characterized as CAMs or putative CAMs expressed in the nervous system. The proteins are involved in multiple biological processes in the nervous system including the proliferation and survival of cells, neuritogenesis, axon guidance, fasciculation, myelination, and the formation and maintenance of synapses. Moreover, the proteins are functionally implicated in multiple diseases including cancer, hearing impairment, glaucoma, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Thus, LRR-containing CAMs constitute a large group of proteins of pivotal importance for the development, maintenance, and regeneration of the nervous system.
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Stafa K, Tsika E, Moser R, Musso A, Glauser L, Jones A, Biskup S, Xiong Y, Bandopadhyay R, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Moore DJ. Functional interaction of Parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2 with members of the dynamin GTPase superfamily. Hum Mol Genet 2013; 23:2055-77. [PMID: 24282027 PMCID: PMC3959816 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddt600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in LRRK2 cause autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 encodes a multi-domain protein containing GTPase and kinase domains, and putative protein–protein interaction domains. Familial PD mutations alter the GTPase and kinase activity of LRRK2 in vitro. LRRK2 is suggested to regulate a number of cellular pathways although the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. To explore such mechanisms, it has proved informative to identify LRRK2-interacting proteins, some of which serve as LRRK2 kinase substrates. Here, we identify common interactions of LRRK2 with members of the dynamin GTPase superfamily. LRRK2 interacts with dynamin 1–3 that mediate membrane scission in clathrin-mediated endocytosis and with dynamin-related proteins that mediate mitochondrial fission (Drp1) and fusion (mitofusins and OPA1). LRRK2 partially co-localizes with endosomal dynamin-1 or with mitofusins and OPA1 at mitochondrial membranes. The subcellular distribution and oligomeric complexes of dynamin GTPases are not altered by modulating LRRK2 in mouse brain, whereas mature OPA1 levels are reduced in G2019S PD brains. LRRK2 enhances mitofusin-1 GTP binding, whereas dynamin-1 and OPA1 serve as modest substrates of LRRK2-mediated phosphorylation in vitro. While dynamin GTPase orthologs are not required for LRRK2-induced toxicity in yeast, LRRK2 functionally interacts with dynamin-1 and mitofusin-1 in cultured neurons. LRRK2 attenuates neurite shortening induced by dynamin-1 by reducing its levels, whereas LRRK2 rescues impaired neurite outgrowth induced by mitofusin-1 potentially by reversing excessive mitochondrial fusion. Our study elucidates novel functional interactions of LRRK2 with dynamin-superfamily GTPases that implicate LRRK2 in the regulation of membrane dynamics important for endocytosis and mitochondrial morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klodjan Stafa
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
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41
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Goodfellow VS, Loweth CJ, Ravula SB, Wiemann T, Nguyen T, Xu Y, Todd DE, Sheppard D, Pollack S, Polesskaya O, Marker DF, Dewhurst S, Gelbard HA. Discovery, synthesis, and characterization of an orally bioavailable, brain penetrant inhibitor of mixed lineage kinase 3. J Med Chem 2013; 56:8032-48. [PMID: 24044867 PMCID: PMC4032177 DOI: 10.1021/jm401094t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of mixed lineage kinase 3 (MLK3) is a potential strategy for treatment of Parkinson's disease and HIV-1 associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), requiring an inhibitor that can achieve significant brain concentration levels. We report here URMC-099 (1) an orally bioavailable (F = 41%), potent (IC50 = 14 nM) MLK3 inhibitor with excellent brain exposure in mouse PK models and minimal interference with key human CYP450 enzymes or hERG channels. The compound inhibits LPS-induced TNFα release in microglial cells, HIV-1 Tat-induced release of cytokines in human monocytes and up-regulation of phospho-JNK in Tat-injected brains of mice. Compound 1 likely functions in HAND preclinical models by inhibiting multiple kinase pathways, including MLK3 and LRRK2 (IC50 = 11 nM). We compare the kinase specificity and BBB penetration of 1 with CEP-1347 (2). Compound 1 is well tolerated, with excellent in vivo activity in HAND models, and is under investigation for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Colin J. Loweth
- Califia Bio Inc, 11575 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, California
| | | | - Torsten Wiemann
- Califia Bio Inc, 11575 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, California
| | - Thong Nguyen
- Califia Bio Inc, 11575 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, California
| | | | - Daniel E. Todd
- BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, Essex CB10 1XL, UK
| | - David Sheppard
- BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, Essex CB10 1XL, UK
| | - Scott Pollack
- BioFocus, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden, Essex CB10 1XL, UK
| | - Oksana Polesskaya
- University of Rochester Medical Center, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Ave Rochester, New York
| | - Daniel F. Marker
- University of Rochester Medical Center, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Ave Rochester, New York
| | - Stephen Dewhurst
- University of Rochester Medical Center, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Ave Rochester, New York
| | - Harris A. Gelbard
- University of Rochester Medical Center, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Ave Rochester, New York
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42
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Huang L, Shimoji M, Wang J, Shah S, Kamila S, Biehl ER, Lim S, Chang A, Maguire-Zeiss KA, Su X, Federoff HJ. Development of inducible leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cell lines for therapeutics development in Parkinson's disease. Neurotherapeutics 2013; 10:840-51. [PMID: 23963789 PMCID: PMC3805857 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-013-0208-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic mechanism(s) contributing to loss of dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) remain obscure. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutations are linked, as a causative gene, to PD. LRRK2 mutations are estimated to account for 10% of familial and between 1 % and 3 % of sporadic PD. LRRK2 proximate single nucleotide polymorphisms have also been significantly associated with idiopathic/sporadic PD by genome-wide association studies. LRRK2 is a multidomain-containing protein and belongs to the protein kinase super-family. We constructed two inducible dopaminergic cell lines expressing either human-LRRK2-wild-type or human-LRRK2-mutant (G2019S). Phenotypes of these LRRK2 cell lines were examined with respect to cell viability, morphology, and protein function with or without induction of LRRK2 gene expression. The overexpression of G2019S gene promoted (1) low cellular metabolic activity without affecting cell viability, (2) blunted neurite extension, and (3) increased phosphorylation at S910 and S935. Our observations are consistent with reported general phenotypes in LRRK2 cell lines by other investigators. We used these cell lines to interrogate the biological function of LRRK2, to evaluate their potential as a drug-screening tool, and to investigate screening for small hairpin RNA-mediated LRRK2 G2019S gene knockdown as a potential therapeutic strategy. A proposed LRRK2 kinase inhibitor (i.e., IN-1) decreased LRRK2 S910 and S935 phosphorylation in our MN9DLRRK2 cell lines in a dose-dependent manner. Lentivirus-mediated transfer of LRRK2 G2019S allele-specific small hairpin RNA reversed the blunting of neurite extension caused by LRRK2 G2019S overexpression. Taken together, these inducible LRRK2 cell lines are suitable reagents for LRRK2 functional studies, and the screening of potential LRRK2 therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Huang
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Mika Shimoji
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Juan Wang
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Salim Shah
- />Department of Biochemistry and Molecule & Cellular Biology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Sukanta Kamila
- />Department of Chemistry, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Edward R. Biehl
- />Department of Chemistry, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Seung Lim
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Allison Chang
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | | | - Xiaomin Su
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
| | - Howard J. Federoff
- />Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
- />Department of Neurology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC USA
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43
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Steiner H. LRRKing up the right trees? On figuring out the effects of mutant LRRK2 and other Parkinson's disease-related genes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 3:73-76. [PMID: 24073388 DOI: 10.1016/j.baga.2013.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Heinz Steiner
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
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44
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Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, PARK8, OMIM 607060) gene represent the most common known cause of hereditary Parkinson's disease (PD) with late-onset and dominant inheritance. LRRK2 protein is composed of multiple domains including two distinct enzymatic domains, a kinase and a Ras-of-complex (Roc) GTPase, connected by a C-terminal-of-Roc (COR) domain, and belongs to the ROCO protein family. Disease-causing mutations located in the kinase domain enhance kinase activity (i.e., G2019S) whereas mutations clustering within the Roc-COR tandem domain impair GTPase activity (i.e., R1441C/G and Y1699C). Familial LRRK2 mutations commonly induce neuronal toxicity that, at least for the frequent G2019S variant, is dependent on kinase activity. The contribution of GTPase activity to LRRK2-dependent neuronal toxicity is not yet clear. Therefore, both GTPase and kinase activity may be important for mediating neurodegeneration in PD due to familial LRRK2 mutations. At present, the physiological function of LRRK2 in the mammalian brain and the regulation of its enzymatic activity are incompletely understood. In this review, we focus on the GTPase domain of LRRK2 and discuss the recent advances in elucidating its function and its interplay with the kinase domain for the regulation of LRRK2 activity and toxicity. GTPase activity is an important feature of LRRK2 biology and pathophysiology and represents an underexplored yet potentially tractable therapeutic target for treating LRRK2-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elpida Tsika
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research; Brain Mind Institute; School of Life Sciences; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Darren J Moore
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research; Brain Mind Institute; School of Life Sciences; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); Lausanne, Switzerland
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45
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is associated with diverse genetic and environmental susceptibilities. Functional connections between PD genes have remained elusive. In this issue of Neuron, MacLeod et al. (2013) link three PD susceptibility genes, LRRK2, PARK16, and VSP35, to a common cellular pathway and show how these deficits contribute to dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalind S Chuang
- Department of Neurology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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46
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Biochemical and functional characterization of the ROC domain of DAPK establishes a new paradigm of GTP regulation in ROCO proteins. Biochem Soc Trans 2013; 40:1052-7. [PMID: 22988864 DOI: 10.1042/bst20120155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
DAPK (death-associated protein kinase) is a newly recognized member of the mammalian family of ROCO proteins, characterized by common ROC (Ras of complex proteins) and COR (C-terminal of ROC) domains. In the present paper, we review our recent work showing that DAPK is functionally a ROCO protein; its ROC domain binds and hydrolyses GTP. Furthermore, GTP binding regulates DAPK catalytic activity in a novel manner by enhancing autophosphorylation on inhibitory Ser308, thereby promoting the kinase 'off' state. This is a novel mechanism for in cis regulation of kinase activity by the distal ROC domain. The functional similarities between DAPK and the Parkinson's disease-associated protein LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat protein kinase 2), another member of the ROCO family, are also discussed.
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47
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Biosa A, Trancikova A, Civiero L, Glauser L, Bubacco L, Greggio E, Moore DJ. GTPase activity regulates kinase activity and cellular phenotypes of Parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 22:1140-56. [PMID: 23241358 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the LRRK2 gene cause autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 encodes a multi-domain protein containing a Ras-of-complex (Roc) GTPase domain, a C-terminal of Roc domain and a protein kinase domain. LRRK2 can function as a GTPase and protein kinase, although the interplay between these two enzymatic domains is poorly understood. Although guanine nucleotide binding is critically required for the kinase activity of LRRK2, the contribution of GTP hydrolysis is not known. In general, the molecular determinants regulating GTPase activity and how the GTPase domain contributes to the properties of LRRK2 remain to be clarified. Here, we identify a number of synthetic missense mutations in the GTPase domain that functionally modulate GTP binding and GTP hydrolysis and we employ these mutants to comprehensively explore the contribution of GTPase activity to the kinase activity and cellular phenotypes of LRRK2. Our data demonstrate that guanine nucleotide binding and, to a lesser extent, GTP hydrolysis are required for maintaining normal kinase activity and both activities contribute to the GTP-dependent activation of LRRK2 kinase activity. Guanine nucleotide binding but not GTP hydrolysis regulates the dimerization, structure and stability of LRRK2. Furthermore, GTP hydrolysis regulates the LRRK2-dependent inhibition of neurite outgrowth in primary cortical neurons but is unable to robustly modulate the effects of the familial G2019S mutation. Our study elucidates the role of GTPase activity in regulating kinase activity and cellular phenotypes of LRRK2 and has important implications for the validation of the GTPase domain as a molecular target for attenuating LRRK2-mediated neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Biosa
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fe´de´ rale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
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48
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Trancikova A, Mamais A, Webber PJ, Stafa K, Tsika E, Glauser L, West AB, Bandopadhyay R, Moore DJ. Phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 in the mammalian brain is not altered by LRRK2 expression or pathogenic mutations. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47784. [PMID: 23082216 PMCID: PMC3474772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are a common cause of autosomal dominant familial Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 encodes a multi-domain protein containing GTPase and kinase enzymatic domains. Disease-associated mutations in LRRK2 variably influence enzymatic activity with the common G2019S variant leading to enhanced kinase activity. Mutant LRRK2 induces neuronal toxicity through a kinase-dependent mechanism suggesting that kinase activity is important for mediating the pathogenic effects of LRRK2 mutations. A number of LRRK2 kinase substrates have been identified in vitro but whether they represent authentic physiological substrates in mammalian cells or tissues is not yet clear. The eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-binding protein, 4E-BP1, was recently identified as a potential substrate of LRRK2 kinase activity in vitro and in Drosophila with phosphorylation occurring at Thr37 and Thr46. Here, we explore a potential interaction of LRRK2 and 4E-BP1 in mammalian cells and brain. We find that LRRK2 can weakly phosphorylate 4E-BP1 in vitro but LRRK2 overexpression is not able to alter endogenous 4E-BP1 phosphorylation in mammalian cells. In mammalian neurons LRRK2 and 4E-BP1 display minimal co-localization, whereas the subcellular distribution, protein complex formation and covalent post-translational modification of endogenous 4E-BP1 are not altered in the brains of LRRK2 knockout or mutant LRRK2 transgenic mice. In the brain, the phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 at Thr37 and Thr46 does not change in LRRK2 knockout or mutant LRRK2 transgenic mice, nor is 4E-BP1 phosphorylation altered in idiopathic or G2019S mutant PD brains. Collectively, our results suggest that 4E-BP1 is neither a major nor robust physiological substrate of LRRK2 in mammalian cells or brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alzbeta Trancikova
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adamantios Mamais
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Disease, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Philip J. Webber
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Klodjan Stafa
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Elpida Tsika
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Liliane Glauser
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andrew B. West
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Disease, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Darren J. Moore
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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49
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Henderson P, Stevens C. The role of autophagy in Crohn's disease. Cells 2012; 1:492-519. [PMID: 24710487 PMCID: PMC3901108 DOI: 10.3390/cells1030492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
(Macro)-autophagy is a homeostatic process by which eukaryotic cells dispose of protein aggregates and damaged organelles. Autophagy is also used to degrade micro-organisms that invade intracellularly in a process termed xenophagy. Genome-wide association scans have recently identified autophagy genes as conferring susceptibility to Crohn’s disease (CD), one of the chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, with evidence suggesting that CD arises from a defective innate immune response to enteric bacteria. Here we review the emerging role of autophagy in CD, with particular focus on xenophagy and enteric E. coli strains with an adherent and invasive phenotype that have been consistently isolated from CD patients with ileal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Henderson
- Department of Child Life and Health, 20 Sylvan Place, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 1UW, UK.
| | - Craig Stevens
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK.
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50
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Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: molecular mechanisms and pathophysiological consequences. EMBO J 2012; 31:3038-62. [PMID: 22735187 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2012.170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 411] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons are critically dependent on mitochondrial integrity based on specific morphological, biochemical, and physiological features. They are characterized by high rates of metabolic activity and need to respond promptly to activity-dependent fluctuations in bioenergetic demand. The dimensions and polarity of neurons require efficient transport of mitochondria to hot spots of energy consumption, such as presynaptic and postsynaptic sites. Moreover, the postmitotic state of neurons in combination with their exposure to intrinsic and extrinsic neuronal stress factors call for a high fidelity of mitochondrial quality control systems. Consequently, it is not surprising that mitochondrial alterations can promote neuronal dysfunction and degeneration. In particular, mitochondrial dysfunction has long been implicated in the etiopathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), based on the observation that mitochondrial toxins can cause parkinsonism in humans and animal models. Substantial progress towards understanding the role of mitochondria in the disease process has been made by the identification and characterization of genes causing familial variants of PD. Studies on the function and dysfunction of these genes revealed that various aspects of mitochondrial biology appear to be affected in PD, comprising mitochondrial biogenesis, bioenergetics, dynamics, transport, and quality control.
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