Primary biliary cirrhosis. Histological evidence of disease recurrence after liver transplantation

Mechanisms governing bystander activation of T cells

The immune system is endowed with the capacity to distinguish between self and non-self, so-called immune tolerance or "consciousness of the immune system." This type of awareness is designed to achieve host protection by eliminating cells expressing a wide range of non-self antigens including microbial-derived peptides. Such a successful immune response is associated with the secretion of a whole spectrum of soluble mediators, e.g., cytokines and chemokines, which not only contribute to the clearance of infected host cells but also activate T cells that are not specific to the original cognate antigen. This kind of non-specific T-cell activation is called "bystander activation." Although it is well-established that this phenomenon is cytokine-dependent, there is evidence in the literature showing the involvement of peptide/MHC recognition depending on the type of T-cell subset (naive vs. memory). Here, we will summarize our current understanding of the mechanism(s) of bystander T-cell activation as well as its biological significance in a wide range of diseases including microbial infections, cancer, auto- and alloimmunity, and chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis.

Recurrence of Primary Disease After Adult Liver Transplant - Risk Factors, Early Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention

Liver transplantation offers a new lease of life to patients with end-stage liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the implantation of an exogenous allograft and the accompanying immunosuppression bring their own challenges. Moreover, the persistence of risk factors for the initial liver insult place the new graft at a higher risk of damage. With the increasing number of liver transplants along with the improvement in survival posttransplant, the recurrence of primary disease in liver grafts has become more common. Pre-2015, the most common disease to recur after transplant was hepatitis C. However, directly acting antivirals have nearly eliminated this problem. The greatest challenge of disease recurrence we now face are those of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, alcohol-related liver disease, and primary sclerosing cholangitis. We focus on the epidemiology and pathophysiology of the recurrence of primary disease after transplant. We also discuss means of early identification, risk stratification, prevention, and management of recurrent primary disease after liver transplantation.

Liver Transplantation for Primary Biliary Cholangitis

Despite a significant increase in the total number of liver transplants (LTs) performed over the last 3 decades, primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) has become an uncommon indication for LT, which likely reflects the benefits of earlier diagnosis and available treatment, such as ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA). Nonetheless, LT remains the only cure for patients with progressive PBC despite medical therapy with survival rates that are among the highest of all indications for LT. Post-LT PBC patients, however, are at increased risk of rejection and disease recurrence.

Activated-memory T cells influence naïve T cell fate: a noncytotoxic function of human CD8 T cells

T cells are endowed with the capacity to sense their environment including other T cells around them. They do so to set their numbers and activation thresholds. This form of regulation has been well-studied within a given T cell population - i.e., within the naïve or memory pool; however, less is known about the cross-talk between T cell subsets. Here, we tested whether memory T cells interact with and influence surrounding naïve T cells. We report that human naïve CD8 T cells (T_N) undergo phenotypic and transcriptional changes in the presence of autologous activated-memory CD8 T cells (T_Mem). Following in vitro co-culture with activated central memory cells (T_CM), ~3% of the T_N acquired activation/memory canonical markers (CD45RO and CD95) in an MHC-I dependent-fashion. Using scRNA-seq, we also observed that ~3% of the T_N acquired an activated/memory signature, while ~84% developed a unique activated transcriptional profile hybrid between naïve and activated memory. Pseudotime trajectory analysis provided further evidence that T_N with an activated/memory or hybrid phenotype were derived from T_N. Our data reveal a non-cytotoxic function of T_Mem with potential to activate autologous T_N into the activated/memory pool. These findings may have implications for host-protection and autoimmunity that arises after vaccination, infection or transplantation.

Posttransplant immune-mediated cholangiopathies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Liver transplantation (LT) is the treatment of end-stage chronic liver diseases, mainly decompensated cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Biliary complications can be schematically classified into macroscopic versus microscopic lesions. Immune-related cholangiopathies include rejection, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and recurrence of pre-LT auto-immune biliary diseases, i.e. primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). Here, we review the various types of posttransplant immune-related cholangiopathies, and discuss their clinical implications, especially diagnostic issues.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recurrence of PBC and PSC after LT is increasingly well described in large cohorts and long-term follow-up. In this setting, the preventive effect of ursodeoxycholic acid on PBC recurrence, as well as the deleterious role of tacrolimus are now well documented. In addition, the significant negative impact of recurrent PBC on survival after LT has recently been demonstrated. With respect to rejection-associated biliary injury, a growing body of evidence is emerging on the role of anti-HLA antibody-mediated rejection.

SUMMARY

Immune-mediated cholangiopathies occurring after LT can be divided in two main nosologic groups: biliary lesions due to recurrence of PBC or PSC, or in the context of rejection, either acute or chronic, T-cell- or antibody-mediated. GVHD is very rare. Final diagnosis is strongly based on clinical context (indication for LT, delay since transplantation, biological abnormalities, imaging) but also and to an even greater extent on biopsy of liver graft. Clinico-pathological discussions are recommended, hearing in mind that diseases can be intertwined.

Non-invasive diagnosis and follow-up in liver transplantation

The field of liver transplantation directly or indirectly embodies all liver diseases, in addition to specific ones related to organ rejection (cellular and humoral). The recommended non-invasive methods for determining the indication for liver transplantation are the Model for End-stage Liver Disease score, and the alpha-foetoprotein score in case of hepatocellular carcinoma. Radiological methods are the cornerstones for the diagnosis of vascular and biliary complications after liver transplantation. The possible diseases of the liver graft after transplantation are multiple and often intertwined. Non-invasive diagnostic methods have been poorly evaluated in this context, apart from the recurrence of hepatitis C. Liver biopsy remains the gold standard for evaluating graft lesions in the majority of cases, especially graft rejection.

Use of Nakanuma staging and cytokeratin 7 staining for diagnosing recurrent primary biliary cholangitis after living-donor liver transplantation

AIM

Diagnosis of primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), which recurs in approximately 30% of liver transplant recipients, is histology-based, but no staging system has been established for recurrent PBC (rPBC). We used the Nakanuma staging system and cytokeratin 7 (CK7) staining to examine post-transplant liver biopsy specimens retrospectively and to evaluate histological features of rPBC.

METHODS

From 107 patients who underwent living donor liver transplantation for PBC, 60 recipients with 214 liver biopsies after 1-year post transplant were enrolled. Fibrosis, bile duct loss (BL), cholangitis activity, hepatitis activity, and CK7-positive hepatocytes were scored. Nakanuma staging was based on fibrosis and BL scores. We examined the correlation of scores and clinicolaboratory data among rPBC patients. We also evaluated whether chronological change of stage was correlated with liver-related failure.

RESULTS

Of 214 biopsies, 52 were protocol biopsy; 162 were episodic. Higher BL, cholangitis activity, and hepatitis activity scores were associated with rPBC diagnosis. At median follow up of 10.0 years (range 1.4-18.7 years), 29 (48%) patients were diagnosed with rPBC at 4.6 years (range 1.3-14.5 years). Liver-related failure occurred in five rPBC cases; three from rPBC, and two from chronic rejection. At rPBC diagnosis, higher BL and CK7 scores were more frequent in patients who developed liver-related failure than in other patients (P = 0.04, P < 0.01, respectively). In failure patients, the Nakanuma stage increased over time, and reached up to stage 4, whereas the Scheuer stage did not reach above stage 3.

CONCLUSIONS

Nakanuma staging is associated with rPBC and disease progression. Scores for BL and CK7 might be early markers for progressive rPBC.

Epidemiological and clinical features of primary biliary cholangitis in two Croatian regions: a retrospective study

AIM

To assess the measures of disease frequency and determine the clinical features of primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) in two Croatian regions.

METHODS

Databases of two tertiary hospitals, one located in the continental and one in the coastal region of Croatia, were retrospectively searched for PBC patients diagnosed from 2007 to 2018. Epidemiologic data analysis was restricted to patients from each hospital's catchment area. We analyzed factors related to response to therapy and event-free survival (EFS), defined as absence of ascites, variceal bleeding, encephalopathy, hepatocellular carcinoma, liver transplantation (LT), or death. In addition, we determined clinical and demographic data of transplanted PBC patients.

RESULTS

Out of 83 PBC patients, 86.7% were female, with a median age at diagnosis of 55 years. Average PBC incidence for the 11-year period was 0.79 and 0.89 per 100000 population, whereas the point prevalence on December 31, 2017 was 11.5 and 12.5 in the continental and coastal region, respectively. Of 76 patients with complete medical records, 21% had an advanced disease stage, 31.6% had an associated autoimmune condition, and all received ursodeoxycholic acid. EFS rate at 5 years was 95.8%. In an age and sex-adjusted multivariate Cox regression model, the only factor significantly associated with inferior EFS was no response to therapy (HR=18.4; P=0.018). Of all Croatian patients who underwent LT, 3.8% had PBC, with the survival rate at 5 years after LT of 93.4%.

CONCLUSION

This study gives pioneer insights into the epidemiological and clinical data on PBC in Croatia, thus complementing the PBC map of Southeast Europe.

Factors Associated With Recurrence of Primary Biliary Cholangitis After Liver Transplantation and Effects on Graft and Patient Survival

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) frequently recurs after liver transplantation. We evaluated risk factors associated with recurrence of PBC and its effects on patient and graft survival in a multicenter, international cohort (the Global PBC Study Group).

METHODS

We collected demographic and clinical data from 785 patients (89% female) with PBC who underwent liver transplantation (mean age, 54 ± 9 years) from February 1983 through June 2016, among 13 centers in North America and Europe. Results from biochemical tests performed within 12 months of liver transplantation were analyzed to determine whether markers of cholestasis could identify patients with recurrence of PBC (based on histologic analysis). Patients were followed for a median 6.9 years (interquartile range, 6.1-7.9 years).

RESULTS

PBC recurred in 22% of patients after 5 years and 36% after 10 years. Age at diagnosis <50 years (hazard ratio [HR], 1.79; 95% CI, 1.36-2.36; P < .001), age at liver transplantation <60 years (HR, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.02-1.90; P = .04), use of tacrolimus (HR, 2.31; 95% CI, 1.72-3.10; P < .001), and biochemical markers of severe cholestasis (bilirubin ≥100 μmol or alkaline phosphatase >3-fold the upper limit of normal) at 6 months after liver transplantation (HR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.16-2.76; P = .008) were associated with higher risk of PBC recurrence, whereas use of cyclosporine reduced risk of PBC recurrence (HR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.46-0.82; P = .001). In multivariable Cox regression with time-dependent covariate, recurrence of PBC significantly associated with graft loss (HR, 2.01; 95% CI, 1.16-3.51; P = .01) and death (HR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.11-2.65; P = .02).

CONCLUSIONS

Younger age at the time of diagnosis with PBC or at liver transplantation, tacrolimus use, and biochemical markers of cholestasis after liver transplantation are associated with PBC recurrence. PBC recurrence reduces odds of graft and patient survival. Strategies are needed to prevent PBC recurrence or reduce its negative effects.

The British Society of Gastroenterology/UK-PBC primary biliary cholangitis treatment and management guidelines

Primary biliary cholangitis (formerly known as primary biliary cirrhosis, PBC) is an autoimmune liver disease in which a cycle of immune mediated biliary epithelial cell injury, cholestasis and progressive fibrosis can culminate over time in an end-stage biliary cirrhosis. Both genetic and environmental influences are presumed relevant to disease initiation. PBC is most prevalent in women and those over the age of 50, but a spectrum of disease is recognised in adult patients globally; male sex, younger age at onset (<45) and advanced disease at presentation are baseline predictors of poorer outcome. As the disease is increasingly diagnosed through the combination of cholestatic serum liver tests and the presence of antimitochondrial antibodies, most presenting patients are not cirrhotic and the term cholangitis is more accurate. Disease course is frequently accompanied by symptoms that can be burdensome for patients, and management of patients with PBC must address, in a life-long manner, both disease progression and symptom burden. Licensed therapies include ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and obeticholic acid (OCA), alongside experimental new and re-purposed agents. Disease management focuses on initiation of UDCA for all patients and risk stratification based on baseline and on-treatment factors, including in particular the response to treatment. Those intolerant of treatment with UDCA or those with high-risk disease as evidenced by UDCA treatment failure (frequently reflected in trial and clinical practice as an alkaline phosphatase >1.67 × upper limit of normal and/or elevated bilirubin) should be considered for second-line therapy, of which OCA is the only currently licensed National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommended agent. Follow-up of patients is life-long and must address treatment of the disease and management of associated symptoms.

Risk factors for recurrence of primary biliary cholangitis after liver transplantation in female patients: A Japanese multicenter retrospective study

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is diagnosed mainly in female individuals, and risk factors for PBC recurrence (rPBC) after liver transplantation (LT) from cadaveric donors have been reported. We conducted a retrospective multicenter study of rPBC in female patients after living‐donor LT (LDLT). A total of 388 female patients undergoing LDLT for end‐stage PBC were enrolled, and the effects of preoperative and operative factors were evaluated. Postoperative factors were evaluated in 312 patients who survived for more than 1 year post‐LDLT. rPBC was defined as abnormal hepatic enzyme levels with typical histological findings in liver biopsies. Fifty‐eight patients (14.9%) developed rPBC with a median of 4.6 (0.8‐14.5) years post‐LT. Cox hazard analysis (P < 0.05) showed that younger recipient age (hazard ratio, 0.95; 95% confidence interval, 0.920‐0.982), shorter operative time (1.00; 0.995‐0.999), higher serum immunoglobulin M level (1.00; 1.001‐1.002), donor sex mismatch (2.45; 1.268‐4.736), human leukocyte antigen B60 (2.56; 1.336‐4.921) and DR8 (1.98; 1.134‐3.448), and initial treatment with cyclosporine A (3.14; 1.602‐6.138) were significantly associated with rPBC. The frequencies of Child‐Turcotte‐Pugh class C (0.46; 0.274‐0.775), the model of end‐stage liver disease score (0.96; 0.914‐0.998), and updated Mayo risk score (1.02; 1.005‐1.033) were significantly lower in rPBC. Posttransplantation use of steroids decreased and that of antimetabolites increased the frequency of rPBC. Conclusion: The timing of LT, recipient conditions, donor characteristics, and immunosuppressive medications may be associated with rPBC in LT recipients. (Hepatology Communications 2017;1:394–405)

Recurrence of primary sclerosing cholangitis, primary biliary cholangitis and auto-immune hepatitis after liver transplantation

Liver transplantation is a well-accepted treatment for decompensated chronic liver disease due to primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and auto-immune hepatitis (AIH). Survival after liver transplantation is generally good with 1 and 5-year survival rates around 90% and 70-85%. After transplantation, however, these diseases recur in 8.6-27% (rPSC), 10.9-42.3% (rPBC) and 7-42% (rAIH), and this poses significant challenges in terms of management and graft outcome in these patients. In this review we discuss the incidence, clinical presentation, challenges in diagnosis, reported risk factors and impact on post-transplant outcomes of recurrence of PSC, PBC and AIH after liver transplantation. We also discuss some of the limitations of current investigations and formulate idea's for future research objectives.

Systematic review: recurrent autoimmune liver diseases after liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune liver diseases (AILD) constitute the third most common indication for liver transplantation (LT) worldwide. Outcomes post LT are generally good but recurrent disease is frequently observed.

AIMS

To describe the frequency and risk factors associated with recurrent AILD post-LT and provide recommendations to reduce the incidence of recurrence based on levels of evidence.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed for full-text papers published in English-language journals, using the keywords 'autoimmune hepatitis (AIH)', 'primary biliary cholangitis and/or cirrhosis (PBC)', 'primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC)', 'liver transplantation' and 'recurrent disease'. Management strategies to reduce recurrence after LT were classified according to grade and level of evidence.

RESULTS

Survival rates post-LT are approximately 90% and 70% at 1 and 5 years and recurrent disease occurs in a range of 10-50% of patients with AILD. Recurrent AIH is associated with elevated liver enzymes and IgG before LT, lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates in the explants and lack of steroids after LT (Grade B). Tacrolimus use is associated with increased risk; use of ciclosporin and preventive ursodeoxycholic acid with reduced risk of PBC recurrence (all Grade B). Intact colon, active ulcerative colitis and early cholestasis are associated with recurrent PSC (Grade B).

CONCLUSIONS

Recommendations based on grade A level of evidence are lacking. The need for further study and management includes active immunosuppression before liver transplantation and steroid use after liver transplantation in autoimmune hepatitis; selective immunosuppression with ciclosporin and preventive ursodeoxycholic acid treatment for primary biliary cholangitis; and improved control of inflammatory bowel disease or even colectomy in primary sclerosing cholangitis.

First-Degree Living-Related Donor Liver Transplantation in Autoimmune Liver Diseases

Liver transplantation (LT) is the treatment of choice for end-stage autoimmune liver diseases. However, the underlying disease may recur in the graft in some 20% of cases. The aim of this study is to determine whether LT using living donor grafts from first-degree relatives results in higher rates of recurrence than grafts from more distant/unrelated donors. Two hundred sixty-three patients, who underwent a first LT in the Toronto liver transplant program between January 2000 and March 2015 for autoimmune liver diseases, and had at least 6 months of post-LT follow-up, were included in this study. Of these, 72 (27%) received a graft from a first-degree living-related donor, 56 (21%) from a distant/unrelated living donor, and 135 (51%) from a deceased donor for primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) (n = 138, 52%), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) (n = 69, 26%), autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) (n = 44, 17%), and overlap syndromes (n = 12, 5%). Recurrence occurred in 52 (20%) patients. Recurrence rates for each autoimmune liver disease were not significantly different after first-degree living-related, living-unrelated, or deceased-donor LT. Similarly, time to recurrence, recurrence-related graft failure, graft survival, and patient survival were not significantly different between groups. In conclusion, first-degree living-related donor LT for PSC, PBC, or AIH is not associated with an increased risk of disease recurrence.

Long-Term Outcomes of Living-Donor Liver Transplantation for Primary Biliary Cirrhosis: A Japanese Multicenter Study

The factors that influence long-term outcomes after living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT) for primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) are not well known. Compared with deceased-donor transplantation, LDLT has an increased likelihood of a related donor and a decreased number of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) mismatches. To clarify the effects of donor relatedness and HLA mismatch on the outcomes after LDLT, we retrospectively analyzed 444 Japanese patients. Donors were blood relatives for 332 patients, spouses for 105, and "other" for 7. The number of HLA A-B-DR mismatches was none to two in 141, three in 123, and four to six in 106 patients. The 15-year survival rate was 52.6%, and PBC recurred in 65 patients. Recipient aged 61 years or older, HLA mismatches of four or more (maximum of six), graft:recipient weight ratio less than 0.8, and husband donor were adverse indicators of patient survival. IgM 554 mg/dL or greater, donor-recipient sex mismatch, and initial immunosuppression with cyclosporine were significant risks for PBC recurrence, which did not affect patient survival. In subgroup analysis, conversion to cyclosporine from tacrolimus within 1 year diminished recurrence. Prospective studies are needed to determine the influence of pregnancy-associated sensitization and to establish an optimal immunosuppressive regimen in LDLT patients.

Recurrence of autoimmune liver diseases after liver transplantation

Liver transplantation (LT) is the most effective treatment modality for end stage liver disease caused by many etiologies including autoimmune processes. That said, the need for transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), but not for primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), has decreased over the years due to the availability of effective medical treatment. Autoimmune liver diseases have superior transplant outcomes than those of other etiologies. While AIH and PBC can recur after LT, recurrence is of limited clinical significance in most, but not all cases. Recurrent PSC, however, often progresses over years to a stage requiring re-transplantation. The exact incidence and the predisposing factors of disease recurrence remain debated. Better understanding of the pathogenesis and the risk factors of recurrent autoimmune liver diseases is required to develop preventive measures. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of incidence, diagnosis, risk factors, clinical course, and treatment of recurrent autoimmune liver disease (AIH, PBC, PSC) following LT.

Recurrence of autoimmune liver diseases after liver transplantation

Liver transplantation (LT) is the most effective treatment modality for end stage liver disease caused by many etiologies including autoimmune processes. That said, the need for transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), but not for primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), has decreased over the years due to the availability of effective medical treatment. Autoimmune liver diseases have superior transplant outcomes than those of other etiologies. While AIH and PBC can recur after LT, recurrence is of limited clinical significance in most, but not all cases. Recurrent PSC, however, often progresses over years to a stage requiring re-transplantation. The exact incidence and the predisposing factors of disease recurrence remain debated. Better understanding of the pathogenesis and the risk factors of recurrent autoimmune liver diseases is required to develop preventive measures. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of incidence, diagnosis, risk factors, clinical course, and treatment of recurrent autoimmune liver disease (AIH, PBC, PSC) following LT.

Preventive administration of UDCA after liver transplantation for primary biliary cirrhosis is associated with a lower risk of disease recurrence

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Recurrence of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) after liver transplantation (LT) is not rare and can occasionally lead to severe graft dysfunction and retransplantation. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a safe and effective treatment for PBC. However, whether preventive administration of UDCA after LT could lower the incidence of PBC recurrence is unknown.

METHODS

Patients transplanted for PBC in five French and Swiss centers from 1988 to 2010 were included. Most patients from a single center received UDCA (10-15 mg/kg/d) preventively. Recurrence of PBC was histologically defined from biopsies routinely performed at 1, 5, 10, and 15 years of follow-up, and at any time when clinically indicated.

RESULTS

A total of 90 patients with a 1-year minimum follow-up were studied retrospectively, including 19 (21%) patients receiving preventive UDCA. The mean follow-up was 12 years. Recurrence was diagnosed in 48 (53%) patients. The recurrence rates at 5, 10, and 15 years were 27%, 47%, and 61%, respectively. In a multivariate proportional hazards model adjusted for potential confounders and risk factors, preventive UDCA was the only factor affecting the risk of recurrence significantly (HR=0.32; 95% CI: 0.11-0.91). The 5, 10, and 15-year rates of recurrence were 11%, 21%, and 40%, respectively, under preventive UDCA, and 32%, 53%, and 70%, respectively, without preventive UDCA. Seven patients with recurrence (15%) progressed to cirrhosis, requiring retransplantation in one. However, neither recurrence nor preventive UDCA had a significant impact on survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Preventive treatment with UDCA reduces the risk of PBC recurrence after LT.

Recurrence of nonviral liver diseases after liver transplantation

Many nonviral diseases that cause liver failure may recur after liver transplantation. Although most studies have shown that a recurrent disease does not negatively affect patient and graft survival in the intermediate postoperative course, there is growing evidence that, especially in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and in patients with recurrent abusive alcohol drinking, disease recurrence is a significant risk factor for graft dysfunction and graft loss. Therefore, the recurrence of nonviral diseases has become a clinically important and prognostically relevant issue in the long-term management of recipients of liver transplantation.

Chemokines in chronic liver allograft dysfunction pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets

Despite advances in immunosuppressive drugs, long-term success of liver transplantation is still limited by the development of chronic liver allograft dysfunction. Although the exact pathogenesis of chronic liver allograft dysfunction remains to be established, there is strong evidence that chemokines are involved in organ damage induced by inflammatory and immune responses after liver surgery. Chemokines are a group of low-molecular-weight molecules whose function includes angiogenesis, haematopoiesis, mitogenesis, organ fibrogenesis, tumour growth and metastasis, and participating in the development of the immune system and in inflammatory and immune responses. The purpose of this review is to collect all the research that has been done so far concerning chemokines and the pathogenesis of chronic liver allograft dysfunction and helpfully, to pave the way for designing therapeutic strategies and pharmaceutical agents to ameliorate chronic allograft dysfunction after liver transplantation.

Liver transplantation and autoimmune liver diseases

Liver transplantation (LT) is an effective treatment for patients with end-stage autoimmune liver diseases such as primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis. Indications for LT for these diseases do not differ substantially from those used for other acute or chronic liver diseases. Despite the good outcomes reported, the recurrence of autoimmune liver disease is relatively common in the allograft. In addition, it has become apparent that autoimmunity and autoimmune liver disease can arise de novo after transplantation for nonautoimmune liver disorders. An awareness of the existence of recurrent autoimmune liver diseases and de novo autoimmune hepatitis after LT has important clinical implications because their management differs from the standard antirejection treatment and is similar to the management of classic autoimmune liver diseases in the native liver.

Disease recurrence plays a minor role as a cause for retransplantation after living-donor liver transplantation for primary biliary cirrhosis: A multicenter study in Japan

AIM

To clarify the role of disease recurrence as a cause of graft loss after living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT) for primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), we investigated explant grafts, as well as the native liver and liver biopsy specimens, of patients who underwent retransplantation.

METHODS

Of 516 patients who underwent LDLT for PBC and were registered in the Japanese Liver Transplant Registry, nine patients (1.7%) underwent retransplantation.

RESULTS

Seven patients undergoing retransplantation later than 6 months after primary liver transplantation (LT) were enrolled. All seven patients were female, with ages ranging from 34-57 years, and Model for End-Stage Liver Disease scores ranging 10-28. The right lobe was used as graft in one and the left lobe in six. The initial immunosuppression regimen was tacrolimus in six and cyclosporin in one. The period between the primary LT and retransplantation ranged 11-120 months, with a median of 36 months. Three patients survived and four patients died due to poor graft functions or complications after retransplantation. The primary causes of primary graft loss revealed by histological examination of the explant livers were chronic rejection in three, portal thrombus and/or steatohepatitis in three and outflow block in one. PBC recurrence was observed in 3 and the stage was mild in all.

CONCLUSION

PBC recurrence has a small impact as a cause of graft loss after LDLT.

Recurrence of autoimmune liver diseases after liver transplantation: clinical aspects

Autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis are autoimmune liver diseases characterized by progressive immune-mediated inflammation leading to the destruction of the hepatocytes and the biliary epithelial cells, and eventually to cirrhosis and liver failure. The ultimate treatment of these diseases, upon the establishment of end-stage liver disease, includes liver transplantation (LT). Recurrence of autoimmune liver diseases after LT is an entity increasingly recognized in the last few decades. The mechanisms driving recurrence remain poorly understood. The accurate diagnosis of the recurrence and the proper management of the affected patients remains a clinical challenge. This review discusses clinical aspects related to the recurrence of autoimmune liver diseases after LT. The main goals of this review are to discuss the reasons explaining the variability of the incidence rates of recurrent autoimmune disease and the outcome and risk factors for recurrent disease. We discuss in detail the diagnostic criteria and the treatment options of these disorders.

What is the prognosis after retransplantation of the liver?

In patients with failing liver grafts, hepatic retransplantation cannot be abandoned for the ethical and practical reasons that have been detailed previously. The current recommendations involve a strategy for risk stratification of retransplant candidates. The long-term patient and graft survival outcomes after ReLT are excellent and acceptable for the low and intermediate groups, respectively. However, pursuing ReLT in transplant candidates in the high-risk category cannot be recommended. Furthermore, ReLT should be reserved for centers equipped to manage the difficulties of the endeavor because it is a technically demanding operation that requires surgical expertise and excellent anesthesiology and critical care support both before and after transplantation.

Transient elastography identifies liver recipients with nonviral graft disease after transplantation: a guide for liver biopsy

Transient elastography (TE) reliably predicts the severity of recurrent hepatitis C virus after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT); however, its accuracy in evaluating nonviral liver graft damage is unknown. Between 2006 and 2009, 69 OLT recipients [37 for hepatitis B virus/hepatitis D virus (recurrence-free), 20 for autoimmune/cholestatic liver disease, 6 for alcoholic liver disease, and 6 for mixed etiologies] underwent protocol/on-demand liver biopsy (LB) and concomitant TE. A histological diagnosis of graft disease was made according to criteria defined by the Banff working group. Sixty-five patients (94%) had reliable TE examinations during a median post-OLT follow-up of 18 months (range = 7-251 months). LB samples (median length = 35 mm) showed graft damage in 28 patients (43%): idiopathic chronic hepatitis (11), steatohepatitis (3), rejection (3), cholangitis (2), and autoimmune/cholestatic recurrence (9). Patients with graft damage had significantly higher serum liver enzyme levels and TE results (median = 7.8 kPa, range = 5.4-27.4 kPa) than the 37 patients without graft damage (median = 5.3 kPa, range = 3.1-7.4 kPa, P < 0.001). By a receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, 2 TE cutoffs for the diagnosis of graft damage were identified: 5.3 kPa with 100% sensitivity and 7.4 kPa with 100% specificity. The pretest probability of graft damage was 43%; in patients with TE values ≤5.3 kPa, the posttest probability of graft damage fell to 0%, but in patients with TE results >7.4 kPa, the posttest probability increased to 100%. In conclusion, the dual TE cutoff allows accurate discrimination between the absence and presence of nonviral liver graft damage and improves the clinical management of OLT recipients in terms of the selection of patients most in need of LB.

Primary biliary cirrhosis and liver transplantation

Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an immune-mediated chronic progressive inflammatory liver disease, predominantly affecting middle-aged women, characterized by the presence of antimitochondrial antibodies (AMAs), which can lead to liver failure. Genetic contributions, environmental factors including chemical and infectious xenobiotics, autoimmunity and loss of tolerance have been aggressively investigated in the pathogenesis of PBC, however, the actual impact of these factors is still controversial. Survival of PBC patients has been largely improved with the widespread use of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), however, one third of patients still do not respond to the treatment and proceed to liver cirrhosis, requiring liver transplantation as a last resort for cure. The outcome of liver transplantation is excellent with 5- and 10-year survival rates around 80% and 70%, respectively, while along with long survival, the recurrence of the disease has become an important outcome after liver transplantation. Prevalence rates of recurrent PBC rage widely between 1% and 35%, and seem to increase with longer follow-up. Center-specific issues, especially the use of protocol biopsy, affect the variety of incidence, yet, recurrence itself does not affect patient and graft survival at present, and retransplantation due to recurrent disease is extremely rare. With a longer follow-up, recurrent disease could have an impact on patient and graft survival.

Long-term outcome of living donor liver transplantation for primary biliary cirrhosis

In living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) for primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), the majority of donors are genetically related to their recipients, leading to concerns of an earlier recurrence of PBC and a poorer prognosis due to genetic susceptibility. Totally 81 patients who underwent LDLT for PBC were the subjects of the present study. Immunosuppressive agents consisted of tacrolimus and methylprednisolone. In the outpatient clinic, when the aspartate and alanine aminotransferase level exceeded the upper limit of the normal range, the dose of methylprednisolone was increased from 4 to 6 mg/day for several months. Blood was examined every 2 weeks for 3 months and a liver biopsy was performed when aminotransferase levels did not decrease to the upper limit of the normal range after more than 3 months. Five-year survival and recurrence rates were estimated and the prognostic factors were analyzed. The mean observation period was 6.2 years. Five years after LDLT for PBC, the biopsy-proven PBC recurrence rate was 1%. The 5-year patient survival rate was 80%. The nonrelated or blood-related donor factor and number of human leukocyte antigen matches did not correlate with prognosis. PBC recurrence rate after LDLT in our series was lower than that in previous studies.

Liver transplantation in PBC and PSC: indications and disease recurrence

Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) represent major indications for liver transplantation (LT). Despite the steady increase in the incidence and prevalence of PBC, the number of liver transplants for PBC has fallen in recent years, whereas the number of transplants for PSC has remained stable. Indications for LT for PBC and PSC are no different from those of other causes of chronic liver disease, apart from some disease-specific indications. PBC and PSC have more favourable outcomes after LT, compared to viral hepatitis and alcohol-associated liver disease. Numerous studies have clearly demonstrated that PBC and PSC recur after LT. The diagnosis of recurrent disease should be made on agreed criteria. The impact of recurrent disease on survival is unclear. Study of recurrent PBC and PSC may provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of these diseases in the native liver.

Recurrence of non-viral liver disease after orthotopic liver transplantation

Liver transplant remains the ultimate treatment for decompensated liver disease. However, many diseases do recur after orthotopic liver transplant, which may affect recipients' quality of life and survival rate. We performed a systematic review of relevant epidemiological studies available on Medline that provided information on the recurrence of non-viral hepatitis after orthotopic liver transplantation in adult patients published until August 2010. All data were compiled from either review articles or retrospective studies. Primary sclerosing cholangitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, autoimmune hepatitis, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, alcoholic steatohepatitis and haemochromatosis can recur after liver transplantation. The rates for disease recurrence varied according to the indication for transplantation, and ranged from 7 to 50%. Although the survival rate of patients with liver disease has increased with the advent of liver transplantation and novel immunosuppressive protocols, recurrence of the primary liver disease remains a concern. The recurrence rates differ not only according to the cause of underlying liver disease but also vary within the indication for transplant. Further studies are needed to elucidate the risk factors for varied disease recurrence.

Chronic rejection of the liver: the role of immunosuppression

Liver transplantation is now widely recognised as an effective treatment option for patients with advanced liver disease. Many units now achieve greater than 85% survival at 1 year, with the majority of patients having a high quality of life. The maintenance of a high quality of life requires careful clinical management to ensure that the continued maintenance of excellent liver graft function is not achieved at the expense of immunosuppressive drug complications or morbidity. Acute liver rejection will occur in between 30 to 45% of patients, although with modern immunosuppressive protocols, usually combining one of the calcineurin agents, either cyclosporin or tacrolimus, with both azathioprine and corticosteroids (prednisolone) ensures that relatively few grafts are lost from severe acute rejection. While the incidence and severity of acute rejection may be one factor in raising the risk of chronic rejection, it may not be the principal one in many patients. It is important to recognise that the frequency of rejection also varies with the primary underlying liver disease, with patients with hepatitis B or alcoholic liver disease having relatively low rejection rates, compared with patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) or primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), which range between 20 to 70%. Chronic rejection will account for some 5% of grafts lost in the first 3 to 5 years. Indeed, there is some evidence that the incidence of chronic rejection is actually declining over the past few years. While the reason for this apparent decline is uncertain, and it could relate to better immunosuppression management, or more likely to the growing recognition that chronic graft dysfunction may be due to recurrent liver disease, such as autoimmune hepatitis, PBC, PSC, or recurrent hepatitis C. The differentiation of recurrent primary liver disease from chronic rejection can prove to be very difficult in clinical practice. Thus, the clinician must carefully monitor liver and graft function, evaluate any biochemical changes, and try to reach a clear diagnosis before considering any modification of immunosuppressive schedules.

Recurrent primary biliary cirrhosis after liver transplantation

Recurrent primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an important clinical outcome after liver transplantation (LT) in selected patients. Prevalence rates for recurrent PBC (rPBC) reported by individual LT programs range between 9% and 35%. The diagnostic hallmark of rPBC is histologic identification of granulomatous changes. Clinical and biochemical features are frequently absent with rPBC and cannot be used alone for diagnostic purposes. Some of the risk factors of rPBC may include recipient factors such as age, gender, HLA status and immunosuppression, as well as donor factors such as age, gender and ischemic time, although controversy exists. Most patients have early stage disease at the time of diagnosis, and there may be a role for therapy with ursodeoxycholic acid. While short- and medium-term outcomes remain favorable, especially if compared to patients transplanted for other indications, continued follow-up may identify reduced long-term graft and patient survival.

Primary biliary cirrhosis after liver transplantation: influence of immunosuppression and human leukocyte antigen locus disparity

Patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), despite excellent outcomes after liver transplantation (LT), may develop recurrent primary biliary cirrhosis (rPBC). The impact of immunosuppression and HLA mismatches on rPBC is unclear. We evaluated 103 consecutive PBC patients who underwent transplantation (follow-up > or = 10 months) with serial protocol biopsies. Cox regression was used to evaluate factors associated with rPBC: the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score pre-LT, year of transplantation, age and gender of the recipient and donor, cold and warm ischemic times, HLA mismatches, rejection, infections, and immunosuppression (initial/maintenance). The mean follow-up was 108 months (10-239 months), rPBC occurred in 36, and the mean was 44 months (10-200 months). Immunosuppression was cyclosporine-based in 38 (10 initially on monotherapy) and tacrolimus-based in 62 (19 initially on monotherapy). Steroids were discontinued in all but 7. Azathioprine was part of the initial immunosuppression in 70, 26 discontinued it, and 33 were never exposed to it. rPBC was associated independently with nonuse/discontinuation of azathioprine (P = 0.015, hazard ratio = 0.046, 95% confidence interval = 0.008-0.261). The mean time to rPBC was 74 months with azathioprine, 43 months when AZA was discontinued, and 31 months if no azathioprine was used. Cyclosporine or tacrolimus alone had no impact on rPBC, but cyclosporine with azathioprine was protective for rPBC in comparison with tacrolimus/azathioprine (0/18 versus 7/25, respectively; P < 0.001). rPBC was not affected by HLA mismatches. Azathioprine use in PBC patients who underwent transplantation was associated with less disease recurrence and a longer time to rPBC. Tacrolimus or cyclosporine individually had no effect, but cyclosporine and azathioprine in combination resulted in the least rPBC.

Long-term outcomes in pediatric liver transplantation

1. Critical clinical outcomes for pediatric liver transplantation (LT) recipients include (1) patient and graft survival, (2) complications (immune and nonimmune) of chronic immunosuppressive medications, and (3) long-term graft function. 2. Recurrence of malignancy, sepsis, and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder account for more than 65% of deaths occurring more than 1 year after LT. 3. Chronic rejection, late hepatic artery thrombosis, and biliary strictures account for 70% of graft loss occurring more than 1 year after LT. 4. Late histological changes in the allograft are emerging as a common problem in patients more than 5 years after LT. The pathogenesis of these findings and the impact on graft survival remain to be determined.

Recurrence of autoimmune disease, primary sclerosing cholangitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, and autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation

1. Recurrence of primary sclerosing cholangitis. a Five percent of liver transplants are performed because of end-stage liver disease secondary to primary sclerosing cholangitis. b Recurrent disease affects 10% to 27% of recipients. c Diagnostic criteria of recurrence include the following: A confirmed diagnosis of primary sclerosing cholangitis before liver transplantation. A cholangiogram showing nonanastomotic biliary strictures with beading and irregularity occurring 90 days after transplantation. Liver biopsy revealing fibrous cholangitis and/or fibro-obliterative lesions of large bile ducts. d The data argue for an association between recurrent primary sclerosing cholangitis and rejection and steroid therapy. 2. Recurrence of primary biliary cirrhosis. a Overall recurrence rates can reach 50%. b The gold standard for diagnosis is histological, with bile duct destruction by granulomas indicated by a florid lesion. c Anti-mitochondrial antibody is not a reliable marker of recurrence. d Recurrence does not affect long-term patient or graft survival. 3. Recurrence of autoimmune hepatitis. a Recurrence affects approximately 25% of liver allografts during the first 5 years after liver transplantation and more than 50% after 10 years of follow-up. b Diagnostic criteria of recurrence must include a combination of biochemical changes, (elevated serum aminotransferases levels and hypergammaglobulinemia), histological features of autoimmune hepatitis, and steroid dependency. c Immunosuppressive therapy should be pursued even if liver test results are normal.

Liver transplantation for primary biliary cirrhosis: results of aggressive corticosteroid withdrawal

INTRODUCTION

A subset of patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) may require long-term corticosteroid (CS) therapy following liver transplantation (OLT) due to concern over the possibility of recurrence. Our center has attempted to minimize CS use in all of our OLT recipients. In this study, we review our experience in this cohort to determine (1) patient outcome including PBC recurrence following transplantation and (2) the long-term requirement for CS use in PBC patients.

METHODS

From 1988 to 2006, 1102 OLTs were performed in 1032 adults at the University of Colorado, of which 70 patients (6.8%) with PBC received 74 allografts. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to evaluate predictors of CS withdrawal. Thirteen potential predictors of CS discontinuation were considered: age, gender, body mass index (BMI), race, type of graft (cadaveric or living donor [LD]), recurrence of PBC, warm ischemia time, and immunosuppressant.

RESULTS

Overall survival at 5 years was 85%. The 1-, 5-, and 10-year recurrence-free survivals were 90%, 72%, and 54%, respectively. PBC recurred in 18 patients (25.7%). Of these, none received a second transplant due to disease recurrence. At the time of last follow-up, 73% of recipients were steroid free. Independent predictors of CS discontinuation are age (>54; P = .0059) and LD graft type (P = .0008). Conversely, cyclosporine (P = .0007), female gender (P = .0216), and BMI > 31 (P = .0306) were negatively associated with CS withdraw. Importantly, steroid discontinuation did not influence PBC recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

While long-term outcomes in PBC patients are favorable, disease recurrence can generally be managed medically without the need for a second transplant. Using an aggressive CS minimization approach, nearly three-quarters of the patients were CS free at the time of last follow-up. Increasing age and LD grafts were associated with successful CS withdraw. Conversely, cyclosporine use, female gender, and increasing BMI were associated with unsuccessful steroid discontinuation.

Late protocol liver biopsies in the liver allograft: a neglected investigation?

As outcomes from liver transplantation have improved, attention has focused on long-term outcomes: patient and graft survival is affected by many factors, including the consequences of both overimmunosuppression (eg, renal failure and cancer) and underimmunosuppression (eg, rejection). The use of protocol (rather than event-driven) biopsies of the liver allograft, except for those grafted for HCV infection, has been largely abandoned. The aim of this study was to determine if protocol biopsies can improve the management of liver allograft recipients. A retrospective analysis of liver allograft recipients who had undergone protocol liver biopsies between 2000 and 2006 was performed. One hundred seventy-eight patients with normal liver tests (alcoholic liver disease, 49; autoimmune hepatitis, 20; and primary biliary cirrhosis, 107) who had undergone 235 protocol biopsies were identified. No significant complication from the biopsy was recorded. Liver histology was reported as normal or nearly normal in only 57 (24%). Chronic hepatitis (not obviously related to disease recurrence) was present in 78 (33%). Interpreted in the light of the calculated creatinine clearance, the biopsy findings indicated that overall immunosuppression (IMS) should be maintained or increased with standard calcineurin inhibitor (CNI)-based IMS in 25% of cases, that overall IMS should be reduced in 15% of cases, and that overall IMS should be maintained or increased by the substitution of non-nephrotoxic agents for CNIs in 9% of cases. The histological findings led to a documented change in IMS in 76 (32%) (increased IMS, 11; decreased IMS, 58; and switch from CNI, 7). In conclusion, protocol liver biopsy provides important histological information about graft function that is not available from standard liver tests and safely allows modification of IMS to ensure that long-term side effects of drug therapy (eg, renal failure) are minimized while graft function is sustained. Liver Transpl 15:931-938, 2009. (c) 2009 AASLD.

Recurrence of primary biliary cirrhosis and development of autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplant: A blind histologic study

AIM

This long-term study aimed to evaluate recurrence and evolution of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT).

METHODS

We reviewed "blindly" allograft biopsy specimens of women who underwent transplantation for PBC (n = 84), and women who received a transplant for chronic hepatitis C virus infection (CHCV ) (n = 108). All needle liver biopsy specimens obtained more than 6 months post-OLT were examined, including 83 specimens from 44 PBC patients and 152 specimens from 58 CHCV patients.

RESULTS

Granulomatous destructive cholangitis was found in five biopsies from four PBC patients (P = 0.0048). Non-necrotizing epithelioid cell granulomas were present in four biopsies from four PBC patients, and in two biopsies from one CHCV patient. Piecemeal necrosis (P = 0.0002), lobular necroinflammatory activity (P < 0.0001), steatosis (P < 0.0001) and fibrosis (P < 0.0001) were more prevalent in CHCV patients than PBC patients. Four PBC patients developed histologic evidence of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), at a mean time of 3.66 years post-OLT. One of these patients had histologic features of AIH/PBC overlap syndrome. All four patients developed bridging fibrosis (n = 2) or cirrhosis (n = 2). No other PBC patient had evidence of cirrhosis after OLT.

CONCLUSIONS

Histologic findings indicative of recurrent PBC were present in 15.9% of the PBC patients undergoing biopsy in this series. However, this group of patients did not suffer significant bile duct loss or fibrosis, as compared to the control group, suggesting that recurrent PBC is a mild or slowly progressive disease. Histologic evidence of AIH was observed in allograft biopsies of some PBC patients.

Recurrent nonviral liver disease following liver transplantation

Recurrent disease after liver transplantation is well recognized and remains a potential cause of premature graft loss. The rates of recurrence are difficult to establish because of the lack of consistency in diagnostic criteria and approaches to diagnosis. Owing to the fact that recurrent parenchymal disease may occur in the presence of normal liver tests, those centers that use protocol biopsies will report greater rates of recurrence. It is important to recognize that rates of recurrence vary according to indication and show little correlation with rates of graft loss from recurrent disease. Recurrance rates are greatest for primary sclerosing cholangitis and autoimmune hepatitis, and low reccurrance rates are reported for alcoholic liver disease and recurrent primary biliary cirrhosis. The impact of recurrent nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is not yet clear. Patients and clinicians need to be aware of the possibility of recurrent disease in the differential diagnosis of abnormal liver tests, and management stategies may require alteration to reduce the impact of disease recurrence on outcome. Finally, an understanding of which diseases do recur after transplantation and identification of the risk factors may lead to a better understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms of these conditions.

Seeking beyond rejection: an update on the differential diagnosis and a practical approach to liver allograft biopsy interpretation

Pathologic evaluation of liver allograft biopsies plays an integral role in the management of patients after liver transplantation. This review summarizes the clinical context and classical histology of different types of allograft rejection and also the common entities that enter the differential diagnosis of allograft rejection, and provides practical approaches to liver allograft biopsy interpretation. In addition, some of the new developments in the field of liver transplant pathology are updated. The purpose of this review is to provide guidance for pathologists interpreting liver allograft biopsies, particularly those interested in developing expertise in the field of liver transplant pathology.

Pediatric liver transplantation

In previous decades, pediatric liver transplantation has become a state-of-the-art operation with excellent success and limited mortality. Graft and patient survival have continued to improve as a result of improvements in medical, surgical and anesthetic management, organ availability, immunosuppression, and identification and treatment of postoperative complications. The utilization of split-liver grafts and living-related donors has provided more organs for pediatric patients. Newer immunosuppression regimens, including induction therapy, have had a significant impact on graft and patient survival. Future developments of pediatric liver transplantation will deal with long-term follow-up, with prevention of immunosuppression-related complications and promotion of as normal growth as possible. This review describes the state-of-the-art in pediatric liver transplantation.

Recurrence of cholestatic liver disease after living donor liver transplantation

End-stage liver disease, due to cholestatic liver diseases with an autoimmune background such as primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), is considered a good indication for liver transplantation. Excellent overall patient and graft outcomes, based mostly on the experience from deceased donor liver transplantation (DDLT), have been reported. Due to the limited number of organ donations from deceased donors in most Asian countries, living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) is the mainstream treatment for end-stage liver disease, including that resulting from PBC and PSC. Although the initial experiences with LDLT for PBC and PSC seem satisfactory or comparable to that with DDLT, some aspects, including the timing of transplantation, the risk of recurrent disease, and its long-term clinical implications, require further evaluation. Whether or not the long-term outcomes of LDLT from a biologically related donor are equivalent to that of DDLT requires further observations. The clinical course following LDLT may be affected by the genetic background shared between the recipient and the living related donor.

Transplantation in autoimmune liver diseases

Liver transplantation remains an effective treatment for those with end-stage disease and with intractable liver-related symptoms. The shortage of organs for transplantation has resulted in the need for rationing. A variety of approaches to selection and allocation have been developed and vary from country to country. The shortage of donors has meant that new approaches have to be adopted to make maximal use of the available organs; these include splitting grafts, use of extended criteria livers, livers from non-heart-beating donors and from living donors. Post transplantation, most patients will need life-long immunosuppression, although a small proportion can have immunosuppression successfully withdrawn. Newer immunosuppressive drugs and different strategies may allow a more targeted approach with a reduction in side-effects and so improve the patient and graft survival. For autoimmune diseases, transplantation is associated with significant improvement in the quality and length of life. Disease may recur after transplantation and may affect patient and graft survival.

Liver transplantation in primary biliary cirrhosis

The proportion of patients who undergo liver transplantation for primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is steadily declining. This decline is partly from the increasing number of patients undergoing transplantation for other indications, but also perhaps because of the effect of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) on the natural history of this condition. Nevertheless, patients who have PBC still constitute approximately 11% of all patients undergoing transplantation for cirrhosis. The prognosis after transplantation is excellent, with an approximately 80% 5-year survival reported by most large centres. Liver transplantation also significantly improves quality of life in survivors. The disease may recur after surgery in up to one third of patients, but recurrence has not been shown to have a significant effect on patients' survival in the medium term.

Recurrence of primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis after liver transplantation in Japan

Although there was some initial controversy, there is now a consensus that primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) does indeed recur in both cadaveric and living donated allografts. Recurrence rate after deceased donor liver transplantation (LT) was reported to be 10.9-23% at 5 years. In the present study, we reviewed 221 PBC patients who underwent living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT) in Japan. The 5-year overall survival rate was 79%, and the rate of recurrence based on histological findings was 10% (7/70) after a median time of 36 months. Primary immunosuppression, withdrawal of corticosteroids and human leukocyte antigen matches were not associated with the recurrence. Recurrent PBC appears to have little impact on graft function and survival, but this may become a greater problem with longer follow up. It is noteworthy that the 10-year survival of primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) patients who underwent LDLT wasfound to be only 39.1% in Japan, whereas that of PBC was 72.9%. Factors associated with the poor prognosis include biliary strictures, hepatobiliary and colorectal malignancies, and recurrence of PSC. In our study, we reviewed 66 patients with PSC who underwent LDLT in Japan. The 5-year survival rate was 72%, and the rate of recurrence diagnosed on histological and cholangiographic findings was 25% (11/44). Well-defined diagnostic criteria and longer studies are required to characterize the nature of recurrent PSC and its impact on graft survival in more detail.

Development of hepatic granulomas in patients receiving pegylated interferon therapy for recurrent hepatitis C virus post liver transplantation

Infrequently, hepatitis C (HCV) appears to be the cause of hepatic granulomas. Interferon therapy for HCV has been increasingly associated with the development of sarcoidosis.

AIMS

We sought to determine the incidence of hepatic granulomas in patients with recurrent HCV post liver transplantation (LT).

METHODS

Between 1994 and 2005, 820 patients were transplanted for HCV at our institution. The pathology database was searched for patients having recurrent HCV and granulomas. At Mount Sinai Medical Center, protocol biopsies have been performed for the last 2 years in patients receiving pegylated interferon-alpha2b and ribavirin (PEG) for recurrent HCV. Review of slides from explanted livers, pre- and post-perfusion biopsies, and all allograft biopsies were evaluated. Lipogranulomas were excluded because of their frequent association with steatosis.

RESULTS

A total of 10,225 liver biopsies were performed on HCV patients, and 25 (0.24%) showed non-caseating epithelioid granulomas. Hepatic granulomas were detected in 14 post-LT HCV patients; 9 patients received PEG. Typically, only 1 lobular granuloma was found. None of these patients had granulomas in the native liver or in any biopsy before interferon therapy; 6/9 patients had undetectable HCV-RNA levels, and 4 had sustained viral response. No other cause for granuloma formation was identified in the 6 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Hepatic granulomas are infrequently found in HCV liver biopsies and rarely found in post-LT biopsies with recurrent HCV. When present, they occur more commonly in patients receiving and virologically responding to PEG therapy. The presence of granulomas in patients with HCV being treated with PEG may not warrant an extensive etiologic work-up for granulomatous hepatitis unless otherwise clinically indicated.

Long-term survival and impact of ursodeoxycholic acid treatment for recurrent primary biliary cirrhosis after liver transplantation

The recurrence of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) in the hepatic allograft may impact patient and graft survival with long-term follow-up. The efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) for treatment of recurrent PBC after liver transplantation (LT) remains less well known. The aims of this study were as follows: 1) to determine the significance of recurrent PBC on overall survival among PBC patients who underwent LT, and 2) to determine the efficacy of UDCA treatment after LT in patients with recurrent PBC. A retrospective cohort study was conducted of 154 PBC patients who underwent LT with at least 1 yr of follow-up after transplantation from 1985 through 2005. A total of 52 patients with recurrent PBC were identified. After adjusting for age and gender, recurrent PBC was not associated with death or liver retransplantation (hazard ratio, 0.97, 95% confidence interval, 0.41-2.31; P = 0.9). A total of 38 patients with recurrent PBC received UDCA at an average dose of 12 mg/kg/day for a mean duration of 55 months. Over a 36-month period, an estimated 52% of UDCA-treated patients experienced normalization of serum alkaline phosphatase and alanine aminotransferase compared to 22% of untreated patients. There was no significant difference in the rate of histological progression between subgroups. UDCA did not influence patient and graft survival. In conclusion, the development of recurrent PBC has little impact on long-term survival or need for retransplantation. While UDCA therapy is associated with biochemical improvement, its role in delaying histologic progression remains unknown. In this short period of treatment, UDCA was not associated with improved patient and graft survival compared to untreated patients.

Cirrhosis after orthotopic liver transplantation in the absence of primary disease recurrence

Liver allograft cirrhosis is a relatively uncommon complication of liver transplantation. Most cases can be attributed to disease recurrence, particularly recurrent hepatitis C. Little is known about the frequency, etiology, and natural history of liver allograft cirrhosis occurring without evidence of recurrent disease. The aim of the present study was to review the clinicopathological features in this group of patients. We retrospectively reviewed data from all adult patients who were transplanted between 1982 and 2002 and survived >12 months after orthotopic liver transplantation (n = 1,287). Cases of histologically proven cirrhosis were identified from histopathological data entered into the Liver Unit Database. A total of 48 patients (3.7%) developed cirrhosis. In 29 of them, cirrhosis could be attributed to recurrent disease (hepatitis C, 11; hepatitis B, 4; autoimmune hepatitis, 4; primary biliary cirrhosis, 2; primary sclerosing cholangitis, 3; nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, 4; alcoholic liver disease, 1). In 9 of the 19 patients without evidence of disease recurrence, another cause of cirrhosis could be identified (de novo autoimmune hepatitis, 4; biliary complications, 4; acquired hepatitis B, 1). In the remaining 10 cases, the cause of cirrhosis remained unknown; their previous biopsies had shown features of chronic hepatitis of uncertain etiology. Three patients in this group died, and the remaining 7 are alive with good graft function 3-12 years after cirrhosis was first diagnosed. The prevalence of "cryptogenic" posttransplant cirrhosis was significantly higher in patients initially transplanted for fulminant seronegative hepatitis (6%) than in those transplanted for other diseases (0.3%). In conclusion, posttransplant cirrhosis without disease recurrence is uncommon, but it is more frequent in patients transplanted for fulminant seronegative hepatitis. Chronic hepatitis is the most frequent underlying pathological process in cases where the cause of cirrhosis remains uncertain.