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Jacoby J, Nath A, Jessen ZF, Schwartz GW. A Self-Regulating Gap Junction Network of Amacrine Cells Controls Nitric Oxide Release in the Retina. Neuron 2018; 100:1149-1162.e5. [PMID: 30482690 PMCID: PMC6317889 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Neuromodulators regulate circuits throughout the nervous system, and revealing the cell types and stimulus conditions controlling their release is vital to understanding their function. The effects of the neuromodulator nitric oxide (NO) have been studied in many circuits, including in the vertebrate retina, where it regulates synaptic release, gap junction coupling, and blood vessel dilation, but little is known about the cells that release NO. We show that a single type of amacrine cell (AC) controls NO release in the inner retina, and we report its light responses, electrical properties, and calcium dynamics. We discover that this AC forms a dense gap junction network and that the strength of electrical coupling in the network is regulated by light through NO. A model of the network offers insights into the biophysical specializations leading to auto-regulation of NO release within the network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Jacoby
- Department of Ophthalmology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Amurta Nath
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Zachary F Jessen
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Gregory W Schwartz
- Department of Ophthalmology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
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2
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Dunn VK, Gleason E. Inhibition of endocytosis suppresses the nitric oxide-dependent release of Cl- in retinal amacrine cells. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201184. [PMID: 30044876 PMCID: PMC6059450 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Our lab has previously shown that nitric oxide (NO) can alter the synaptic response properties of amacrine cells by releasing Cl- from internal acidic compartments. This alteration in the Cl- gradient brings about a positive shift in the reversal potential of the GABA-gated current, which can convert inhibitory synapses into excitatory synapses. Recently, we have shown that the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) Cl- channel is involved in the Cl- release. Here, we test the hypothesis that (acidic) synaptic vesicles are a source of NO-releasable Cl- in chick retinal amacrine cells. If SVs are a source of Cl-, then depleting synaptic vesicles should decrease the nitric oxide-dependent shift in the reversal potential of the GABA-gated current. The efficacy of four inhibitors of dynamin (dynasore, Dyngo 4a, Dynole 34-2, and MiTMAB) were evaluated. In order to deplete synaptic vesicles, voltage-steps were used to activate V-gated Ca2+ channels and stimulate the synaptic vesicle cycle either under control conditions or after treatment with the dynamin inhibitors. Voltage-ramps were used to measure the NO-dependent shift in the reversal potential of the GABA-gated currents under both conditions. Our results reveal that activating the synaptic vesicle cycle in the presence of dynasore or Dyngo 4a blocked the NO-dependent shift in EGABA. However, we also discovered that some dynamin inhibitors reduced Ca2+ signaling and L-type Ca2+ currents. Conversely, dynasore also increased neurotransmitter release at autaptic sites. To further resolve the mechanism underlying the inhibition of the NO-dependent shift in the reversal potential for the GABA-gated currents, we also tested the effects of the clathrin assembly inhibitor Pitstop 2 and found that this compound also inhibited the shift. These data provide evidence that dynamin inhibitors have multiple effects on amacrine cell synaptic transmission. These data also suggest that inhibition of endocytosis disrupts the ability of NO to elicit Cl- release from internal stores which may in part be due to depletion of synaptic vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon K. Dunn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Evanna Gleason
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
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3
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Abstract
The role of nitric oxide (NO) signaling in the retina can be simply termed as "extensive." The picture remains incomplete, but it is now known that NO has many sites of production and action in the retina, both physiological and pathophysiological in nature. Perspectives from retinal neurophysiology and clinical pathology have merged in a number of studies examining NO action, but renewed emphasis is needed to discover the links between the roles of NO in the neurons, glia, and vasculature of the retina. NEUROSCIENTIST 3:357-360, 1997
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Pogoda K, Kameritsch P, Retamal MA, Vega JL. Regulation of gap junction channels and hemichannels by phosphorylation and redox changes: a revision. BMC Cell Biol 2016; 17 Suppl 1:11. [PMID: 27229925 PMCID: PMC4896245 DOI: 10.1186/s12860-016-0099-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications of connexins play an important role in the regulation of gap junction and hemichannel permeability. The prerequisite for the formation of functional gap junction channels is the assembly of connexin proteins into hemichannels and their insertion into the membrane. Hemichannels can affect cellular processes by enabling the passage of signaling molecules between the intracellular and extracellular space. For the intercellular communication hemichannels from one cell have to dock to its counterparts on the opposing membrane of an adjacent cell to allow the transmission of signals via gap junctions from one cell to the other. The controlled opening of hemichannels and gating properties of complete gap junctions can be regulated via post-translational modifications of connexins. Not only channel gating, but also connexin trafficking and assembly into hemichannels can be affected by post-translational changes. Recent investigations have shown that connexins can be modified by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, redox-related changes including effects of nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or carbon monoxide (CO), acetylation, methylation or ubiquitination. Most of the connexin isoforms are known to be phosphorylated, e.g. Cx43, one of the most studied connexin at all, has 21 reported phosphorylation sites. In this review, we provide an overview about the current knowledge and relevant research of responsible kinases, connexin phosphorylation sites and reported effects on gap junction and hemichannel regulation. Regarding the effects of oxidants we discuss the role of NO in different cell types and tissues and recent studies about modifications of connexins by CO and H2S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Pogoda
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München and Munich University Hospital, München, Germany. .,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Munich Heart Alliance, München, Germany.
| | - Petra Kameritsch
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München and Munich University Hospital, München, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Munich Heart Alliance, München, Germany
| | - Mauricio A Retamal
- Centro de Fisiología Celular e Integrativa, Facultad de Medicina, Clínica Alemana Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile
| | - José L Vega
- Experimental Physiology Laboratory (EPhyL), Antofagasta Institute, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
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5
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Retamal MA, García IE, Pinto BI, Pupo A, Báez D, Stehberg J, Del Rio R, González C. Extracellular Cysteine in Connexins: Role as Redox Sensors. Front Physiol 2016; 7:1. [PMID: 26858649 PMCID: PMC4729916 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Connexin-based channels comprise hemichannels and gap junction channels. The opening of hemichannels allow for the flux of ions and molecules from the extracellular space into the cell and vice versa. Similarly, the opening of gap junction channels permits the diffusional exchange of ions and molecules between the cytoplasm and contacting cells. The controlled opening of hemichannels has been associated with several physiological cellular processes; thereby unregulated hemichannel activity may induce loss of cellular homeostasis and cell death. Hemichannel activity can be regulated through several mechanisms, such as phosphorylation, divalent cations and changes in membrane potential. Additionally, it was recently postulated that redox molecules could modify hemichannels properties in vitro. However, the molecular mechanism by which redox molecules interact with hemichannels is poorly understood. In this work, we discuss the current knowledge on connexin redox regulation and we propose the hypothesis that extracellular cysteines could be important for sensing changes in redox potential. Future studies on this topic will offer new insight into hemichannel function, thereby expanding the understanding of the contribution of hemichannels to disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio A Retamal
- Facultad de Medicina, Centro de Fisiología Celular e Integrativa, Clínica Alemana Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago, Chile
| | - Isaac E García
- Facultad de Ciencias, Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Valparaíso Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Bernardo I Pinto
- Facultad de Ciencias, Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Valparaíso Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Amaury Pupo
- Facultad de Ciencias, Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Valparaíso Valparaíso, Chile
| | - David Báez
- Facultad de Ciencias, Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Valparaíso Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Jimmy Stehberg
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Andres Bello Santiago, Chile
| | - Rodrigo Del Rio
- Laboratory of Cardiorespiratory Control, Center for Biomedical Research, Universidad Autónoma de ChileSantiago, Chile; Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Científica del SurLima, Perú
| | - Carlos González
- Facultad de Ciencias, Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Valparaíso Valparaíso, Chile
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Vielma AH, Agurto A, Valdés J, Palacios AG, Schmachtenberg O. Nitric oxide modulates the temporal properties of the glutamate response in type 4 OFF bipolar cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114330. [PMID: 25463389 PMCID: PMC4252109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is involved in retinal signal processing, but its cellular actions are only partly understood. An established source of retinal NO are NOACs, a group of nNOS-expressing amacrine cells which signal onto bipolar, other amacrine and ganglion cells in the inner plexiform layer. Here, we report that NO regulates glutamate responses in morphologically and electrophysiologically identified type 4 OFF cone bipolar cells through activation of the soluble guanylyl cyclase-cGMP-PKG pathway. The glutamate response of these cells consists of two components, a fast phasic current sensitive to kainate receptor agonists, and a secondary component with slow kinetics, inhibited by AMPA receptor antagonists. NO shortened the duration of the AMPA receptor-dependent component of the glutamate response, while the kainate receptor-dependent component remained unchanged. Application of 8-Br-cGMP mimicked this effect, while inhibition of soluble guanylate cyclase or protein kinase G prevented it, supporting a mechanism involving a cGMP signaling pathway. Notably, perfusion with a NOS-inhibitor prolonged the duration of the glutamate response, while the NO precursor L-arginine shortened it, in agreement with a modulation by endogenous NO. Furthermore, NO accelerated the response recovery during repeated stimulation of type 4 cone bipolar cells, suggesting that the temporal response properties of this OFF bipolar cell type are regulated by NO. These results reveal a novel cellular mechanism of NO signaling in the retina, and represent the first functional evidence of NO modulating OFF cone bipolar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex H. Vielma
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
- * E-mail:
| | - Adolfo Agurto
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Joaquín Valdés
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Adrián G. Palacios
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Oliver Schmachtenberg
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
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Abstract
Myopia is the result of a mismatch between the optical power and the length of the eye, with the latter being too long. Driving the research in this field is the need to develop myopia treatments that can limit axial elongation. When axial elongation is excessive, as in high myopia, there is an increased risk of visual impairment and blindness due to ensuing pathologies such as retinal detachments. This article covers both clinical studies involving myopic children, and studies involving animal models for myopia. Atropine, a nonselective muscarinic antagonist, has been studied most extensively in both contexts. Because it remains the only drug used in a clinical setting, it is a major focus of the first part of this article, which also covers the many shortcomings of topical ophthalmic atropine. The second part of this article focuses on in vitro and animal-based drug studies, which encompass a range of drug targets including the retina, retinal pigment epithelium and sclera. While the latter studies have contributed to a better understanding of how eye growth is regulated, no new antimyopia drug treatments have reached the clinical setting. Less conservative approaches in research, and in particular, the exploration of new bioengineering approaches for drug delivery, are needed to advance this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prema Ganesan
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA
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Lima MG, Maximino C, Matos Oliveira KR, Brasil A, Crespo-Lopez ME, Batista EDJO, Rocha FADF, Picanço-Diniz DLW, Herculano AM. Nitric oxide as a regulatory molecule in the processing of the visual stimulus. Nitric Oxide 2013; 36:44-50. [PMID: 24275015 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2013.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a highly reactive gas with considerable diffusion power that is produced pre- and post synaptically in the central nervous system (CNS). In the visual system, it is involved in the processing of the visual information from the retina to superior visual centers. In this review we discuss the main mechanisms through which nitric oxide acts, in physiological levels, on the retina, lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and primary visual cortex. In the retina, the cGMP-dependent nitric oxide activity initially amplifies the signal, subsequently increasing the inhibitory activity, suggesting that the signal is "filtered". In the thalamus, on dLGN, neuronal activity is amplified by NO derived from brainstem cholinergic cells, in a cGMP-independent mechanism; the result is the amplification of the signal arriving from retina. Finally, on the visual cortex (V1), NO acts through changes on the cGMP levels, increasing signal detection. These observations suggest that NO works like a filter, modulating the signal along the visual pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Gomes Lima
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará 66075-110, Brazil.
| | - Caio Maximino
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará 66075-110, Brazil; Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC) Slidell, Louisiana 70458, USA.
| | - Karen Renata Matos Oliveira
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará 66075-110, Brazil.
| | - Alódia Brasil
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará 66075-110, Brazil.
| | - Maria Elena Crespo-Lopez
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará CEP 66075-110, Brazil.
| | - Evander de Jesus Oliveira Batista
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará 66075-110, Brazil.
| | - Fernando Allan de Farias Rocha
- Laboratory of Neuroscience Dr. Eduardo Oswaldo Cruz, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará CEP 66075-110, Brazil
| | - Domingos Luiz Wanderley Picanço-Diniz
- Nucleus Oriximiná, Federal University of Western Pará, University Campus Oriximiná, Rodovia PA-254, n° 257 Bairro Santíssimo, Oriximiná, Pará CEP 68270-000, Brazil.
| | - Anderson Manoel Herculano
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Pará, Av. Augusto Correa, 01 Guamá, Belém, Pará 66075-110, Brazil; Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC) Slidell, Louisiana 70458, USA.
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Guthrie MJ, Kang-Mieler JJ. Dual electroretinogram/nitric oxide carbon fiber microelectrode for direct measurement of nitric oxide in the in vivo retina. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2013; 61:611-9. [PMID: 24043366 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2013.2281541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) plays an important physiological role in normal and pathological retinas. Intraretinal NO concentrations have not been directly measured due to lack of NO electrodes capable of determining their location in the retina. The microelectrodes described here allow recording of the intraretinal electroretinogram (ERG) and NO concentration from the same location, with ERGs used to determine retinal depth. Double-barreled electrodes were constructed with one barrel serving as a reference/voltage recording barrel and the other containing a Nafion-coated carbon fiber used to detect NO amperometrically. Nafion coating imparted a high selectivity for NO versus ascorbic acid (2000:1). In vivo rodent experiments demonstrated that the electrodes could record intraretinal ERGs and NO current with minimal retinal thickness deformation (9%), allowing for retinal NO depth profile measurements. Comparison of NO depth profiles under control conditions and under nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition by 5 mM L-NG-Nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME) verified that the recorded current was attributable to NO. NO concentrations from control profiles ( n = 4) were 2.37 ± 0.34 μM at the choroid and 1.12 ± 0.14 μM at the retinal surface. NO concentrations from L-NAME profiles ( n = 4) were significantly lower at 0.83 ± 0.15 μM at the choroid ( p = 0.006) and 0.27 ± 0.04 μM at the retinal surface ( p = 0.001). Localized regions of increased NO (100-400 nM) were seen in the inner retina under control conditions but not after L-NAME. The dual ERG-NO electrode may be a valuable tool in evaluating the role of NO in normal and diseased retinas.
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Effect of acute and chronic bilateral visual deafferentation on c-Fos immunoreactivity in the visual system of adult rats. Exp Brain Res 2013; 229:595-607. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3623-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Next-generation sequencing analysis of gene regulation in the rat model of retinopathy of prematurity. Doc Ophthalmol 2013; 127:13-31. [PMID: 23775346 DOI: 10.1007/s10633-013-9396-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to identify the genes, biochemical signaling pathways, and biological themes involved in the pathogenesis of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). METHODS Next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed on the RNA transcriptome of rats with the Penn et al. (Pediatr Res 36:724-731, 1994) oxygen-induced retinopathy model of ROP at the height of vascular abnormality, postnatal day (P) 19, and normalized to age-matched, room-air-reared littermate controls. Eight custom-developed pathways with potential relevance to known ROP sequelae were evaluated for significant regulation in ROP: The three major Wnt signaling pathways, canonical, planar cell polarity (PCP), and Wnt/Ca(2+); two signaling pathways mediated by the Rho GTPases RhoA and Cdc42, which are, respectively, thought to intersect with canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling; nitric oxide signaling pathways mediated by two nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes, neuronal (nNOS) and endothelial (eNOS); and the retinoic acid (RA) signaling pathway. Regulation of other biological pathways and themes was detected by gene ontology using the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes and the NIH's Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery's GO terms databases. RESULTS Canonical Wnt signaling was found to be regulated, but the non-canonical PCP and Wnt/Ca(2+) pathways were not. Nitric oxide signaling, as measured by the activation of nNOS and eNOS, was also regulated, as was RA signaling. Biological themes related to protein translation (ribosomes), neural signaling, inflammation and immunity, cell cycle, and cell death were (among others) highly regulated in ROP rats. CONCLUSIONS These several genes and pathways identified by NGS might provide novel targets for intervention in ROP.
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Nitric oxide production and the expression of two nitric oxide synthases in the avian retina. Vis Neurosci 2013; 30:91-103. [PMID: 23721886 DOI: 10.1017/s0952523813000126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is known to exert multiple effects on the function of many retinal neurons and their synapses. Therefore, it is equally important to understand the potential sources of NO within the retina. To explore this, we employ a combination of 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate (DAF-FM) based NO detection and immunohistochemistry for the NO synthetic enzymes, neuronal and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (nNOS and eNOS). We find DAF signals in photoreceptors, horizontal cells, amacrine cells, efferent synapses, Müller cells, and cells in the ganglion cell layer (GCL). nNOS immunoreactivity was consistent with the DAF signal with the exception that horizontal cells and Müller cells were not clearly labeled. eNOS-like immunoreactivity (eNOS-LI) was more widespread with photoreceptors, horizontal cells, occasional bipolar cells, amacrine cells, Müller cells, and cells in the GCL all showing labeling. Double labeling with antibodies raised against calretinin, syntaxin, and glutamine synthetase confirmed that horizontal cells, amacrine cells, and Müller cells (respectively) were expressing eNOS-LI. Although little or no nNOS labeling is observed in horizontal cells or Müller cells, the expression of eNOS-LI is consistent with the ability of these cells to produce NO. Together these results suggest that the capability to produce NO is widespread in the chicken retina. We propose that multiple forms of regulation for nNOS and eNOS play a role in the patterning of NO production in the chicken retina.
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Vielma AH, Retamal MA, Schmachtenberg O. Nitric oxide signaling in the retina: what have we learned in two decades? Brain Res 2011; 1430:112-25. [PMID: 22133309 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2011] [Revised: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Two decades after its first detection in the retina, nitric oxide (NO) continues to puzzle visual neuroscientists. While its liberation by photoreceptors remains controversial, recent evidence supports three subtypes of amacrine cells as main sources of NO in the inner retina. NO synthesis was shown to depend on light stimulation, and mounting evidence suggests that NO is a regulator of visual adaptation at different signal processing levels. NO modulates light responses in all retinal neuron classes, and specific ion conductances are activated by NO in rods, cones, bipolar and ganglion cells. Light-dependent gap junction coupling in the inner and outer plexiform layers is also affected by NO. The vast majority of these effects were shown to be mediated by activation of the NO receptor soluble guanylate cyclase and resultant cGMP elevation. This review analyzes the current state of knowledge on physiological NO signaling in the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex H Vielma
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso (CINV), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
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Abstract
Using both NADPH diaphorase and anti-nNOS antibodies, we have identified-from retinal flatmounts-neuronal types in the inner retina of the chicken that are likely to be nitrergic. The two methods gave similar results and yielded a total of 15 types of neurons, comprising 9 amacrine cells, 5 ganglion cells, and 1 centrifugal midbrain neuron. Six of these 15 cell types are ubiquitously distributed, comprising 3 amacrine cells, 2 displaced ganglion cells, and a presumed orthotopic ganglion cell. The remaining nine cell types are regionally restricted within the retina. As previously reported, efferent fibers of midbrain neurons and their postsynaptic partners, the unusual axon-bearing target amacrine cells, are entirely confined to the ventral retina. Also confined to the ventral retina, though with somewhat different distributions, are the "bullwhip" amacrine cells thought to be involved in eye growth, an orthotopic ganglion cell, and two types of large axon-bearing amacrine cells whose dendrites and axons lie in stratum 1 of the inner plexiform layer (IPL). Intracellular fills of these two cell types showed that only a minority of otherwise morphologically indistinguishable neurons are nitrergic. Two amacrine cells that branch throughout the IPL are confined to an equatorial band, and one small-field orthotopic ganglion cell that branches in the proximal IPL is entirely dorsal. These findings suggest that the retina uses different processing on different regions of the visual image, though the benefit of this is presently obscure.
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Hu EH, Pan F, Völgyi B, Bloomfield SA. Light increases the gap junctional coupling of retinal ganglion cells. J Physiol 2011; 588:4145-63. [PMID: 20819943 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.193268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the effect of light adaptation on the gap junctional coupling of α-ganglion cells (α-GCs) in rabbit and mouse retinas. We assayed changes in coupling by measuring parameters of tracer coupling following injection of α-GCs with Neurobiotin and the concerted spike activity of α-GC neighbours under dark- and light-adapted conditions. We found that light adaptation using mesopic or photopic background lights resulted in a dramatic increase in the labelling intensity, number, and spatial extent of ganglion and amacrine cells coupled to OFF α-GCs when compared to levels seen under dark adaptation. While this augmentation of coupling by light did not produce an increase in the concerted spontaneous activity of OFF α-GC neighbours, it did significantly increase correlated light-evoked spiking. This was seen as an increase in the number of correlated spikes for α-GC neighbours and an extension of correlations to second-tier neighbours that was not seen under dark-adapted conditions. Pharmacological studies in the rabbit retina indicated that dopamine mediates the observed changes in coupling by differentially activating D1 and D2 receptors under different adaptation states. In this scheme, activation of dopamine D1 receptors following light exposure triggers cAMP-mediated intracellular pathways resulting in an increase in gap junctional conductance. Overall, our results indicate that as we move from night to day there is an enhanced electrical coupling between α-GCs, thereby increasing the concerted activity believed to strengthen the capacity and efficiency of information flow across the optic nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward H Hu
- Department of Physiology & Neuroscience, New York University School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
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Fujii S, Honda S, Sekiya Y, Yamasaki M, Yamamoto M, Saijoh K. Differential expression of nitric oxide synthase isoforms in form-deprived chick eyes. Curr Eye Res 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/02713689808951231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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17
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Bloomfield SA, Völgyi B. The diverse functional roles and regulation of neuronal gap junctions in the retina. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009; 10:495-506. [PMID: 19491906 PMCID: PMC3381350 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrical synaptic transmission through gap junctions underlies direct and rapid neuronal communication in the CNS. The diversity of functional roles that electrical synapses have is perhaps best exemplified in the vertebrate retina, in which gap junctions are formed by each of the five major neuron types. These junctions are dynamically regulated by ambient illumination and by circadian rhythms acting through light-activated neuromodulators such as dopamine and nitric oxide, which in turn activate intracellular signalling pathways in the retina.The networks formed by electrically coupled neurons are plastic and reconfigurable, and those in the retina are positioned to play key and diverse parts in the transmission and processing of visual information at every retinal level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart A Bloomfield
- Department of Physiology & Neuroscience, New York University School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, New York, New York 10016, USA.
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18
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Dhingra A, Sulaiman P, Xu Y, Fina ME, Veh RW, Vardi N. Probing neurochemical structure and function of retinal ON bipolar cells with a transgenic mouse. J Comp Neurol 2008; 510:484-96. [PMID: 18671302 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Retinal ON bipolar cells make up about 70% of all bipolar cells. Glutamate hyperpolarizes these cells by binding to the metabotropic glutamate receptor mGluR6, activating the G-protein G(o1), and closing an unidentified cation channel. To facilitate investigation of ON bipolar cells, we here report on the production of a transgenic mouse (Grm6-GFP) in which enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), under control of mGluR6 promoter, was expressed in all and only ON bipolar cells. We used the mouse to determine density of ON bipolar cells, which in central retina was 29,600 cells/mm(2). We further sorted the fluorescent cells and created a pure ON bipolar cDNA library that was negative for photoreceptor unique genes. With this library, we determined expression of 27 genes of interest. We obtained positive transcripts for G(o) interactors: regulators of G-protein signaling (RGS), Ret-RGS1 (a variant of RGS20), RGS16, RGS7, purkinje cell protein 2 (PCP2, also called L7 or GPSM4), synembryn (RIC-8), LGN (GPSM2), RAP1GAP, and Gbeta5; cGMP modulators: guanylyl cyclase (GC) 1alpha1, GC1beta1, phosphodiesterase (PDE) 1C, and PDE9A; and channels: inwardly rectifying potassium channel Kir2.4, transient receptor potential TRPC2, and sperm-specific cation channels CatSper 2-4. The following transcripts were not found in our library: AGS3 (GPSM1), RGS10, RGS19 (GAIP), calbindin, GC1alpha2, GC1beta2, PDE5, PDE2A, amiloride-sensitive sodium channel ACCN4, and CatSper1. We then localized Kir2.4 to several cell types and showed that, in ON bipolar cells, the channel concentrates in their dendritic tips. The channels and modulators found in ON bipolar cells likely shape their light response. Additional uses of the Grm6-GFP mouse are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuradha Dhingra
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6058, USA
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19
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Abstract
Synaptic transmission from photoreceptors to all types of ON bipolar cells is primarily mediated by the mGluR6 receptor. This receptor, which is apparently expressed uniquely in the nervous system by ON bipolar cells, couples negatively to a nonselective cation channel. This arrangement results in a sign reversal at photoreceptor/ON bipolar cell synapse, which is necessary in order to establish parallel ON and OFF pathways in the retina. The synapse is an important target for second messenger molecules that are known to modulate synaptic transmission elsewhere in the nervous system, second messengers that act on a time scale ranging from milliseconds to minutes. This review focuses on two of these molecules, Ca2+ and cGMP, summarizing our current knowledge of how they modulate gain at the photoreceptor/ON bipolar cell synapse, as well as their proposed sites of action within the mGluR6 cascade. The implications of plasticity at this synapse for retinal function will also be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefin Snellman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, SHM-B103, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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20
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Abstract
The nitric oxide (NO)-cGMP pathway is implicated in modulation of visual information processing in the retina. Despite numerous functional studies of this pathway, information about the retinal distribution of the major downstream effector of NO, soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), is very limited. In the present work, we have used immunohistochemistry and multiple labeling to determine the distribution of sGC in rat retina. sGC was present at high levels in inner retina but barely detectable in outer retina. Photoreceptors and horizontal cells, as well as Müller cells, were immunonegative, whereas retinal ganglion cells exhibited moderate staining for sGC. Strong immunostaining was found in subpopulations of bipolar and amacrine cells, but staining was weak in rod bipolar cells, and AII amacrine cells were immunonegative. Double labeling of sGC with neuronal nitric oxide synthase showed that the two proteins are generally located in adjacent puncta in inner plexiform layer, implying paracrine interactions. Our results suggest that the NO-cGMP pathway modulates the neural circuitry in inner retina, preferentially within the cone pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Dong Ding
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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21
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Sugano E, Tomita H, Ishiguro SI, Isago H, Tamai M. Nitric oxide-induced accumulation of lipofuscin-like materials is caused by inhibition of cathepsin S. Curr Eye Res 2006; 31:607-16. [PMID: 16877269 DOI: 10.1080/02713680600744851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
To determine whether nitric oxide (NO) is involved in accumulation of lipofuscin-like material (LFM) in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells and if this formation is related to NO-mediated modification of cathepsin S (cat S). RPE cell cultures were fed once every day with porcine photoreceptor outer segments (POS) in the presence of NO-donor [S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) or NOC18] for 2 weeks. LFM autofluorescence within the cells was measured by fluorophotometric flow cytometry (FACS). The activity of purified cat S was measured in the presence of NO-donor with or without dithiothreitol (DTT). The following results were observed. SNAP and NOC18 caused LFM accumulation in RPE cells in a dose-dependent manner, and this accumulation was reversed by the addition of NO-scavengers (hydroxycobalamin, carboxy-PTIO). Purified cat S activities were inhibited by NO-donors without DTT, but in the presence of DTT, NO-donors exhibited no inhibitory effect on its activity. Phagocytic challenge of RPE cells increased cat S activity, which was reduced by the addition of NO donors. These results indicated that cat S activity was inhibited by NO-donors and resulted in LFM accumulation in RPE cells. We conclude that NO-mediated inhibition of cat S was caused through protein modification of cat S and resulted in LFM accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eriko Sugano
- Division of Biofunctional Science, Tohoku University Biomedical Engineering Research Organization, Sendai, Japan
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22
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Wang GY. Unique functional properties of the APB sensitive and insensitive rod pathways signaling light decrements in mouse retinal ganglion cells. Vis Neurosci 2006; 23:127-35. [PMID: 16597356 DOI: 10.1017/s0952523806231110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Accepted: 12/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Light decrements are mediated by two distinct groups of rod pathways in the dark-adapted retina that can be differentiated on the basis of their sensitivity to the glutamate agonist DL-2-amino-phosphonobutyric (APB). By means of the APB sensitive pathway, rods transmit light decrementsviarod bipolar cells to AII amacrine cells, then to Off cone bipolar cells, which in turn innervate the dendrites of Off ganglion cells. APB hyperpolarizes rod bipolar cells, thus blocking this rod pathway. With APB insensitive pathways, rods either directly synapse onto Off cone bipolar cells, or rods pass light decrement signal to cones by gap junctions. In the present study, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made from ganglion cells in the dark-adapted mouse retina to investigate the functional properties of APB sensitive and insensitive rod pathways. The results revealed several clear-cut differences between the APB sensitive and APB insensitive rod pathways. The latency of Off responses to a flashing spot of light was significantly shorter for the APB insensitive pathways than those for the APB sensitive pathway. Moreover, Off responses of the APB insensitive pathways were found to be capable of following substantially higher stimulus frequencies. Nitric oxide was found to selectively block Off responses in the APB sensitive rod pathway. Collectively, these results provide evidence that the APB sensitive and insensitive rod pathways can convey different types of information signaling light decrements in the dark-adapted retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Yong Wang
- Department of Structural and Cellular Biology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA.
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23
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Eldred WD, Blute TA. Imaging of nitric oxide in the retina. Vision Res 2005; 45:3469-86. [PMID: 16171845 PMCID: PMC1464841 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2005] [Revised: 07/22/2005] [Accepted: 07/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is the most widespread signaling molecule found in the retina in that it can be made by every retinal cell type. NO is able to influence a wide variety of synaptic mechanisms ranging from increasing or decreasing neurotransmitter release to the modulation of gap junction conductivity. Although biochemical methods can analyze overall levels of NO, such methods cannot indicate the specific cell types involved. In the last few years, fluorescent imaging methods utilizing diaminofluorescein have allowed the real-time visualization of neurochemically or light stimulated NO-induced fluorescence (NO-IF) in specific retinal cells. Recent experiments have shown that this NO-IF can be stabilized using paraformaldehyde fixation. This aldehyde stabilization has allowed the imaging of NO production in the dark and in response to light, as well as the neurochemical modulation of light stimulated NO production. The results of these studies indicate that NO is not always freely diffusible and that NO is largely retained in many cells which make it. The NO production in retina is highly damped in that in the absence of stimulation, the endogenous levels of NO production are extremely low. Finally, different neurochemical or light stimulation protocols activate NO production in specific cells and subcellular compartments. Therefore, although the NO signaling is widespread in retina, it is very selectively activated and has different functions in specific retinal cell types. The use of NO imaging will continue to play a critical role in future studies of the function of NO in retina and other neural systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D Eldred
- Laboratory of Visual Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Boston University, MA 02215, USA.
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24
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Sekaran S, Cunningham J, Neal MJ, Hartell NA, Djamgoz MBA. Nitric oxide release is induced by dopamine during illumination of the carp retina: serial neurochemical control of light adaptation. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 21:2199-208. [PMID: 15869516 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04051.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of indirect evidence have suggested that nitric oxide may play an important role during light adaptation of the vertebrate retina. We aimed to verify directly the effect of light on nitric oxide release in the isolated carp retina and to investigate the relationship between nitric oxide and dopamine, an established neuromodulator of retinal light adaptation. Using a biochemical nitric oxide assay, we found that steady or flicker light stimulation enhanced retinal nitric oxide production from a basal level. The metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist L-amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid, inhibited the light adaptation-induced nitric oxide production suggesting that the underlying cellular pathway involved centre-depolarizing bipolar cell activity. Application of exogenous dopamine to retinas in the dark significantly enhanced the basal production of nitric oxide and importantly, inhibition of endogenous dopaminergic activity completely suppressed the light-evoked nitric oxide release. The effect of dopamine was mediated through the D1 receptor subtype. Imaging of the nitric oxide-sensitive fluorescent indicator 4,5-diaminofluorescein di-acetate in retinal slices revealed that activation of D1 receptors resulted in nitric oxide production from two main spatial sources corresponding to the photoreceptor inner segment region and the inner nuclear layer. The results taken together would suggest that during the progression of retinal light adaptation there is a switch from dopaminergic to nitrergic control, probably to induce further neuromodulatory effects at higher levels of illumination and to enable more efficient spreading of the light adaptive signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sekaran
- Department of Visual Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Charing Cross Campus, W6 8RF, UK.
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25
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Zhang DQ, Zhou T, Ruan GX, McMahon DG. Circadian rhythm of Period1 clock gene expression in NOS amacrine cells of the mouse retina. Brain Res 2005; 1050:101-9. [PMID: 15978557 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2005] [Revised: 05/10/2005] [Accepted: 05/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The vertebrate retina contains self-sustained circadian clocks that broadly influence retinal physiology. In the present study, we have examined the relationship of nitric oxide, GABAergic and glycinergic inner retinal neurons with expression of a reporter for the circadian clock gene Period1 (Per1). Using Per1 : :GFP transgenic mice, we found that 72% of brain nitric oxide synthase (bNOS) expressing amacrine cells (NOS amacrine cells) sampled during the daytime were also immunoreactive for Per1-driven GFP. The number of bright GFP(+) NOS(+) cells was greater at Zeitgeber time (ZT) 10 than at 22, and this pattern persisted in retinas from animals which were placed in constant darkness [Circadian time (CT) 10 vs. 22]. Intensities of GFP-IR for individual NOS amacrine cells were analyzed at ZT4, 10, 16 and 22, with the peak value occurring at ZT10. Similar results were obtained from retinas sampled at CT4, 10, 16 and 22 in constant darkness, indicating that an endogenous circadian clock drives the transcription of the Per1 clock gene within NOS amacrine cells. The predominance of Per1 : :GFP(+) amacrine cells (82%), was immunoreactive to glutamate decarboxylase 65, but no Per1 : :GFP(+) amacrine cells colabeled with a glycine transporter 1 antibody. The results demonstrate circadian rhythms in Per1 promoter activation in nitric oxide (NO) and GABA secreting amacrine cells, and suggest that NO and GABA could be controlled by circadian clock mechanisms in the mammalian retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dao-Qi Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B, Box 35-1634, Nashville, TN 37235-1634, USA
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26
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Abstract
The visual system can adjust its sensitivity over a wide range of light intensities. Photoreceptors account for some of this adjustment, but there is evidence that postreceptoral processes also exist. To investigate the latter, we pharmacologically mimicked the effects of light stimulation on mouse On bipolar cells, thus avoiding confounding effects of receptoral mechanisms. Here, we report that cGMP selectively enhances responses to dim, but not bright, stimuli through a purely postsynaptic mechanism. This action of cGMP was completely blocked by inhibitors of cGMP-dependent kinase. We propose that cGMP-dependent kinase decreases coupling of the On bipolar cell glutamate receptor to the downstream cascade, thus amplifying small decreases in photoreceptor transmitter levels that would otherwise go undetected by the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefin Snellman
- Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Rose F. Kennedy Center, Bronx, New York 10461, USA.
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27
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Greferath U, Nag N, Zele AJ, Bui BV, Wilson Y, Vingrys AJ, Murphy M. Fos-tau-LacZ mice expose light-activated pathways in the visual system. Neuroimage 2005; 23:1027-38. [PMID: 15528103 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2004] [Revised: 05/24/2004] [Accepted: 06/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have employed fos-tau-LacZ (FTL) transgenic mice to examine functional activation in the visual areas of the nervous system. The FTL mice express the marker gene lacZ in neurons and their processes following many different stimuli, and allow the imaging of activation from the level of the entire brain surface through individual neurons and their projections. Analysis of FTL expression in the retinas of mice following diurnal exposure to light shows that bipolar cells, specific classes of amacrine cells, ganglion cells, and a dense network of processes in the inner plexiform layer are functionally activated. In animals deprived of light, there is almost no activity in the retina. In the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), light exposure appears responsible for FTL expression in dorsal nuclei, but not for expression in the ventral nuclei or the intergeniculate leaflet. In the superficial layers of the superior colliculus, FTL expression is highly dependent on light exposure. Similarly, light exposure is required for FTL expression in primary visual cortex (area 17), but some expression remains in area 18 of dark-adapted animals. Finally, using mice with one or both eyes missing, we have determined which parts of the visual system are dependent on the presence of a functional connectivity from the eye. These data demonstrate the usefulness of the FTL mice to map functional activation within the entire visual system. Furthermore, we can capture visual activation in a conscious animal. Our findings give an insight into the architecture of activity within the retina and throughout the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Greferath
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Grattan Street, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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28
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Luft WA, Iuvone PM, Stell WK. Spatial, temporal, and intensive determinants of dopamine release
in the chick retina. Vis Neurosci 2004; 21:627-35. [PMID: 15579225 DOI: 10.1017/s0952523804214110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2003] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The retinal dopaminergic system is a global regulator of retinal
function. Apart from the fact that the rates of dopamine synthesis and
release are increased by increasing illumination, the visual image
parameters that influence dopaminergic function are mostly unknown.
Roles for spatial and temporal frequency and image contrast are
suggested by the effects of form-deprivation with a diffusing goggle.
Form-deprivation reduces the rates of dopamine synthesis and release,
and induces myopia, which is prevented by dopamine agonists. Our
purpose here was to identify visual stimulus parameters that activate
dopaminergic amacrine cells and elicit dopamine release. White Leghorn
cockerels 4–7 days old were exposed to 2 h of form-deprivation,
reduced light intensity, or stimuli of varied temporal or spatial
frequency. Activation of dopaminergic neurons, labeled for tyrosine
hydroxylase (TH), was assessed with immunocytochemistry for c-Fos, and
dopamine release was measured by HPLC analysis of dopamine metabolite
accumulation in the vitreous body. Form-deprivation did not reduce TH+
cell activation or vitreal dopamine metabolite accumulation any more
than did neutral-density filters of approximately equal transmittance.
TH+ cell activation and vitreal metabolite accumulation were not
affected significantly by exposure to 2, 5, 10, 15, or 20 Hz
stroboscopic stimulation on a dark background, or by sine-wave gratings
of 0.089, 0.44, 0.89, 1.04, or 3.13 cycles/deg compared to a
uniform gray target of equal mean luminance. These data indicate that
the retinal dopaminergic system does not respond readily to short-term
changes in visual stimulus parameters, other than light intensity,
under the conditions of these experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Luft
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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29
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Vaney DI. Type 1 nitrergic (ND1) cells of the rabbit retina: Comparison with other axon-bearing amacrine cells. J Comp Neurol 2004; 474:149-71. [PMID: 15156584 DOI: 10.1002/cne.20110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
NADPH diaphorase (NADPHd) histochemistry labels two types of nitrergic amacrine cells in the rabbit retina. Both the large ND1 cells and the small ND2 cells stratify in the middle of the inner plexiform layer, and their overlapping processes produce a dense plexus, which makes it difficult to trace the morphology of single cells. The complete morphology of the ND1 amacrine cells has been revealed by injecting Neurobiotin into large round somata in the inner nuclear layer, which resulted in the labelling of amacrine cells whose proximal morphology and stratification matched those of the ND1 cells stained by NADPHd histochemistry. The Neurobiotin-injected ND1 cells showed strong homologous tracer coupling to surrounding ND1 cells, and double-labelling experiments confirmed that these coupled cells showed NADPHd reactivity. The ND1 amacrine cells branch in stratum 3 of the inner plexiform layer, where they produce a sparsely branched dendritic tree of 400-600 microm diameter in ventral peripheral retina. In addition, each cell gives rise to several fine beaded processes, which arise either from a side branch of the dendritic tree or from the tapering of a distal dendrite. These axon-like processes branch successively within the vicinity of the dendritic field before extending, with little or no further branching, for 3-5 mm from the soma in ventral peripheral retina. Consequently, these cells may span one-third of the visual field of each eye, and their spatial extent appears to be greater than that of most other types of axon-bearing amacrine cells injected with Neurobiotin in this study. The morphology and tracer-coupling pattern of the ND1 cells are compared with those of confirmed type 1 catecholaminergic cells, a presumptive type 2 catecholaminergic cell, the type 1 polyaxonal cells, the long-range amacrine cells, a novel type of axon-bearing cell that also branches in stratum 3, and a type of displaced amacrine cell that may correspond to the type 2 polyaxonal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Vaney
- Vision, Touch and Hearing Research Centre, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Queensland, Australia.
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30
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Wang GY, Liets LC, Chalupa LM. Nitric oxide differentially modulates ON and OFF responses of retinal ganglion cells. J Neurophysiol 2003; 90:1304-13. [PMID: 12724368 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00243.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Several lines of evidence suggest that nitric oxide (NO) can regulate diverse retinal functions, but whether this gas is capable of modulating the visual responses of retinal output neurons has not been established. In the present study the effects of NO on rod-driven responses of retinal ganglion cells were tested by making whole cell patch-clamp recordings from morphologically identified ganglion cells in the isolated ferret retina. Bath application of L-arginine, the substrate of nitric oxide synthase, and S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine, the NO donor, was found to differentially affect on and off discharge patterns. The introduction of these drugs significantly decreased visual responses of retinal ganglion cells, but the effects were more pronounced on off than on on discharges. The peak discharge rates of on responses were usually reduced by about 40%, but not completely blocked. In contrast, off responses were completely blocked in most cells. These differential effects were observed in on-off cells as well as in cells that yielded just on or off discharges. The off responses that were blocked by NO were also blocked by DL-2-amino-phosphonobutyric acid (APB) and strychnine, suggesting the involvement of the APB-sensitive rod pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Yong Wang
- Section of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, Division of Biological Sciences and Ophthalmology Department, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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31
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Harumi T, Watanabe T, Yamamoto T, Tanabe Y, Suzuki N. Expression of membrane-bound and soluble guanylyl cyclase mRNAs in embryonic and adult retina of the medaka fish Oryzias latipes. Zoolog Sci 2003; 20:133-40. [PMID: 12655176 DOI: 10.2108/zsj.20.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Localization of mRNAs for four membrane-bound guanylyl cyclases (membrane GCs; OlGC3, OlGC4, OlGC5, and OlGC-R2), three soluble guanylyl cyclase subunits (soluble GC; OlGCS-alpha(1), OlGCS-alpha(2), and OlGCS-beta(1)), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), and cGMP-dependent protein kinase I (cGK I) was examined in the embryonic and adult retinas of the medaka fish Oryzias latipes by in situ hybridization. All of the membrane GC mRNAs were detected in the photoreceptor cells of the adult and embryonic retinas, but in different parts; the OlGC3 and OlGC5 mRNAs were expressed in the proximal part and the OlGC4 and OlGC-R2 mRNAs were expressed in the outer nuclear layer. The mRNA for nNOS was expressed in a scattered fashion on the inner side of the inner nuclear layer in the adult and embryonic retinas. The mRNAs (OlGCS-alpha(2) and OlGCS- beta(1)) of two soluble GC subunits (alpha(2) and beta(1)) were expressed mainly in the inner nuclear layer and the ganglion cell layer of the embryonic retina while the mRNAs of the soluble GC alpha(1) subunit and cGK I were not detected in either the adult or embryonic retina. These results suggest that NO itself and/or the cGMP generated by soluble GC (alpha(2)/beta(1) heterodimer) play a novel role in the neuronal signaling and neuronal development in the medaka fish embryonic retina in addition to the role played by phototransduction through membrane GCs in the adult and embryonic retinas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuo Harumi
- Department of Anatomy, Asahikawa Medical College, Hokkaido, Japan.
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32
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Haamedi SN, Djamgoz MBA. Dopamine and nitric oxide control both flickering and steady-light-induced cone contraction and horizontal cell spinule formation in the teleost (carp) retina: serial interaction of dopamine and nitric oxide. J Comp Neurol 2002; 449:120-8. [PMID: 12115683 DOI: 10.1002/cne.10278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Adaptation to ambient light, which is an important characteristic of the vertebrate visual system, involves cellular and subcellular (synaptic) plasticity of the retina. The present study investigated dopamine (DA) and nitric oxide (NO) as possible neurochemical modulators controlling cone photomechanical movements (PMMs) and horizontal cell (HC) spinules in relation to steady and flickering light adaptation in the carp retina. Haloperidol (HAL; a nonspecific DA receptor blocker) or cPTIO (a NO scavenger) largely inhibited the cone PMMs and HC spinule formation induced by either steady or flickering light. These results suggested that both DA and NO could be involved in the light-adaptation changes induced by either pattern of input and that DA and NO effects may not be completely independent. The possibility that NO and DA interact serially was evaluated pharmacologically by cross-antagonist application (i.e., DA + cPTIO or NO + HAL). When a NO donor was coapplied with HAL to dark-adapted eyecups, normal light-adaptive cone PMMs and HC spinules occurred. In contrast, when DA was applied in the presence of cPTIO, the dark-adapted state persisted. It was concluded 1) that DA and NO are both light-adaptive neurochemicals, released in the retina during either steady or flickering light; 2) that the effects of DA and NO on light-adaptive cone PMMs and HC spinules do not occur in parallel; and 3) that NO and DA act mainly in series, specifically as follows: Light --> DA --> NO --> Cone PMMs + HC spinules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakineh N Haamedi
- Neurobiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
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33
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Eldred WD. Real time imaging of the production and movement of nitric oxide in the retina. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 131:109-22. [PMID: 11420935 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(01)31011-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- W D Eldred
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Street, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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34
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Abstract
NADPH diaphorase activity in the rabbit retina is modulated by the state of visual adaptation. In this study, we tested possible glutamatergic control of this phenomenon. Rabbits were injected intravitreally with agonists and antagonists of glutamate. After adaptation (3 hours) to either room light or darkness, the rabbits were killed and the retinae were prepared for NADPH diaphorase histochemistry. Kainic acid significantly reduced the number of NADPH diaphorase amacrine cells but augmented NADPH diaphorase activity in horizontal cells in both light- and dark-adapted animals. 6,7-Dinitroquinoxaline-2,3(1H,4H)-dione exerted no effect on amacrine cells but eliminated NADPH diaphorase activity in horizontal cells. 2-Amino-4-phosphono butyric acid did not affect NADPH diaphorase activity in horizontal cells but reduced the degree of staining in the neuronal processes of amacrine cells. MK-801 and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) had no effect on NADPH diaphorase activity in horizontal cells. However, MK-801 reduced staining in the neuronal processes of amacrine cells but not in their cell bodies. NMDA effects were expressed in a significant reduction in the number and size of amacrine cells that were NADPH diaphorase positive. These results indicate that activation of NADPH diaphorase in horizontal cells by darkness is mediated by the activation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)/kainic acid (KA)-type glutamate receptors. The ON pathway in the retina is probably involved in modulation of NADPH diaphorase in the neuronal processes of amacrine cells. Amacrine cells that are NADPH diaphorase positive contain NMDA-type and AMPA/KA-type receptors and are highly susceptible to NMDA and kainic acid toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Zemel
- The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology and the Rappaport Institute, Haifa 31096, Israel
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35
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Hangai M, Yoshimura N, Hiroi K, Mandai M, Honda Y. Role of nitric oxide during the initial phase of reperfusion after retinal ischemia in the rat. Ophthalmic Res 2000; 31:16-23. [PMID: 9831818 DOI: 10.1159/000055508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The onset of reperfusion and the recovery of the ERG b-wave following retinal ischemia was examined among three groups of rats: group 1 (n = 12) and group 2 (n = 6) received pretreatment with NG-nitro-L-arginine (20 mg/kg, i.p., 2 h before ischemia) followed by intravenous injection of saline (group 1) or of 200 mg/kg L-arginine (group 2) 5 min before the end of ischemia; group 3 (n = 7) received saline pretreatment followed by intravenous injection of saline as a control. Group 1 showed delayed onset of reperfusion compared to the other two groups and a reduction in the rate of the b-wave recovery compared to the control on the 1st day after reperfusion (group 1 vs. group 3; p = 0.0357). The L-arginine posttreatment significantly increased the b-wave recovery (group 2 vs. group 1; p = 0.0005 on day 1 and p < 0.0006 on day 3). The rate of the b-wave recovery in group 1 was inversely proportional to the time to establish complete reperfusion. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase during the initial phase of reperfusion may worsen the recovery of the b-wave following retinal ischemia, at least in part, by inhibiting establishment of reperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hangai
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
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36
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Abstract
The development of immunocytochemistry has led to a better understanding of synaptic transmission carried out by neuroactive substances in the mammalian brain, including the retina. In the mammalian retina, nitric oxide (NO) is widely accepted as a neuromodulator. Histochemistry based on NADPH-d and immunocytochemistry based on nitric oxide synthase (NOS) have been used to identify the presence of nitric oxide in the mammalian retina. Certain types of amacrine cells and a class of displaced amacrine cells have been labeled consistently in all mammalian retinae studied to date. Other cell types showing NADPH-d reactivity or NOS immunoreactivity varied between species. NADPH-d reactive or NOS immunoreactive amacrine cells may serve as a source of NO for amacrine, bipolar, and ganglion cells in the inner retina, whereas interplexiform cells, bipolar cells, and horizontal cells may serve as a source of NO for the outer retina of mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- I B Kim
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
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37
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Ríos H, López-Costa JJ, Fosser NS, Brusco A, Saavedra JP. Development of nitric oxide neurons in the chick embryo retina. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2000; 120:17-25. [PMID: 10727726 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(99)00166-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a gas involved in neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS) and in vertebrate retinas. This paper describes five types of nitrergic neurons in developing and adult chick retina using the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPHd) reaction. Three of them, nitrergic types 1, 2 and 3, were observed in the inner nuclear layer, while nitrergic type 4 was observed in the ganglion cell layer; nitrergic type 5 were the retinal photoreceptors. Cell processes formed four nitrergic networks, which could be observed in the inner plexiform layer (IPL), at sublayers 1, 3a, 3b and 4. Another nitrergic network was observed in the outer plexiform layer (OPL). From hatching, the dendritic branches were completely developed in the IPL and in the OPL, forming the mentioned networks. Current evidence suggests that NO is coexpressed with other neurotransmitters in neurons of the CNS. Double-staining procedures, using NADPHd and 5HT immunohistochemistry in chicken retina, in a sequential or in an alternative manner, did not reveal the coexistence of these two neurotransmitters in the same neurons, but their networks matched in sublayers 1 and 4 of the IPL.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ríos
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neuroscience "Prof. E. De Robertis", School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, Paraguay Street 2155, 2do. Piso, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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38
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Abstract
The neuronal form of nitric oxide synthase (NOS-1) has been localized to several cell types in the retinas of experimental animals; however, localization in the human retina has not been definitive. By using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, we have compared the cellular expression and localization of NOS-1 in the rat and human retinas. In both rat and human retinas, NOS-1 is expressed in the inner segments of photoreceptors, cells in the inner nuclear layer, particularly amacrine cells, and retinal ganglion cells. In human cones, NOS-1 is abundantly present in the outer segments. In the rat, optic nerve transection caused a loss of cells that were positive for NOS-1 in the ganglion cell layer. Although a retinal ganglion cell localization has not been reported consistently in the literature, our data clearly localize NOS-1 to the retinal ganglion cells of the rat and human retinas.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Neufeld
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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39
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Chapter IV Nitric oxide in the retina. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0924-8196(00)80058-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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40
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Abstract
Nitric oxide generated by three distinct enzyme systems appears to play a critical role in many diverse physiological processes. Using both conventional and immunohistochemical techniques, nitric oxide synthases have been identified throughout the body, including all regions of the eye. A large number of in vitro and in vivo preparations have been utilized showing nitric oxide to have an important role in regulation of regional ocular blood flow. Nitric oxide-mediated control of basal ocular blood flow is demonstrated by vasoconstriction seen in experiments where vascular endothelial cells are removed, or when nitric oxide synthase is inhibited. The endogenous source of nitric oxide in the eye appears to be both endothelial and neural. In addition, administration of drugs that can 'donate' nitric oxide produces vasodilation of the eye vasculature. Local vasodilation in response to illumination of the retina is controlled by generation and release of nitric oxide, whereas most other physiological adjustments of ocular blood flow (i.e., autoregulation and responses to altered blood gas levels) seem to be relatively independent of nitric oxide mechanisms. Nitric oxide is implicated in a variety of ocular pathophysiological states including uveitis, retinal ischemic disease, diabetes and glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Koss
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma College of Medicine, Oklahoma City 73190, USA
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41
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Fischer AJ, Stell WK. Nitric oxide synthase-containing cells in the retina, pigmented epithelium, choroid, and sclera of the chick eye. J Comp Neurol 1999; 405:1-14. [PMID: 10022192 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19990301)405:1<1::aid-cne1>3.0.co;2-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide is a nonconventional neurotransmitter that is produced as needed by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS). NOS has been detected in numerous neural structures, including distinct populations of retinal neurons in a variety of vertebrate species. The purpose of this study was to identify NOS-containing cells in the retina and extraretinal ocular tissues of hatched chicks. NOS was detected in frozen sections by using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-diaphorase histochemistry and antisera to neuronal NOS. In the retina, NADPH-diaphorase and NOS immunolabelling were present in four subtypes of amacrine cells, some ganglion cells, efferent fibers, efferent target cells, and neuronal processes in both plexiform layers, whereas diaphorase alone was detected in photoreceptor ellipsoids and Müller cells. In addition, NADPH-diaphorase and immunoreactive NOS were detected in axon bundles and innervation to vascular smooth muscle in the choroid, whereas stromal and endothelial cells in the choroid, scleral chondrocytes, and the retinal pigmented epithelium contained only NADPH-diaphorase. The excitotoxin quisqualate destroyed all but one subtype of NOS-immunoreactive amacrine cell and caused increased NADPH-diaphorase activity in Müller cells. We conclude that nitric oxide is produced by many different cells in the chick eye, including retinal amacrine and ganglion cells, Müller cells, retinal pigmented epithelium, and cells in the choroid, and likely has a broad range of visual and regulatory functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Fischer
- Lions' Sight Centre and Department of Anatomy, The University of Calgary, Faculty of Medicine, Alberta, Canada.
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42
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Araki CM, Hamassaki-Britto DE. Motion-sensitive neurons in the chick retina: a study using Fos immunohistochemistry. Brain Res 1998; 794:333-7. [PMID: 9622668 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)00307-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Fos immunohistochemistry was used to characterize neurons in the chick retina activated by optokinetic and stationary stimuli. Higher percentages of co-localization of Fos and the alpha5 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, and Fos and GABA were observed in retinal neurons after optokinetic compared to the stationary stimulation. These results indicate an involvement of the cholinergic and GABAergic circuitries in the motion detection by chick retinal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Araki
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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43
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Wong-Riley MT, Huang Z, Liebl W, Nie F, Xu H, Zhang C. Neurochemical organization of the macaque retina: effect of TTX on levels and gene expression of cytochrome oxidase and nitric oxide synthase and on the immunoreactivity of Na+ K+ ATPase and NMDA receptor subunit I. Vision Res 1998; 38:1455-77. [PMID: 9667011 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6989(98)00001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined the relationship between an important energy-generating enzyme (cytochrome oxidase; CO), a key energy-consuming enzyme (Na+ K+ ATPase) and neurochemicals associated with excitatory glutamatergic synapses (NMDAR1 and neuronal nitric oxide synthase, nNOS) in the adult macaque retina. Polyclonal antibodies against neuronal nitric oxide synthase and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit I were generated for immunohistochemical examination and labeled sites not previously reported were found. We have also isolated cDNAs for cytochrome oxidase subunits III (mitochondrial-encoded) and IV (nuclear-encoded), as well as for a fragment of neuronal nitric oxide synthase, from a human cDNA library. The distributions of mRNAs of these genes were analyzed by in situ hybridization. We found that three or more of the markers examined coexisted in a number of sites: (a) In the inner segments of photoreceptors, high energy demand for maintaining the dark current was placed by Na+ K+ ATPase. This was partially met by ATP-generating enzymes such as CO. Neuronal NOS was also present there for the synthesis of NO and the cascading event leading to the generation of cGMP and the gating of channels for visual transduction. (b) Both the outer and inner plexiform layers had detectable amounts of all four markers, although the levels varied among them. This was most likely due to the presence of depolarizing glutamatergic synapses arising from photoreceptors and bipolar cells and such synaptic events were energy-demanding. The involvement of NMDA receptors and nNOS in these synaptic layers is strongly implicated in the present study. (c) All four markers were present in the majority of retinal ganglion cells, with some inherent heterogeneity related to intensity and size. Retinal ganglion cells are known to receive excitatory synapses from glutamatergic bipolar cells and are themselves highly active. The presence of both NMDAR1 and nNOS in these cells were verified in the present study and the energy demands related to these synaptic activities were necessarily high. Thus, active ion transporting functions related to synaptic or non-synaptically induced repolarization from the basis for an interrelationship between the neurochemicals/enzymes studied. Finally, (d) all four markers and the gene expression of CO and nNOS in the macaque retina were regulated by neuronal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T Wong-Riley
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226, USA.
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44
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Chambille I. Retinal ganglion cells expressing the FOS protein after light stimulation in the Syrian hamster are relatively insensitive to neonatal treatment with monosodium glutamate. J Comp Neurol 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19980323)392:4<458::aid-cne4>3.0.co;2-#] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. Chambille
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Sensorielle, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 78352 Jouy en Josas, Cedex, France
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45
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Ostwald P, Park SS, Toledano AY, Roth S. Adenosine receptor blockade and nitric oxide synthase inhibition in the retina: impact upon post-ischemic hyperemia and the electroretinogram. Vision Res 1997; 37:3453-61. [PMID: 9425522 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6989(96)00222-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We preformed this study to determine the effect on ocular blood flow and the electroretinogram of either nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition, adenosine receptor blockade or the combination of both after 1 hr of ocular ischemia. Thirty-seven cats under general anesthesia were subjected to 1 hr of complete ischemia in one eye by raising the intraocular pressure above systolic blood pressure. The other eye in each animal served as a non-ischemic control. Arterial blood gas tension, systemic arterial pressure, body temperature, hematocrit, and anesthetic level were controlled in each experiment. Cats were divided into four groups. Group 1 received normal saline injections [intravenous (i.v.) and intravitreal], Group 2 adenosine receptor blockade (0.1 ml of 0.01 M 8-sulfophenyltheophylline intravitreal) and saline i.v., Group 3 NOS inhibition (30 mg/kg l-NG-nitroarginine-methyl-ester i.v.) and saline intravitreal, and Group 4 intravitreal adenosine receptor blockade and NOS inhibition i.v. A subset of Group 3 received l-arginine to investigate the reversibility of NOS inhibition, after the blood flow measurements were completed. Five minutes after the end of ischemia, blood flows in retina and choroid were measured using injections of radioactively labeled microspheres. Electroretinographic (ERG) studies were carried out before treatment, before ischemia, during ischemia, and 1, 2, 3, and 4 hr after ischemia ended. NOS inhibition significantly reduced basal blood flow in the choroid, and in the retina when combined with adenosine receptor blockade. Adenosine receptor blockade completely attenuated post-ischemic hyperemia in the retina, but retinal hyperemia reappeared when adenosine receptor blockade and NOS inhibition were combined. Adenosine receptor blockade had no effect on ERG recovery after ischemia. NOS inhibition led to a reduction of ERG a- and b-wave amplitudes in control eyes, that could be reversed by l-arginine. Nitric oxide (NO) appears to be a significant factor in the regulation of basal blood flow in the choroid. Adenosine appears to be a major mediator of retinal hyperemia after 60 min of ischemia. Since NOS inhibition appeared to have direct effects on ERG wave amplitudes, short-term ERG studies may be of limited use in assessing the role of NO in postischemic recovery of the retina. Our observations correlate well with the emerging role of NO as a neurotransmitter in the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Ostwald
- Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care, University of Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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46
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Goldstein J, López-Costa JJ, Saavedra JP. Changes in NADPH diaphorase reactivity and neuronal nitric oxide synthase in the rat retina following constant illumination. Neurosci Lett 1997; 231:45-8. [PMID: 9280164 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(97)00532-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPHd) reactivity and neuronal nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity (nNOS-IR) was investigated in the rat retina during photoreceptor regeneration. Photoreceptor damage and the disappearance of a NADPHd reactive/nNOS-IR band corresponding to inner photoreceptor segments were observed after continuous exposure to light irradiation. Both events were reversible after 20 days of total darkness. Also a progressive decrease in the number and in the staining intensity of NADPHd reactivity in amacrine cells were found along the first 3-6 days of darkness stabilizing thereafter in both illuminated and control groups. However, staining intensity in the former group remained more elevated than in the latter one. NOS activity in the retina varies depending on functional and pathological states.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Goldstein
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia Dr. Eduardo De Robertis, Facultad de Medicina, UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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47
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Abstract
NADPH-diaphorase histochemical staining was used to assess the distribution of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the goldfish brain, with the emphasis on the Mauthner (M-) cell, a reticulospinal neuron, and its inputs. Labeling was specific for certain cell types, including the M-cell, which stained heavily. The reaction product in this neuron was uniformly distributed along its axon, soma, and ventral and lateral dendrites. Afferents which synapse with the M-cell were also NADPH-diaphorase positive, including an identified class of inhibitory interneurons and the large myelinated club endings (LMCE) of eighth nerve fibers. The presence of NADPH-diaphorase in a lower level brainstem circuit that undergoes activity-dependent long-term potentiation of both excitatory and inhibitory synapses and is accessible for morpho-functional correlations provides the opportunity to elucidate the mechanism and role of nitric oxide at the single cell level.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Bell
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, MCP Hahnemann School of Medicine, Allegheny University, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
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48
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Bloomfield SA, Xin D, Osborne T. Light-induced modulation of coupling between AII amacrine cells in the rabbit retina. Vis Neurosci 1997; 14:565-76. [PMID: 9194323 DOI: 10.1017/s0952523800012220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The rod-driven, AII amacrine cells in the mammalian retina maintain homologous gap junctions with one another as well as heterologous gap junctions with on-cone bipolar cells. We used background illumination to study whether changes in the adaptational state of the retina affected the permeabilities of these two sets of gap junctions. To access changes in permeability, we injected single AII amacrine cells with the biotinylated tracer, Neurobiotin, and measured the extent of tracer coupling to neighboring AII cells and neighboring cone bipolar cells. We also measured the center-receptive field size of AII cells to assess concomitant changes in electrical coupling. Our results indicate that in well dark-adapted retinas, AII cells form relatively small networks averaging 20 amacrine cells and covering about 75 microns. The size of these networks matched closely to the size of AII cell on-center receptive fields. However, over most of their operating range, AII cells formed dramatically larger networks, averaging 326 amacrine cells, which corresponded to an increased receptive-field size. As the retina was light adapted beyond the operating range of the AII cells, they uncoupled to form networks comparable in size to those seem in well dark-adapted retinas. Our results, then, indicate that the adaptational state of the retina has a profound effect on the extent of electrical coupling between AII amacrine cells. Although we observed light-induced changes in the number of tracer-coupled cone bipolar cells, these appeared to be an epiphenomenon of changes in homologous coupling between AII amacrine cells. Therefore, in contrast to the robust changes in AII-AII coupling produced by background illumination, our data provided no evidence of a light-induced modulation of coupling between AII cells and on-cone bipolar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Bloomfield
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University Medical Center, New York 10016, USA
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49
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Bicker G, Schmachtenberg O. Cytochemical evidence for nitric oxide/cyclic GMP signal transmission in the visual system of the locust. Eur J Neurosci 1997; 9:189-93. [PMID: 9042582 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01366.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide is a membrane-permeant messenger molecule which activates soluble guanylyl cyclase. Using NADPH diaphorase staining as a marker for the enzyme nitric oxide synthase and an antiserum against cyclic GMP (cGMP) we investigated the possible sites of nitric oxide and cGMP synthesis in the retina and lamina of Schistocerca gregaria. The photoreceptor cells did not express NADPH diaphorase staining but monopolar cells of the lamina were strongly stained. After inhibition of phosphodiesterase activity and incubation of tissue in a nitric oxide donor, the photoreceptor cells showed cGMP immunoreactivity. In contrast to the photoreceptors, the monopolar cells of the lamina were not stained. Since the presynaptic photoreceptors were cGMP-immunoreactive and the postsynaptic targets of the monopolar cells did not express immunoreactivity, it is conceivable that nitric oxide released by monopolar cells may play a role as a retrograde messenger in visual information processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Bicker
- Institut für Neurobiologie, Freien Universität Berlin, Germany
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50
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Ientile R, Picciurro V, Pedale S, Nucci C, Malecka B, Nisticò G, Macaione S. Nitric oxide enhances amino acid release from immature chick embryo retina. Neurosci Lett 1996; 219:79-82. [PMID: 8971784 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(96)13163-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) was investigated for its ability to induce amino acid release from immature chick retina. The production of endogenous NO by activation of NO synthase after stimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptor caused a significant increase in basal release of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamine, whereas a more modest increase in the glutamate release was also observed. The exposure of chick retina from 9-day-old embryos to NO-generating compounds, S-nitroso-N-acetylpe-nicillamine (SNAP) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) produced a dose dependent increase in GABA, glutamine, and glutamate release. This effect was reduced by about 80% by haemoglobin. These results indicate that NO has a stimulatory effect on amino acid release from chick embryo immature retina. However, this effect does not appear to involve a cGMP-related mechanism because 8-bromo-cGMP, a stable analogue of cGMP, failed to affect spontaneous amino acid release and because zaprinast did not enhance NMDA-stimulated release. In conclusion, our present observations may account for a role of NMDA-mediated events in the biochemical maturation under depolarizing conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ientile
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences and Clinical Biochemistry, University of Messina, Italy
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