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Liu J, Liu F, Liang T, Zhou Y, Su X, Li X, Zeng J, Qu P, Wang Y, Chen F, Lei Q, Li G, Cheng P. The roles of Th cells in myocardial infarction. Cell Death Discov 2024; 10:287. [PMID: 38879568 PMCID: PMC11180143 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-024-02064-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack, is a serious condition caused by the abrupt stoppage of blood flow to a part of the heart, leading to tissue damage. A significant aspect of this condition is reperfusion injury, which occurs when blood flow is restored but exacerbates the damage. This review first addresses the role of the innate immune system, including neutrophils and macrophages, in the cascade of events leading to myocardial infarction and reperfusion injury. It then shifts focus to the critical involvement of CD4+ T helper cells in these processes. These cells, pivotal in regulating the immune response and tissue recovery, include various subpopulations such as Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, and Th22, each playing a unique role in the pathophysiology of myocardial infarction and reperfusion injury. These subpopulations contribute to the injury process through diverse mechanisms, with cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-4 influencing the balance between tissue repair and injury exacerbation. Understanding the interplay between the innate immune system and CD4+ T helper cells, along with their cytokines, is crucial for developing targeted therapies to mitigate myocardial infarction and reperfusion injury, ultimately improving outcomes for cardiac patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Feila Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Tingting Liang
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Yue Zhou
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiaohan Su
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Biological Targeting Laboratory of Breast Cancer, Academician (expert) workstation, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, China
| | - Xue Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, China
| | - Jiao Zeng
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Biological Targeting Laboratory of Breast Cancer, Academician (expert) workstation, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, China
| | - Peng Qu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, China
| | - Yali Wang
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Biological Targeting Laboratory of Breast Cancer, Academician (expert) workstation, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, China
| | - Fuli Chen
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases & Department of Cardiology, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Qian Lei
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.
| | - Gang Li
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases & Department of Cardiology, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.
| | - Panke Cheng
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases & Department of Cardiology, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.
- Ultrasound in Cardiac Electrophysiology and Biomechanics Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China.
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Mutsaers SE, Miles T, Prêle CM, Hoyne GF. Emerging role of immune cells as drivers of pulmonary fibrosis. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 252:108562. [PMID: 37952904 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis, including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and other forms of interstitial lung disease, involves a complex interplay of various factors including host genetics, environmental pollutants, infection, aberrant repair and dysregulated immune responses. Highly variable clinical outcomes of some ILDs, in particular IPF, have made it difficult to identify the precise mechanisms involved in disease pathogenesis and thus the development of a specific cure or treatment to halt and reverse the decline in patient health. With the advent of in-depth molecular diagnostics, it is becoming evident that the pathogenesis of IPF is unlikely to be the same for all patients and therefore will likely require different treatment approaches. Chronic inflammation is a cardinal feature of IPF and is driven by both innate and adaptive immune responses. Inflammatory cells and activated fibroblasts secrete various pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that perpetuate the inflammatory response and contribute to the recruitment and activation of more immune cells and fibroblasts. The balance between pro-inflammatory and regulatory immune cell subsets, as well as the interactions between immune cell types and resident cells within the lung microenvironment, ultimately determines the extent of fibrosis and the potential for resolution. This review examines the role of the innate and adaptive immune responses in pulmonary fibrosis, with an emphasis on IPF. The role of different immune cell types is discussed as well as novel anti-inflammatory and immunotherapy approaches currently in clinical trial or in preclinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven E Mutsaers
- Institute for Respiratory Health, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia.
| | - Tylah Miles
- Institute for Respiratory Health, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Cecilia M Prêle
- Institute for Respiratory Health, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia; School of Medical, Molecular and Forensic Sciences, Murdoch University, WA, Australia
| | - Gerard F Hoyne
- Institute for Respiratory Health, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia; The School of Health Sciences and Physiotherapy, University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA, Australia
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3
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Amer EI, Allam SR, Hassan AY, El-Fakharany EM, Agwa MM, Khattab SN, Sheta E, El-Faham MH. Can antibody conjugated nanomicelles alter the prospect of antibody targeted therapy against schistosomiasis mansoni? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011776. [PMID: 38039267 PMCID: PMC10691730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND CLA (conjugated linoleic acid)-mediated activation of the schistosome tegument-associated sphingomyelinase and consequent disruption of the outer membrane might allow host antibodies to access the apical membrane antigens. Here, we investigated a novel approach to enhance specific antibody delivery to concealed surface membrane antigens of Schistosoma mansoni utilising antibody-conjugated-CLA nanomicelle technology. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We invented and characterised an amphiphilic CLA-loaded whey protein co-polymer (CLA-W) as an IV injectable protein nanocarrier. Rabbit anti-Schistosoma mansoni infection (anti-SmI) and anti-Schistosoma mansoni alkaline phosphatase specific IgG antibodies were purified from rabbit sera and conjugated to the surface of CLA-W co-polymer to form antibody-conjugated-CLA-W nanomicelles (Ab-CLA-W). We investigated the schistosomicidal effects of CLA-W and Ab-CLA-W in a mouse model of Schistosoma mansoni against early and late stages of infection. Results showed that conjugation of nanomicelles with antibodies, namely anti-SmI, significantly enhanced the micelles' schistosomicidal and anti-pathology activities at both the schistosomula and adult worm stages of the infection resulting in 64.6%-89.9% reductions in worm number; 72.5-94% and 66.4-85.2% reductions in hepatic eggs and granulomas, respectively. Treatment induced overall improvement in liver histopathology, reducing granuloma size and fibrosis and significantly affecting egg viability. Indirect immunofluorescence confirmed CLA-W-mediated antigen exposure on the worm surface. Electron microscopy revealed extensive ultrastructural damage in worm tegument induced by anti-SmI-CLA-W. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE The novel antibody-targeted nano-sized CLA delivery system offers great promise for treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infection and control of its transmission. Our in vivo observations confirm an immune-mediated enhanced effect of the schistosomicidal action of CLA and hints at the prospect of nanotechnology-based immunotherapy, not only for schistosomiasis, but also for other parasitic infections in which chemotherapy has been shown to be immune-dependent. The results propose that the immunodominant reactivity of the anti-SmI serum, Schistosoma mansoni fructose biphosphate aldolase, SmFBPA, merits serious attention as a therapeutic and vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eglal I. Amer
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Sonia R. Allam
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Aceel Y. Hassan
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Esmail M. El-Fakharany
- Protein Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg EL-Arab, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mona M. Agwa
- Department of Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Sherine N. Khattab
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Eman Sheta
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Marwa H. El-Faham
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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Cheng S, Zou Y, Zhang M, Bai S, Tao K, Wu J, Shi Y, Wu Y, Lu Y, He K, Sun P, Su X, Hou S, Han B. Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals the heterogeneity and intercellular communication of hepatic stellate cells and macrophages during liver fibrosis. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e378. [PMID: 37724132 PMCID: PMC10505372 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Uncontrolled and excessive progression of liver fibrosis is thought to be the prevalent pathophysiological cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular cancer, and there are currently no effective antifibrotic therapeutic options available. Intercellular communication and cellular heterogeneity in the liver are involved in the progression of liver fibrosis, but the exact nature of the cellular phenotypic changes and patterns of interregulatory remain unclear. Here, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing on nonparenchymal cells (NPCs) isolated from normal and fibrotic mouse livers. We identified eight main types of cells, including endothelial cells, hepatocytes, dendritic cells, B cells, natural killer/T (NK/T) cells, hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), cholangiocytes and macrophages, and revealed that macrophages and HSCs exhibit the most variance in transcriptional profile. Further analyses of HSCs and macrophage subpopulations and ligand-receptor interaction revealed a high heterogeneity characterization and tightly interregulated network of these two groups of cells in liver fibrosis. Finally, we uncovered a profibrotic Thbs1+ macrophage subcluster, which expands in mouse and human fibrotic livers, activating HSCs via PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Our findings decode unanticipated insights into the heterogeneity of HSCs and macrophages and their intercellular crosstalk at a single-cell level, and may provide potential therapeutic strategies in liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Cheng
- Department of General SurgeryTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
- Key Laboratory for Translational Research and Innovative Therapeutics of Gastrointestinal OncologyHongqiao International Institute of MedicineTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Yunhan Zou
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell BiologyShanghai Key Laboratory for Tumor Microenvironment and InflammationShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Man Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education)Shanghai Center for Systems BiomedicineShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Shihao Bai
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education)Shanghai Center for Systems BiomedicineShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Kun Tao
- Department of PathologyTongren HospitalShanghai Jiaotong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Jiaoxiang Wu
- Key Laboratory for Translational Research and Innovative Therapeutics of Gastrointestinal OncologyHongqiao International Institute of MedicineTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Yi Shi
- Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric DisordersBio‐X InstitutesShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityShanghaiChina
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti‐Doping LaboratoryShanghai University of SportShanghaiChina
| | - Yuelan Wu
- Key Laboratory for Translational Research and Innovative Therapeutics of Gastrointestinal OncologyHongqiao International Institute of MedicineTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Yinzhong Lu
- Key Laboratory for Translational Research and Innovative Therapeutics of Gastrointestinal OncologyHongqiao International Institute of MedicineTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
- Department of AnesthesiologyTongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Kunyan He
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education)Shanghai Center for Systems BiomedicineShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Peng Sun
- Department of General SurgeryTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Xianbin Su
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education)Shanghai Center for Systems BiomedicineShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityShanghaiChina
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti‐Doping LaboratoryShanghai University of SportShanghaiChina
| | - Shangwei Hou
- Department of AnesthesiologyTongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Bo Han
- Department of General SurgeryTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
- Key Laboratory for Translational Research and Innovative Therapeutics of Gastrointestinal OncologyHongqiao International Institute of MedicineTongren HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
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5
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Abstract
Chronic liver diseases such as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or viral hepatitis are characterized by persistent inflammation and subsequent liver fibrosis. Liver fibrosis critically determines long-term morbidity (for example, cirrhosis or liver cancer) and mortality in NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Inflammation represents the concerted response of various hepatic cell types to hepatocellular death and inflammatory signals, which are related to intrahepatic injury pathways or extrahepatic mediators from the gut-liver axis and the circulation. Single-cell technologies have revealed the heterogeneity of immune cell activation concerning disease states and the spatial organization within the liver, including resident and recruited macrophages, neutrophils as mediators of tissue repair, auto-aggressive features of T cells as well as various innate lymphoid cell and unconventional T cell populations. Inflammatory responses drive the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), and HSC subsets, in turn, modulate immune mechanisms via chemokines and cytokines or transdifferentiate into matrix-producing myofibroblasts. Current advances in understanding the pathogenesis of inflammation and fibrosis in the liver, mainly focused on NAFLD or NASH owing to the high unmet medical need, have led to the identification of several therapeutic targets. In this Review, we summarize the inflammatory mediators and cells in the diseased liver, fibrogenic pathways and their therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Hammerich
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Campus Virchow-Klinikum and Campus Charité Mitte, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Campus Virchow-Klinikum and Campus Charité Mitte, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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6
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Huang Y, Guzy R, Ma SF, Bonham CA, Jou J, Schulte JJ, Kim JS, Barros AJ, Espindola MS, Husain AN, Hogaboam CM, Sperling AI, Noth I. Central lung gene expression associates with myofibroblast features in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. BMJ Open Respir Res 2023; 10:10/1/e001391. [PMID: 36725082 PMCID: PMC9896241 DOI: 10.1136/bmjresp-2022-001391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Contribution of central lung tissues to pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) remains unknown. OBJECTIVE To ascertain the relationship between cell types of IPF-central and IPF-peripheral lung explants using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) transcriptome. METHODS Biopsies of paired IPF-central and IPF-peripheral along with non-IPF lungs were selected by reviewing H&E data. Criteria for differentially expressed genes (DEG) were set at false discovery rate <5% and fold change >2. Computational cell composition deconvolution was performed. Signature scores were computed for each cell type. FINDINGS Comparison of central IPF versus non-IPF identified 1723 DEG (1522 upregulated and 201 downregulated). Sixty-two per cent (938/1522) of the mutually upregulated genes in central IPF genes were also upregulated in peripheral IPF versus non-IPF. Moreover, 85 IPF central-associated genes (CAG) were upregulated in central IPF versus both peripheral IPF and central non-IPF. IPF single-cell RNA-seq analysis revealed the highest CAG signature score in myofibroblasts and significantly correlated with a previously published activated fibroblasts signature (r=0.88, p=1.6×10-4). CAG signature scores were significantly higher in IPF than in non-IPF myofibroblasts (p=0.013). Network analysis of central-IPF genes identified a module significantly correlated with the deconvoluted proportion of myofibroblasts in central IPF and anti-correlated with inflammation foci trait in peripheral IPF. The module genes were over-represented in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis signalling pathways. INTERPRETATION Gene expression in central IPF lung regions demonstrates active myofibroblast features that contributes to disease progression. Further elucidation of pathological transcriptomic state of cells in the central regions of the IPF lung that are relatively spared from morphological rearrangements may provide insights into molecular changes in the IPF progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Huang
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Rob Guzy
- Section of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Shwu-Fan Ma
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Catherine A Bonham
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Jonathan Jou
- Department of Surgery, University of Illinois, Peoria, Illinois, USA
| | - Jefree J Schulte
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - John S Kim
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Andrew J Barros
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Milena S Espindola
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Aliya N Husain
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Cory M Hogaboam
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Anne I Sperling
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Imre Noth
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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Di-Iacovo N, Pieroni S, Piobbico D, Castelli M, Scopetti D, Ferracchiato S, Della-Fazia MA, Servillo G. Liver Regeneration and Immunity: A Tale to Tell. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:1176. [PMID: 36674692 PMCID: PMC9864482 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The physiological importance of the liver is demonstrated by its unique and essential ability to regenerate following extensive injuries affecting its function. By regenerating, the liver reacts to hepatic damage and thus enables homeostasis to be restored. The aim of this review is to add new findings that integrate the regenerative pathway to the current knowledge. An optimal regeneration is achieved through the integration of two main pathways: IL-6/JAK/STAT3, which promotes hepatocyte proliferation, and PI3K/PDK1/Akt, which in turn enhances cell growth. Proliferation and cell growth are events that must be balanced during the three phases of the regenerative process: initiation, proliferation and termination. Achieving the correct liver/body weight ratio is ensured by several pathways as extracellular matrix signalling, apoptosis through caspase-3 activation, and molecules including transforming growth factor-beta, and cyclic adenosine monophosphate. The actors involved in the regenerative process are numerous and many of them are also pivotal players in both the immune and non-immune inflammatory process, that is observed in the early stages of hepatic regeneration. Balance of Th17/Treg is important in liver inflammatory process outcomes. Knowledge of liver regeneration will allow a more detailed characterisation of the molecular mechanisms that are crucial in the interplay between proliferation and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Di-Iacovo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Stefania Pieroni
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Danilo Piobbico
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Marilena Castelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Damiano Scopetti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Simona Ferracchiato
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Maria Agnese Della-Fazia
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Servillo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazzale L. Severi 1, 06129 Perugia, Italy
- Centro Universitario di Ricerca sulla Genomica Funzionale (C.U.R.Ge.F.), University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
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8
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Infection and Immunity. Clin Immunol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-818006-8.00007-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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9
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Yuan S, Guo D, Liang X, Zhang L, Zhang Q, Xie D. Relaxin in fibrotic ligament diseases: Its regulatory role and mechanism. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1131481. [PMID: 37123405 PMCID: PMC10134402 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1131481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrotic ligament diseases (FLDs) are diseases caused by the pathological accumulation of periarticular fibrotic tissue, leading to functional disability around joint and poor life quality. Relaxin (RLX) has been reported to be involved in the development of fibrotic lung and liver diseases. Previous studies have shown that RLX can block pro-fibrotic process by reducing the excess extracellular matrix (ECM) formation and accelerating collagen degradation in vitro and in vivo. Recent studies have shown that RLX can attenuate connective tissue fibrosis by suppressing TGF-β/Smads signaling pathways to inhibit the activation of myofibroblasts. However, the specific roles and mechanisms of RLX in FLDs remain unclear. Therefore, in this review, we confirmed the protective effect of RLX in FLDs and summarized its mechanism including cells, key cytokines and signaling pathways involved. In this article, we outline the potential therapeutic role of RLX and look forward to the application of RLX in the clinical translation of FLDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Yuan
- Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, Center for Orthopedic Surgery, Orthopedic Hospital of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dong Guo
- Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, Center for Orthopedic Surgery, Orthopedic Hospital of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinzhi Liang
- Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, Center for Orthopedic Surgery, Orthopedic Hospital of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Luhui Zhang
- Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, Center for Orthopedic Surgery, Orthopedic Hospital of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qun Zhang
- Good Clinical Practice Development, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bone and Joint Degeneration Diseases, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Denghui Xie, ; Qun Zhang,
| | - Denghui Xie
- Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, Center for Orthopedic Surgery, Orthopedic Hospital of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Bone and Joint Degeneration Diseases, Academy of Orthopedics, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- *Correspondence: Denghui Xie, ; Qun Zhang,
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10
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Sun J, Wu M, Wang L, Wang P, Xiao T, Wang S, Liu Q. miRNA-21, which disrupts metabolic reprogramming to facilitate CD4 + T cell polarization toward the Th2 phenotype, accelerates arsenite-induced hepatic fibrosis. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 248:114321. [PMID: 36427370 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Elevated levels of arsenic may be present in groundwater, and long-term exposure to arsenic increases hepatic fibrosis. T helper 2 (Th2) cells are involved in the fibrotic cascade, and cell metabolism is a regulatory factor participating in CD4+ T cell differentiation and function. However, the mechanism for Th2 cell regulation of arsenite-induced hepatic fibrosis is not fully understood. In present study, for arsenite-fed mice, activated hepatic stellate cells may be involved in the infiltration of CD4+ T cells, accompanied by up-regulation of GATA3, a transcription factor, and IL-13, the major Th2 cytokine. Exposed to arsenite, Jurkat cells had increased aerobic glycolysis to promote the cell cycle and cell proliferation. Further, this process elevated levels of marker molecules, including those of the Th2 paradigm characterized by GATA3, IL-4, and IL-13. LX-2 cells were activated when treated with culture medium from Jurkat cells exposed to arsenite. miR-21 may be a therapeutic target for arsenite-induced hepatic fibrosis. In vitro, miR-21 knock-down caused inhibition of the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway induced by arsenite. It also reversed the elevated glycolysis and the accelerated cell cycle and cell proliferation. Indeed, this alteration led to diminished expression of GATA3, IL-4, and IL-13 in T cells differentiated under Th2 conditions, which inhibits activation of LX-2 cells. Consistent with the results in vitro, miR-21 knock-out in mice reversed hepatic fibrosis and attenuated the levels of GATA3 and IL-13 induced by arsenite. These findings indicate that miR-21 regulates the glycolysis of CD4+ T cells through the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway to accelerate the cell cycle, thereby facilitating CD4+ T cell polarization toward Th2 and releasing the fibrogenic factor IL-13, which participates in arsenite-associated hepatic fibrosis. Inhibition of Th2 polarization of CD4+T cells or miR-21 could be a therapeutic strategy to combat hepatic fibrosis caused by exposure to arsenic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Sun
- Center for Global Health, The Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Suzhou Institute of Public Health, Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Department of Nutrition, Clinical Assessment Center of Functional Food, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Wu
- Center for Global Health, The Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Suzhou Institute of Public Health, Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Baotou Medical College, Baotou 014040, Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China
| | - Peiwen Wang
- Center for Global Health, The Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Suzhou Institute of Public Health, Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian Xiao
- Center for Global Health, The Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Suzhou Institute of Public Health, Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Suhua Wang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Baotou Medical College, Baotou 014040, Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qizhan Liu
- Center for Global Health, The Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Suzhou Institute of Public Health, Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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11
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Quinteros SL, O'Brien B, Donnelly S. Exploring the role of macrophages in determining the pathogenesis of liver fluke infection. Parasitology 2022; 149:1364-1373. [PMID: 35621040 PMCID: PMC11010472 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182022000749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The food-borne trematodes, Opisthorchis viverrini and Clonorchis sinensis, are classified as group 1 biological carcinogens: definitive causes of cancer. By contrast, infections with Fasciola hepatica, also a food-borne trematode of the phylum Platyhelminthes, are not carcinogenic. This review explores the premise that the differential activation of macrophages during infection with these food-borne trematodes is a major determinant of the pathological outcome of infection. Like most helminths, the latter stages of infection with all 3 flukes induce M2 macrophages, a phenotype that mediates the functional repair of tissue damaged by the feeding and migratory activities of the parasites. However, there is a critical difference in how the development of pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages is regulated during infection with these parasites. While the activation of the M1 macrophage phenotype is largely suppressed during the early stages of infection with F. hepatica, M1 macrophages predominate in the bile ducts following infection with O. viverrini and C. sinensis. The anti-microbial factors released by M1 macrophages create an environment conducive to mutagenesis, and hence the initiation of tumour formation. Subsequently, the tissue remodelling processes induced by the M2 macrophages promote the proliferation of mutated cells, and the expansion of cancerous tissue. This review will also explore the interactions between macrophages and parasite-derived signals, and their contributions to the stark differences in the innate immune responses to infection with these parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susel Loli Quinteros
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, Australia
| | - Bronwyn O'Brien
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, Australia
| | - Sheila Donnelly
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, Australia
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12
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Kokubo K, Onodera A, Kiuchi M, Tsuji K, Hirahara K, Nakayama T. Conventional and pathogenic Th2 cells in inflammation, tissue repair, and fibrosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:945063. [PMID: 36016937 PMCID: PMC9395650 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.945063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 2 helper T (Th2) cells, a subset of CD4+ T cells, play an important role in the host defense against pathogens and allergens by producing Th2 cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-13, to trigger inflammatory responses. Emerging evidence reveals that Th2 cells also contribute to the repair of injured tissues after inflammatory reactions. However, when the tissue repair process becomes chronic, excessive, or uncontrolled, pathological fibrosis is induced, leading to organ failure and death. Thus, proper control of Th2 cells is needed for complete tissue repair without the induction of fibrosis. Recently, the existence of pathogenic Th2 (Tpath2) cells has been revealed. Tpath2 cells produce large amounts of Th2 cytokines and induce type 2 inflammation when activated by antigen exposure or tissue injury. In recent studies, Tpath2 cells are suggested to play a central role in the induction of type 2 inflammation whereas the role of Tpath2 cells in tissue repair and fibrosis has been less reported in comparison to conventional Th2 cells. In this review, we discuss the roles of conventional Th2 cells and pathogenic Th2 cells in the sequence of tissue inflammation, repair, and fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kota Kokubo
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Atsushi Onodera
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Academic Research, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kiuchi
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kaori Tsuji
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Hirahara
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
- *Correspondence: Kiyoshi Hirahara, ; Toshinori Nakayama,
| | - Toshinori Nakayama
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
- AMED-CREST, AMED, Chiba, Japan
- *Correspondence: Kiyoshi Hirahara, ; Toshinori Nakayama,
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13
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Hanton AJ, Scott F, Stenzel K, Nausch N, Zdesenko G, Mduluza T, Mutapi F. Frequency distribution of cytokine and associated transcription factor single nucleotide polymorphisms in Zimbabweans: Impact on schistosome infection and cytokine levels. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010536. [PMID: 35759449 PMCID: PMC9236240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines mediate T-helper (TH) responses that are crucial for determining the course of infection and disease. The expression of cytokines is regulated by transcription factors (TFs). Here we present the frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in cytokine and TF genes in a Zimbabwean population, and further relate SNPs to susceptibility to schistosomiasis and cytokine levels. Individuals (N = 850) were genotyped for SNPs across the cytokines IL4, IL10, IL13, IL33, and IFNG, and their TFs STAT4, STAT5A/B, STAT6, GATA3, FOXP3, and TBX21 to determine allele frequencies. Circulatory levels of systemic and parasite-specific IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, and IFNγ were quantified via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Schistosoma haematobium infection was determined by enumerating parasite eggs excreted in urine by microscopy. SNP allele frequencies were related to infection status by case-control analysis and logistic regression, and egg burdens and systemic and parasite-specific cytokine levels by analysis of variance and linear regression. Novel findings were i) IL4 rs2070874*T’s association with protection from schistosomiasis, as carriage of ≥1 allele gave an odds ratio of infection of 0.597 (95% CIs, 0.421–0.848, p = 0.0021) and IFNG rs2069727*G’s association with susceptibility to schistosomiasis as carriage of ≥1 allele gave an odds ratio of infection of 1.692 (1.229–2.33, p = 0.0013). Neither IL4 rs2070874*T nor IFNG rs2069727*G were significantly associated with cytokine levels. This study found TH2-upregulating SNPs were more frequent among the Zimbabwean sample compared to African and European populations, highlighting the value of immunogenetic studies of African populations in the context of infectious diseases and other conditions, including allergic and atopic disease. In addition, the identification of novel infection-associated alleles in both TH1- and TH2-associated genes highlights the role of both in regulating and controlling responses to Schistosoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew John Hanton
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- NIHR Global Health Research Unit Tackling Infections to Benefit Africa (TIBA), University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Fiona Scott
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- NIHR Global Health Research Unit Tackling Infections to Benefit Africa (TIBA), University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Katharina Stenzel
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Norman Nausch
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Grace Zdesenko
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- NIHR Global Health Research Unit Tackling Infections to Benefit Africa (TIBA), University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Takafira Mduluza
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Francisca Mutapi
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- NIHR Global Health Research Unit Tackling Infections to Benefit Africa (TIBA), University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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14
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Vanderstichele S, Vranckx JJ. Anti-fibrotic effect of adipose-derived stem cells on fibrotic scars. World J Stem Cells 2022; 14:200-213. [PMID: 35432731 PMCID: PMC8963379 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v14.i2.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sustained injury, through radiotherapy, burns or surgical trauma, can result in fibrosis, displaying an excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM), persisting inflammatory reaction, and reduced vascularization. The increasing recognition of fibrosis as a cause for disease and mortality, and increasing use of radiotherapy causing fibrosis, stresses the importance of a decent anti-fibrotic treatment.
AIM To obtain an in-depth understanding of the complex mechanisms underlying fibrosis, and more specifically, the potential mechanisms-of-action of adipose-derived stomal cells (ADSCs) in realizing their anti-fibrotic effect.
METHODS A systematic review of the literature using PubMed, Embase and Web of Science was performed by two independent reviewers.
RESULTS The injection of fat grafts into fibrotic tissue, releases ADSC into the environment. ADSCs’ capacity to directly differentiate into key cell types (e.g., ECs, fibroblasts), as well as to secrete multiple paracrine factors (e.g., hepatocyte growth factor, basis fibroblast growth factor, IL-10), allows them to alter different mechanisms underlying fibrosis in a combined approach. ADSCs favor ECM degradation by impacting the fibroblast-to-myofibroblast differentiation, favoring matrix metalloproteinases over tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases, positively influencing collagen organization, and inhibiting the pro-fibrotic effects of transforming growth factor-β1. Furthermore, they impact elements of both the innate and adaptive immune response system, and stimulate angiogenesis on the site of injury (through secretion of pro-angiogenic cytokines like stromal cell-derived factor-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor).
CONCLUSION This review shows that understanding the complex interactions of ECM accumulation, immune response and vascularization, is vital to fibrosis treatments’ effectiveness like fat grafting. It details how ADSCs intelligently steer this complex system in an anti-fibrotic or pro-angiogenic direction, without falling into extreme dilation or stimulation of a single aspect. Detailing this combined approach, has brought fat grafting one step closer to unlocking its full potential as a non-anecdotal treatment for fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan Jeroen Vranckx
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive Surgery, KU-Leuven University Hospitals, Leuven 3000, Belgium
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15
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Zhang Y, Wu Y, Liu H, Gong W, Hu Y, Shen Y, Cao J. Granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells inhibit T follicular helper cells during experimental Schistosoma japonicum infection. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:497. [PMID: 34565440 PMCID: PMC8474882 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background CD4+ T helper (Th) cells play critical roles in both host humoral and cellular immunity against parasitic infection and in the immunopathology of schistosomiasis. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a specialized subset of Th cells involved in immunity against infectious diseases. However, the role of Tfh cells in schistosome infection is not fully understood. In this study, the dynamics and roles of Tfh cell regulation were examined. We demonstrated that granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (G-MDSC) can suppress the proliferation of Tfh cells. Methods The levels of Tfh cells and two other Th cells (Th1, Th2) were quantitated at different Schistosoma japonicum infection times (0,3, 5, 8, 13 weeks) using flow cytometry. The proliferation of Tfh cells stimulated by soluble egg antigen (SEA) and soluble worm antigen (SWA) in vivo and in vitro were analyzed. Tfh cells were co-cultured with MDSC to detect the proliferation of Tfh cells labelled by 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate N-succinimidyl ester. We dynamically monitored the expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) on the surface of Tfh cells and programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) on the surface of MDSC at different infection times (0, 3, 5, 8 weeks). Naïve CD4+ T cells (in Tfh cell differentiation) were co-cultured with G-MDSC or monocytic MDSC in the presence, or in the absence, of PD-L1 blocking antibody. Results The proportion of Tfh cells among CD4+ T cells increased gradually with time of S. japonicum infection, reaching a peak at 8 weeks, after which it decreased gradually. Both SEA and SWA caused an increase in Tfh cells in vitro and in vivo. It was found that MDSC can suppress the proliferation of Tfh cells. The expression of PD-1 on Tfh cells and PD-L1 from MDSC cells increased with prolongation of the infection cycle. G-MDSC might regulate Tfh cells through the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway. Conclusions The reported study not only reveals the dynamics of Tfh cell regulation during S. japonicum infection, but also provides evidence that G-MDSC may regulate Tfh cells by PD-1/PD-L1. This study provides strong evidence for the important role of Tfh cells in the immune response to S. japonicum infection. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Shanghai, 200025, China.,Department of Pathogenic Biology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, 264003, China.,National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, 200025, China.,WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Center for International Research On Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yulong Wu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, 264003, China
| | - Hua Liu
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, 200025, China.,WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Center for International Research On Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Wenci Gong
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, 200025, China.,WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Center for International Research On Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yuan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, 200025, China.,WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Center for International Research On Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yujuan Shen
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, 200025, China.,WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China.,National Center for International Research On Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Jianping Cao
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China, Shanghai, 200025, China. .,National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research), Shanghai, 200025, China. .,WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, 200025, China. .,National Center for International Research On Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200025, China.
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16
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Campana L, Esser H, Huch M, Forbes S. Liver regeneration and inflammation: from fundamental science to clinical applications. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2021; 22:608-624. [PMID: 34079104 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-021-00373-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Liver regeneration is a complex process involving the crosstalk of multiple cell types, including hepatocytes, hepatic stellate cells, endothelial cells and inflammatory cells. The healthy liver is mitotically quiescent, but following toxic damage or resection the cells can rapidly enter the cell cycle to restore liver mass and function. During this process of regeneration, epithelial and non-parenchymal cells respond in a tightly coordinated fashion. Recent studies have described the interaction between inflammatory cells and a number of other cell types in the liver. In particular, macrophages can support biliary regeneration, contribute to fibrosis remodelling by repressing hepatic stellate cell activation and improve liver regeneration by scavenging dead or dying cells in situ. In this Review, we describe the mechanisms of tissue repair following damage, highlighting the close relationship between inflammation and liver regeneration, and discuss how recent findings can help design novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Campana
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Hannah Esser
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Meritxell Huch
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stuart Forbes
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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17
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Local induction of bladder Th1 responses to combat urinary tract infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2026461118. [PMID: 33653961 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2026461118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the high frequency of urinary tract infections (UTIs) and their recurrence, there is keen interest in developing effective UTI vaccines. Currently, most vaccine studies, including those in humans, involve parenteral vaccination aimed at evoking and sustaining elevated levels of systemic antibody directed at the uropathogens. In view of recent reports of aberrant Th2-biased bladder immune responses to infection, we hypothesized that immunizing mice intravesically with antigens from uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) combined with a Th1-skewing adjuvant could correct this defect and promote protection against UTIs. Here we report that compared with mice immunized subcutaneously with this vaccine combination, intravesically immunized mice were markedly more protected from UTIs because of their distinctive ability to recruit Th1 cells into the bladder. This mode of vaccination was effective even in mice that experienced multiple UTIs and displayed pronounced aberrant bladder immune responses. Thus, intravesical vaccination with one or more UPEC antigens to induce bladder Th1 responses represents a superior strategy to combat UTIs, especially in UTI-prone subjects.
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18
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Yu Y, Wang J, Wang X, Gu P, Lei Z, Tang R, Wei C, Xu L, Wang C, Chen Y, Pu Y, Qi X, Yu B, Chen X, Zhu J, Li Y, Zhang Z, Zhou S, Su C. Schistosome eggs stimulate reactive oxygen species production to enhance M2 macrophage differentiation and promote hepatic pathology in schistosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009696. [PMID: 34398890 PMCID: PMC8389433 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease of public health concern. The most devastating pathology in schistosomiasis japonica and mansoni is mainly attributed to the egg-induced granulomatous response and secondary fibrosis in host liver, which may lead to portal hypertension or even death of the host. Schistosome eggs induce M2 macrophages-rich granulomas and these M2 macrophages play critical roles in the maintenance of granuloma and subsequent fibrosis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are highly produced by stimulated macrophages during infection and necessary for the differentiation of M2 macrophages, are massively distributed around deposited eggs in the liver. However, whether ROS are induced by schistosome eggs to subsequently promote M2 macrophage differentiation, and the possible underlying mechanisms as well, remain to be clarified during S. japonicum infection. Herein, we observed that extensive expression of ROS in the liver of S. japonicum-infected mice. Injection of ROS inhibitor in infected mice resulted in reduced hepatic granulomatous responses and fibrosis. Further investigations revealed that inhibition of ROS production in S. japonicum-infected mice reduces the differentiation of M2, accompanied by increased M1 macrophage differentiation. Finally, we proved that S. japonicum egg antigens (SEA) induce a high level of ROS production via both nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 2 (NOX2) and mitochondria in macrophages. Our study may help to better understand the mechanism of schistosomiasis japonica-induced hepatic pathology and contribute to the development of potential therapeutic strategies by interfering with ROS production. Schistosomiasis is a neglected parasitic disease of poverty that affects ~200 million people mainly in (sub)tropical regions, resulting in a massive health burden and serious morbidity. During Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) or S. mansoni infection, parasite eggs are trapped in host liver and induce hepatic granulomas and fibrosis, which leads to severe liver damage, and even death of the host. In hepatic schistosomiasis, considerable amounts of ROS accumulate in granulomas surrounding liver-trapped eggs. However, whether schistosome eggs trigger the production of ROS, and if so, whether and how ROS promote hepatic pathology in host remain unknown. In this study, the authors illustrated that S. japonicum eggs evoke high production of ROS in macrophages, which is necessary for egg-mediated M2 macrophage differentiation and promotes hepatic granulomas and fibrosis in S. japonicum-infected mice. These discoveries provide a potential target regarding schistosome eggs-induced ROS production, which can be manipulated to regulate immunopathology in hepatic schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxiong Yu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Junling Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaohong Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Pan Gu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhigang Lei
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Rui Tang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chuan Wei
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chun Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yanan Pu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xin Qi
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Beibei Yu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaojun Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jifeng Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yalin Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhijie Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Sha Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- * E-mail: (SZ); (CS)
| | - Chuan Su
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Center for Global Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- * E-mail: (SZ); (CS)
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19
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Sr R, Arya LK, Siva Ganesa Karthikeyan R, Sen S. Aqueous humor cytokines and cellular profiles in pediatric ocular granulomas caused by theTrematode Fluke Procerovum sp. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2021; 30:930-939. [PMID: 33792498 DOI: 10.1080/09273948.2020.1855356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Background: Children from coastal areas of South India develop granulomatous eye disease after swimming in their village ponds, the causative organism being trematode Procerovum.Aim: To understand the pathogenesis by analyzing the cellular profile, cytokines, and chemokines of aqueous fluid.Methods: This was a prospective study over 1 year on pediatric patients with ocular granuloma caused by a Trematode Fluke Procerovum sp. Granuloma was aspirated along with 100 µl volume of aqueous humor. Immunohistochemical analysis of granuloma was performed. Bio-Plex Pro™ Human Cytokine 17-plex Assay (M5000031YV) was used to measure cytokine and chemokines.Results: The immunohistochemistry revealed predominantly eosinophils, followed by macrophages (CD68+) and T - lymphocytes (CD4+). Both T-helper (Th) 1 and 2 mediated cytokines and chemokine levels were significantly high. As the disease duration increased, direct Th1 response reduced and was replaced by IL-12 and IL-17 mediated secondary Th1 response.Conclusion: Procerovum associated granulomatous disease is immunologically characterized by Th1 and Th2 cell-mediated responses. A balance between both arms maintains the eyes between granulomatous inflammation and healing by fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rathinam Sr
- Aravind Eye Hospital & PG Institute of Ophthalmology, Madurai, India
| | - Lalan Kumar Arya
- Regional Institute of Ophthalmology, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | | | - Sagnik Sen
- Aravind Eye Hospital & PG Institute of Ophthalmology, Madurai, India
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In silico immune infiltration profiling combined with functional enrichment analysis reveals a potential role for naïve B cells as a trigger for severe immune responses in the lungs of COVID-19 patients. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242900. [PMID: 33264345 PMCID: PMC7710067 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, has rapidly spread to more than 160 countries worldwide since 2020. Despite tremendous efforts and resources spent worldwide trying to explore antiviral drugs, there is still no effective clinical treatment for COVID-19 to date. Approximately 15% of COVID-19 cases progress to pneumonia, and patients with severe pneumonia may die from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). It is believed that pulmonary fibrosis from SARS-CoV-2 infection further leads to ARDS, often resulting in irreversible impairment of lung function. If the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 infection primarily causes an immune response or immune cell infiltration can be identified, it may be possible to mitigate excessive immune responses by modulating the infiltration and activation of specific targets, thereby reducing or preventing severe lung damage. However, the extent to which immune cell subsets are significantly altered in the lung tissues of COVID-19 patients remains to be elucidated. This study applied the CIBERSORT-X method to comprehensively evaluate the transcriptional estimated immune infiltration landscape in the lung tissues of COVID-19 patients and further compare it with the lung tissues of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). We found a variety of immune cell subtypes in the COVID-19 group, especially naïve B cells were highly infiltrated. Comparison of functional transcriptomic analyses revealed that non-differentiated naïve B cells may be the main cause of the over-active humoral immune response. Using several publicly available single-cell RNA sequencing data to validate the genetic differences in B-cell populations, it was found that the B-cells collected from COVID-19 patients were inclined towards naïve B-cells, whereas those collected from IPF patients were inclined towards memory B-cells. Further differentiation of B cells between COVID-19 mild and severe patients showed that B cells from severe patients tended to be antibody-secreting cells, and gene expression showed that B cells from severe patients were similar to DN2 B cells that trigger extrafollicular response. Moreover, a higher percentage of B-cell infiltration seems associated with poorer clinical outcome. Finally, a comparison of several specific COVID-19 cases treated with targeted B-cell therapy suggests that appropriate suppression of naïve B cells might potentially be a novel strategy to alleviate the severe symptoms of COVID-19.
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21
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Singampalli KL, Balaji S, Wang X, Parikh UM, Kaul A, Gilley J, Birla RK, Bollyky PL, Keswani SG. The Role of an IL-10/Hyaluronan Axis in Dermal Wound Healing. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:636. [PMID: 32850791 PMCID: PMC7396613 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Scar formation is the typical endpoint of postnatal dermal wound healing, which affects more than 100 million individuals annually. Not only do scars cause a functional burden by reducing the biomechanical strength of skin at the site of injury, but they also significantly increase healthcare costs and impose psychosocial challenges. Though the mechanisms that dictate how dermal wounds heal are still not completely understood, they are regulated by extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, neovascularization, and inflammatory responses. The cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 has emerged as a key mediator of the pro- to anti-inflammatory transition that counters collagen deposition in scarring. In parallel, the high molecular weight (HMW) glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) is present in the ECM and acts in concert with IL-10 to block pro-inflammatory signals and attenuate fibrotic responses. Notably, high concentrations of both IL-10 and HMW HA are produced in early gestational fetal skin, which heals scarlessly. Since fibroblasts are responsible for collagen deposition, it is critical to determine how the concerted actions of IL-10 and HA drive their function to potentially control fibrogenesis. Beyond their independent actions, an auto-regulatory IL-10/HA axis may exist to modulate the magnitude of CD4+ effector T lymphocyte activation and enhance T regulatory cell function in order to reduce scarring. This review underscores the pathophysiological impact of the IL-10/HA axis as a multifaceted molecular mechanism to direct primary cell responders and regulators toward either regenerative dermal tissue repair or scarring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavya L Singampalli
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States.,Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Swathi Balaji
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Xinyi Wang
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Umang M Parikh
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Aditya Kaul
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Jamie Gilley
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States.,Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | | | - Paul L Bollyky
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Sundeep G Keswani
- Laboratory for Regenerative Tissue Repair, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
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Matsuda M, Seki E. The liver fibrosis niche: Novel insights into the interplay between fibrosis-composing mesenchymal cells, immune cells, endothelial cells, and extracellular matrix. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 143:111556. [PMID: 32640349 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Liver fibrosis is a hepatic wound-healing response caused by chronic liver diseases that include viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, and cholestatic liver disease. Liver fibrosis eventually progresses to cirrhosis that is histologically characterized by an abnormal liver architecture that includes distortion of liver parenchyma, formation of regenerative nodules, and a massive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM). Despite intensive investigations into the underlying mechanisms of liver fibrosis, developments of anti-fibrotic therapies for liver fibrosis are still unsatisfactory. Recent novel experimental approaches, such as single-cell RNA sequencing and proteomics, have revealed the heterogeneity of ECM-producing cells (mesenchymal cells) and ECM-regulating cells (immune cells and endothelial cells). These approaches have accelerated the identification of fibrosis-specific subpopulations among these cell types. The ECM also consists of heterogenous components. Their production, degradation, deposition, and remodeling are dynamically regulated in liver fibrosis, further affecting the functions of cells responsible for fibrosis. These cellular and ECM elements cooperatively form a unique microenvironment: a fibrotic niche. Understanding the complex interplay between these elements could lead to a better understanding of underlying fibrosis mechanisms and to the development of effective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michitaka Matsuda
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Ekihiro Seki
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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23
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Zhang M, Zhang S. T Cells in Fibrosis and Fibrotic Diseases. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1142. [PMID: 32676074 PMCID: PMC7333347 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrosis is the extensive deposition of fibrous connective tissue, and it is characterized by the accumulation of collagen and other extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Fibrosis is essential for wound healing and tissue repair in response to a variety of triggers, which include infection, inflammation, autoimmune disorder, degenerative disease, tumor, and injury. Fibrotic remodeling in various diseases, such as liver cirrhosis, pulmonary fibrosis, renal interstitial fibrosis, myocardial infarction, systemic sclerosis (SSc), and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), can impair organ function, causing high morbidity and mortality. Both innate and adaptive immunity are involved in fibrogenesis. Although the roles of macrophages in fibrogenesis have been studied for many years, the underlying mechanisms concerning the manner in which T cells regulate fibrosis are not completely understood. The T cell receptor (TCR) engages the antigen and shapes the repertoire of antigen-specific T cells. Based on the divergent expression of surface molecules and cell functions, T cells are subdivided into natural killer T (NKT) cells, γδ T cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), regulatory T (Treg) cells, T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells, and T helper cells, including Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, Th22, and T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. In this review, we summarize the pro-fibrotic or anti-fibrotic roles and distinct mechanisms of different T cell subsets. On reviewing the literature, we conclude that the T cell regulations are commonly disease-specific and tissue-specific. Finally, we provide perspectives on microbiota, viral infection, and metabolism, and discuss the current advancements of technologies for identifying novel targets and developing immunotherapies for intervention in fibrosis and fibrotic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjuan Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Song Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
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Xiao J, Guan F, Sun L, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Lu S, Liu W. B cells induced by Schistosoma japonicum infection display diverse regulatory phenotypes and modulate CD4 + T cell response. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:147. [PMID: 32197642 PMCID: PMC7082913 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04015-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The increased activity of regulatory B cells (Breg) is known to be involved in immunosuppression during helminth infection, which is characterized by inducing IL-10-producing Breg cells. However, the current knowledge of B cell subsets differentiation and IL-10-independent immunoregulatory mechanisms of B cells in schistosomiasis is insufficient. Methods BALB/c mice were percutaneously infected with cercariae for investigating the profile of B cell subsets during Schistosoma japonicum infection. B cells isolated from the spleen or peritoneal cavity were analyzed for the regulatory phenotype after stimulation with soluble egg antigens (SEA) in vitro. CD4+ T cells were then cocultured with B cells pretreated with or without anti-PD-L1 antibody for investigating the role of B cells from infected mice on regulating CD4+ T cells. Furthermore, the in vivo administration of anti-PD-L1 antibody was conducted to investigate the role of PD-L1 in regulating host immunity during infection. Results The percentages of peritoneal and splenic B-1a cells, as well as marginal zone B (MZB) cells were decreased at eight and twelve weeks after infection compared to those from uninfected mice. In splenic B cells, TGF-β expression was increased at eight weeks but declined at twelve weeks of infection, and PD-L1 expression was elevated at both eight and twelve weeks of infection. In addition, SEA stimulation in vitro significantly promoted the expression of IL-10 in peritoneal B cells and CD5 in splenic B cells, and the SEA-stimulated splenic and peritoneal B cells preferentially expressed PD-L1 and TGF-β. The splenic B cells from infected mice were able to suppress the function of Th1 and Th2 cells in vitro but to expand the expression of Tfh transcription factor Bcl6, which was further enhanced by blocking PD-L1 of B cells before co-cultivation. Moreover, Th2 response and Bcl6 expression in CD4+ T cells were also increased in vivo by blocking PD-L1 after infection, although the hepatic pathology was slightly influenced. Conclusions Our findings revealed that S. japonicum infection modulates the differentiation of B cell subsets that have the capability to affect the CD4+ T cell response. This study contributes to a better understanding of B cells immune response during schistosomiasis.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Junli Xiao
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Guan
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Sun
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yijie Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shengjun Lu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Wenqi Liu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
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Preventive CTLA-4-Ig Treatment Reduces Hepatic Egg Load and Hepatic Fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni-Infected Mice. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:1704238. [PMID: 31950032 PMCID: PMC6948272 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1704238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background Hepatic fibrosis and granuloma formation as a consequence of tissue entrapped eggs produced by female schistosomes characterize the pathology of Schistosoma mansoni infection. We have previously shown that single-sex infection with female schistosomes mitigates hepatic fibrosis after secondary infection. This was associated with an increased expression of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein-4 (CTLA-4), known as a negative regulator of T cell activation. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that administration of agonistic CTLA-4-Ig (Belatacept) is capable to prevent and/or treat hepatic fibrosis during schistosomiasis. Methods Mice were infected with 50 S. mansoni cercariae and CTLA-4-Ig, or appropriated control-Ig was administered for 4 weeks. Preventive treatment started 4 weeks after infection, before onset of egg production, and therapeutic treatment started 8 weeks after infection when hepatic fibrosis was already established. Results When given early after infection, livers of CTLA-4-Ig-treated mice showed significantly reduced collagen deposition and decreased expression of profibrotic genes in comparison to controls. In addition, administration of CTLA-4-Ig suppressed the inflammatory T cell response in infected mice. If therapy was started at a later time point when fibrogenesis was initiated, CTLA-4-Ig had no impact on hepatic fibrosis. Conclusion We could demonstrate that an early preventive administration of CTLA-4-Ig suppresses effector T cell function and therefore ameliorates liver fibrosis. CTLA-4-Ig administration after onset of egg production fails to treat hepatic fibrosis.
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Activation of the NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasomes in a mouse model of Schistosoma mansoni infection. J Helminthol 2019; 94:e72. [PMID: 31412958 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x19000622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is an inflammatory disease that occurs when schistosome species eggs are deposited in the liver, resulting in fibrosis and portal hypertension. Schistosomes can interact with host inflammasomes to elicit host immune responses, leading to mitochondrial damage, generation of high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of apoptosis during inflammation. This study aims to examine whether ROS and NF-κB (p65) expression elicited other types of inflammasome activation in Schistosoma mansoni-infected mouse livers. We examine the relationship between inflammasome activation, mitochondrial damage and ROS production in mouse livers infected with S. mansoni. We demonstrate a significant release of ROS and superoxides and increased NF-κB (p65) in S. mansoni-infected mouse livers. Moreover, activation of the NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasomes was triggered by S. mansoni infection. Stimulation of HuH-7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells with soluble egg antigen induced activation of the AIM2 inflammasome pathway. In this study, we demonstrate that S. mansoni infection promotes both NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasome activation.
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27
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Zanoni M, Cortesi M, Zamagni A, Tesei A. The Role of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Radiation-Induced Lung Fibrosis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E3876. [PMID: 31398940 PMCID: PMC6719901 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Radiation therapy is one of the most important treatment modalities for thoracic tumors. Despite significant advances in radiation techniques, radiation-induced lung injury (RILI) still occurs in up to 30% of patients undergoing thoracic radiotherapy, and therefore remains the main dose-limiting obstacle. RILI is a potentially lethal clinical complication of radiotherapy that has 2 main stages: an acute stage defined as radiation pneumonitis, and a late stage defined as radiation-induced lung fibrosis. Patients who develop lung fibrosis have a reduced quality of life with progressive and irreversible organ malfunction. Currently, the most effective intervention for the treatment of lung fibrosis is lung transplantation, but the lack of available lungs and transplantation-related complications severely limits the success of this procedure. Over the last few decades, advances have been reported in the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for lung tissue repair and regeneration. MSCs not only replace damaged lung epithelial cells but also promote tissue repair through the secretion of anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic factors. Here, we present an overview of MSC-based therapy for radiation-induced lung fibrosis, focusing in particular on the molecular mechanisms involved and describing the most recent preclinical and clinical studies carried out in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Zanoni
- Bioscience Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST) IRCCS, 47014 Meldola, Italy.
| | - Michela Cortesi
- Bioscience Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST) IRCCS, 47014 Meldola, Italy
| | - Alice Zamagni
- Bioscience Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST) IRCCS, 47014 Meldola, Italy
| | - Anna Tesei
- Bioscience Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST) IRCCS, 47014 Meldola, Italy.
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Abstract
Parasitic infections are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Management strategies rely primarily on antiparasitic drugs that have side effects and risk of drug resistance. Therefore, novel strategies are needed for treatment of parasitic infections. Host-directed therapy (HDT) is a viable alternative, which targets host pathways responsible for parasite invasion/survival/pathogenicity. Recent innovative combinations of genomics, proteomics and computational biology approaches have led to discovery of several host pathways that could be promising targets for HDT for treating parasitic infections. Herein, we review major advances in HDT for parasitic disease with regard to core regulatory pathways and their interactions.
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29
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Butrous G. Schistosome infection and its effect on pulmonary circulation. Glob Cardiol Sci Pract 2019; 2019:5. [PMID: 31024947 PMCID: PMC6472693 DOI: 10.21542/gcsp.2019.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is the most common parasitic disease associated with pulmonary hypertension. It induces remodelling via complex inflammatory processes, which eventually produce the clinical manifestation of pulmonary hypertension. The pulmonary hypertension shows clinical signs and symptoms that are not distinguishable from other forms of pulmonary arterial hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazwan Butrous
- Professor of Cardiopulmonary Sciences, Medway School of Pharmacy, University of Kent, UK and University of Greenwich, Central Ave, Gillingham, Chatham ME4 4BF, Kent, UK
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30
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Recent Developments in mRNA-Based Protein Supplementation Therapy to Target Lung Diseases. Mol Ther 2019; 27:803-823. [PMID: 30905577 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein supplementation therapy using in vitro-transcribed (IVT) mRNA for genetic diseases contains huge potential as a new class of therapy. From the early ages of synthetic mRNA discovery, a great number of studies showed the versatile use of IVT mRNA as a novel approach to supplement faulty or absent protein and also as a vaccine. Many modifications have been made to produce high expressions of mRNA causing less immunogenicity and more stability. Recent advancements in the in vivo lung delivery of mRNA complexed with various carriers encouraged the whole mRNA community to tackle various genetic lung diseases. This review gives a comprehensive overview of cells associated with various lung diseases and recent advancements in mRNA-based protein replacement therapy. This review also covers a brief summary of developments in mRNA modifications and nanocarriers toward clinical translation.
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31
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Rodrigues M, Kosaric N, Bonham CA, Gurtner GC. Wound Healing: A Cellular Perspective. Physiol Rev 2019; 99:665-706. [PMID: 30475656 PMCID: PMC6442927 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00067.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1267] [Impact Index Per Article: 253.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Wound healing is one of the most complex processes in the human body. It involves the spatial and temporal synchronization of a variety of cell types with distinct roles in the phases of hemostasis, inflammation, growth, re-epithelialization, and remodeling. With the evolution of single cell technologies, it has been possible to uncover phenotypic and functional heterogeneity within several of these cell types. There have also been discoveries of rare, stem cell subsets within the skin, which are unipotent in the uninjured state, but become multipotent following skin injury. Unraveling the roles of each of these cell types and their interactions with each other is important in understanding the mechanisms of normal wound closure. Changes in the microenvironment including alterations in mechanical forces, oxygen levels, chemokines, extracellular matrix and growth factor synthesis directly impact cellular recruitment and activation, leading to impaired states of wound healing. Single cell technologies can be used to decipher these cellular alterations in diseased states such as in chronic wounds and hypertrophic scarring so that effective therapeutic solutions for healing wounds can be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Rodrigues
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, California
| | - Nina Kosaric
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, California
| | - Clark A Bonham
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, California
| | - Geoffrey C Gurtner
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, California
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32
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Mack M. Inflammation and fibrosis. Matrix Biol 2018; 68-69:106-121. [DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Liu L, Jin M, Tao Q, Yu L, Du J, Wang C, Luo Q, Xing T, Xu Y, Shen J, Chu D. Effective Amelioration of Liver Fibrosis Through Lentiviral Vector Carrying Toxoplasma gondii gra15II in Murine Model. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1572. [PMID: 30034399 PMCID: PMC6043635 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous investigations indicated that in vitro polarization of mouse macrophages by Toxoplasma gondii type II strain dense granule protein 15 (GRA15 II ), one of the genotype-associated effectors of T. gondii, induced the phenotypes of classically activated macrophage (M1). Transfusion of the cells to mice may effectively alleviated hepatic fibrosis caused by schistosomiasis. The purpose of the study was to identify whether liver macrophages can be in vivo driven to M1 macrophages by lentiviral vector (LV) carrying GRA15 II gene (LV-gra15 II ) and to explore the potential mechanism by which the LV-gra15 II -activated liver macrophage (LV-gra15 II -M) ameliorates the hepatic fibrosis in schistosomiasis. The mice were treated with LV-gra15 II by hydrodynamic injection via the tail vein followed by challenge of Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum). Our experiments showed that LV-gra15 II was successfully delivered to liver macrophages and GRA15II was persistently expressed in the macrophages of mice for at least 2 months. Furthermore, the LV-gra15 II infected macrophages were polarized to M1 macrophages in vivo. Consequently, mice with schistosomiasis receiving LV-gra15 II injection displayed a remarkable amelioration of liver granuloma formation and collagen deposition in association with downregulated expression of transforming growth factor-beta1, arginase 1 (Arg-1), α-smooth muscle actin, and an increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP13). Simultaneously, no negative effects of liver function and vitality of mice were noted. The in vitro experiments indicated that the C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 and nitric oxide level were elevated in LV-gra15 II -M cultural supernatants; hepatocyte growth factor expression was enhanced in LV-gra15 II -M. In addition, LV-gra15 II -M not only secreted MMP13, which greatly degraded type I collagen, but also induced murine hepatic stellate cell (HSC) line (JS1) apoptosis in the co-culture system. Taken together, we identified for the first time that LV-gra15 II may in vivo drive liver macrophages to M1 macrophage phenotypes, which helps for alteration of the liver fibrotic microenvironment with collagen dissolution, HSC deactivation, apoptosis and hepatocyte protection. Our study gives an insight into the use of gene delivery with parasite-derived immunomodulatory factor as a potential immune cell activating agent to re-equilibrate the other pathogen-induced immune response in some chronic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Liu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Mengmeng Jin
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qing Tao
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Li Yu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jian Du
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Cong Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qingli Luo
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Tian Xing
- Key Laboratory of Oral Disease Research of Anhui Province, Stomatologic Hospital and College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yuanhong Xu
- Diagnostic Laboratory of the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jilong Shen
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Deyong Chu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Provincial Laboratories of Pathogen Biology and Zoonoses, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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Clonorchis sinensis adult-derived proteins elicit Th2 immune responses by regulating dendritic cells via mannose receptor. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006251. [PMID: 29505573 PMCID: PMC5854424 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis) is the most widespread human liver fluke in East Asia including China and Korea. Clonorchiasis as a neglected tropical zoonosis, leads to serious economic and public health burden in China. There are considerable evidences for an etiological relation between chronic clonorchiasis and liver fibrosis in human beings. Liver fibrosis is a highly conserved and over-protected response to hepatic tissue injury. Immune cells including CD4+ T cell as well as dendritic cell (DC), and pro-fibrogenic cytokines like interleukin 4 (IL-4), IL-13 have been identified as vital manipulators in liver fibrogenesis. Our previous studies had a mere glimpse of T helper type 2 (Th2) dominant immune responses as key players in liver fibrosis induced by C. sinensis infection, but little is known about the involved mechanisms in this pathological process. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS By flow cytometry (FACS), adult-derived total proteins of C. sinensis (CsTPs) down-regulated the expression of surface markers CD80, CD86 and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced DC. ELISA results demonstrated that CsTPs inhibited IL-12p70 release from LPS-treated bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC). IL-10 level increased in a time-dependent manner in LPS-treated BMDCs after incubation with CsTPs. CD4+ T cells incubated with LPS-treated BMDCs plus CsTPs could significantly elevate IL-4 level by ELISA. Meanwhile, elevated expression of pro-fibrogenic mediators including IL-13 and IL-4 were detected in a co-culture system of LPS-activated BMDCs and naive T cells containing CsTPs. In vivo, CsTPs-immunized mice enhanced expression of type 2 cytokines IL-13, IL-10 and IL-4 in both splenocytes and hepatic tissue. Exposure of BMDCs to CsTPs activated expression of mannose receptor (MR) but not toll like receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4, C-type lectin receptor DC-SIGN and Dectin-2 on the cell surface by RT-PCR and FACS. Blockade of MR almost completely reversed the capacity of CsTPs to suppress LPS-induced BMDCs surface markers CD80, CD86 and MHC-II expression, and further made these BMDCs fail to induce a Th2-skewed response as well as Th2 cell-associated cytokines IL-13 and IL-4 release in vitro. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Collectively, we validated that CsTPs could suppress the maturation of BMDCs in the presence of LPS via binding MR, and showed that the CsTPs-pulsed BMDCs actively polarized naive T helper cells to Th2 cells though the production of IL-10 instead of IL-12. CsTPs endowed host with the capacity to facilitate Th2 cytokines production including IL-13 and IL-4 in vitro and vivo. The study might provide useful information for developing potential therapeutic targets against the disease.
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Cordero-Espinoza L, Huch M. The balancing act of the liver: tissue regeneration versus fibrosis. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:85-96. [PMID: 29293095 DOI: 10.1172/jci93562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cell loss alters a tissue's optimal function and awakens evolutionarily adapted healing mechanisms to reestablish homeostasis. Although adult mammalian organs have a limited regeneration potential, the liver stands out as one remarkable exception. Following injury, the liver mounts a dynamic multicellular response wherein stromal cells are activated in situ and/or recruited from the bloodstream, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is remodeled, and epithelial cells expand to replenish their lost numbers. Chronic damage makes this response persistent instead of transient, tipping the system into an abnormal steady state known as fibrosis, in which ECM accumulates excessively and tissue function degenerates. Here we explore the cellular and molecular switches that balance hepatic regeneration and fibrosis, with a focus on uncovering avenues of disease modeling and therapeutic intervention.
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He L, Zhou S, Qi Q, Chi Y, Zhu J, Xu Z, Wang X, Hoellwarth J, Liu F, Chen X, Su C. The regulation of regulation: interleukin-10 increases CD4 + CD25 + regulatory T cells but impairs their immunosuppressive activity in murine models with schistosomiasis japonica or asthma. Immunology 2017; 153:84-96. [PMID: 28799262 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells play an important role in maintaining immune homeostasis. Interleukin-10 (IL-10), a cytokine with anti-inflammatory capacities, also has a critical role in controlling immune responses. In addition, it is well known that production of IL-10 is one of the suppression mechanisms of Treg cells. However, the action of IL-10 on Treg cells themselves remains insufficiently understood. In this study, by using a Schistosoma japonicum-infected murine model, we show that the elevated IL-10 contributed to Treg cell induction but impaired their immunosuppressive function. Our investigations further suggest that this may relate to the up-regulation of serum transforming growth factor (TGF-β) level but the decrease in membrane-bound TGF-β of Treg cells by IL-10 during S. japonicum infection. In addition, similar IL-10-mediated regulation on Treg cells was also confirmed in the murine model of asthma. In general, our findings identify a previously unrecognized opposing regulation of IL-10 on Treg cells and provide a deep insight into the precise regulation in immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei He
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Sha Zhou
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qianqian Qi
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ying Chi
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jifeng Zhu
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhipeng Xu
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xuefeng Wang
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jason Hoellwarth
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Feng Liu
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaojun Chen
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chuan Su
- State Key Lab of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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Shamkuwar CA, Meshram SH, Mahakalkar SM. Levamisole as an Adjuvant to Short-Course Therapy in Newly Diagnosed Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients. Adv Biomed Res 2017; 6:37. [PMID: 28516071 PMCID: PMC5385702 DOI: 10.4103/2277-9175.203162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The estimated incidence and prevalence of tuberculosis in India are 2.1 and 2.6 million cases respectively. Immunotherapy may shorten tuberculosis treatments and improve the immunity of individuals as well. Hence we study the efficacy of levamisole (LVM) (immunomodulator) as an adjuvant to chemotherapy of pulmonary tuberculosis patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted for 21 months in newly diagnosed sputum positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients. Patients were subjected initially to clinical examination, sputum acid-fast bacilli smear and culture, tuberculin skin test and weight record. During follow-up, above investigations were repeated. Sixty-five patients were randomly assigned into two groups to receive either tab LVM 100 mg once in a day or matching placebo, orally as a single dose, thrice a week, for 2 months with short-course antituberculosis chemotherapy. RESULTS Sputum negativity at 1 week was observed in 11 (44%) patients in LVM group whereas only 3 (12%) in placebo group. All the patients 25 (100%) in LVM group were sputum negative compared to 14 (56%) in placebo group by the end of 3 weeks. In LVM group, 24 (96%) and 11 (44%) patients in placebo group show radiological improvement at 2 months. A direct correlation existed between quantum of immune response and weight gain with LVM. LVM rendered all anergic patients to positive tuberculin reactors. In LVM group, patients with initial Mantoux ≥20 mm and advanced cavitary disease, there was decrease in tuberculin reaction size. CONCLUSION Adjuvant immunomodulation with levamisole has the potential of shortening the total duration of antitubercular therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chetna Ashok Shamkuwar
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Government Medical College, Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India
| | | | - Sunil M Mahakalkar
- Department of Pharmacology, Government Medical College, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
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Jung YK, Yim HJ. Reversal of liver cirrhosis: current evidence and expectations. Korean J Intern Med 2017; 32:213-228. [PMID: 28171717 PMCID: PMC5339475 DOI: 10.3904/kjim.2016.268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past, liver cirrhosis was considered an irreversible phenomenon. However, many experimental data have provided evidence of the reversibility of liver fibrosis. Moreover, multiple clinical studies have also shown regression of fibrosis and reversal of cirrhosis on repeated biopsy samples. As various etiologies are associated with liver fibrosis via integrated signaling pathways, a comprehensive understanding of the pathobiology of hepatic fibrogenesis is critical for improving clinical outcomes. Hepatic stellate cells play a central role in hepatic fibrogenesis upon their activation from a quiescent state. Collagen and other extracellular material components from activated hepatic stellate cells are deposited on, and damage, the liver parenchyma and vascular structures. Hence, inactivation of hepatic stellate cells can lead to enhancement of fibrolytic activity and could be a potential target of antifibrotic therapy. In this regard, continued efforts have been made to develop better treatments for underlying liver diseases and antifibrotic agents in multiple clinical and therapeutic trials; the best results may be expected with the integration of such evidence. In this article, we present the underlying mechanisms of fibrosis, current experimental and clinical evidence of the reversibility of liver fibrosis/cirrhosis, and new agents with therapeutic potential for liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hyung Joon Yim
- Correspondence to Hyung Joon Yim, M.D. Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University Ansan Hospital, 123 Jeokgeum-ro, Danwon-gu, Ansan 15355, Korea Tel: +82-31-412-6565 Fax: +82-31-412-5582 E-mail:
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Njenga MN, Farah IO, Muchemi GK, Nyindo M. Peri-portal fibrosis of the liver due to natural or experimental infection withSchistosoma mansonioccurs in the Kenyan baboon. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1998.11813279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Kang SW, Lee SM, Kim JY, Kim SY, Kim YH, Kim TH, Kang MS, Jang WH, Seo SK. Therapeutic activity of the histone deacetylase inhibitor SB939 on renal fibrosis. Int Immunopharmacol 2016; 42:25-31. [PMID: 27855304 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fibrosis is the final pathological outcome of many chronic kidney diseases and is quite common. Thus, development of effective anti-fibrotic agents is urgently needed. Although histone deacetylases (HDACs) have been reported to be involved in renal fibrosis, current HDAC inhibitors are unsatisfactory anti-fibrosis drugs. Therefore, more potentially relevant anti-renal fibrosis HDAC inhibitors are needed. We initially found that non-cytotoxic concentrations of SB939 (pracinostat) had strong anti-fibrotic activity, drastically decreasing TGF-β1-induced alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression in the NRK renal fibroblast cell line. Similar anti-fibrotic activity of SB939 on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was confirmed using the HK-2 human renal proximal tubular epithelial cell line. SB939 inhibited Smad-independent TGF-β signaling involving the MAPK and PI3K/AKT pathways. To evaluate in vivo anti-fibrotic activity, we administered SB939 in a unilateral ureteric obstruction (UUO) model. SB939 treatment markedly inhibited the accumulation of α-SMA and tissue injury. Inflammatory and pro-fibrotic cytokines in the obstructed kidney were also significantly decreased by SB939 treatment. Our results suggest that SB939 might be a promising therapeutic drug for preventing renal fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun-Woo Kang
- Department of Nephrology, Busan Paik Hospital, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - Soung-Min Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - Joo-Yong Kim
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Busan Korea Hospital, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - So-Yeon Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - Yeong-Hoon Kim
- Department of Nephrology, Busan Paik Hospital, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - Tae-Hee Kim
- Department of Nephrology, Busan Paik Hospital, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - Mi-Seon Kang
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 000-000, South Korea
| | - Won-Hee Jang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea
| | - Su-Kil Seo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan 614-735, South Korea.
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Zhou S, Jin X, Li Y, Li W, Chen X, Xu L, Zhu J, Xu Z, Zhang Y, Liu F, Su C. Blockade of PD-1 Signaling Enhances Th2 Cell Responses and Aggravates Liver Immunopathology in Mice with Schistosomiasis japonica. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005094. [PMID: 27792733 PMCID: PMC5085144 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background More than 220 million people worldwide are chronically infected with schistosomes, causing severe disease or even death. The major pathological damage occurring in schistosomiasis is attributable to the granulomatous inflammatory response and liver fibrosis induced by schistosome eggs. The inflammatory response is tightly controlled and parallels immunosuppressive regulation, constantly maintaining immune homeostasis and limiting excessive immunopathologic damage in important host organs. It is well known that the activation of programmed death 1 (PD-1) signaling causes a significant suppression of T cell function. However, the roles of PD-1 signaling in modulating CD4+ T cell responses and immunopathology during schistosome infection, have yet to be defined. Methodology/Principal Findings Here, we show that PD-1 is upregulated in CD4+ T cells in Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum)-infected patients. We also show the upregulation of PD-1 expression in CD4+ T cells in the spleens, mesenteric lymph nodes, and livers of mice with S. japonicum infection. Finally, we found that the blockade of PD-1 signaling enhanced CD4+ T helper 2 (Th2) cell responses and led to more severe liver immunopathology in mice with S. japonicum infection, without a reduction of egg production or deposition in the host liver. Conclusions/Significance Overall, our study suggests that PD-1 signaling is specifically induced to control Th2-associated inflammatory responses during schistosome infection and is beneficial to the development of PD-1-based control of liver immunopathology. Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that affects approximately 220 million people and causes serious morbidity and economic problems mainly in (sub)tropical regions. After Schistosoma japonicum or Schistosoma mansoni infection, parasite eggs are trapped in host liver and induce liver inflammation and fibrosis, leading to irreversible impairment of the liver, and even death of the host. Meanwhile, schistosomes also induce strong regulatory mechanisms to suppress inflammation and prevent excessive immunopathology. Considering it is well known that PD-1 plays a critical role in suppressing T cell function, understanding the role of PD-1 in modulating immune responses during schistosome infection is necessary for the development of PD-1-based control of liver damage in schistosomiasis. Here, increased PD-1 expression in CD4+ T cells from both humans and mice with schistosome infection was shown. We further showed that PD-1 blockade preferentially augmented Th2 cell responses and ultimately resulted in more severe liver immunopathology in mice with Schistosomiasis japonica, suggesting that PD-1 signaling is beneficial to further explore therapeutic possibilities for preventing the excessive liver immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xin Jin
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yalin Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaojun Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jifeng Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhipeng Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chuan Su
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- * E-mail:
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He X, Tang R, Sun Y, Wang YG, Zhen KY, Zhang DM, Pan WQ. MicroR-146 blocks the activation of M1 macrophage by targeting signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 in hepatic schistosomiasis. EBioMedicine 2016; 13:339-347. [PMID: 27780686 PMCID: PMC5264274 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a chronic disease caused by the parasite of the Schistosoma genus and is characterized by egg-induced hepatic granulomas and fibrosis. Macrophages play a central role in schistosomiasis with several studies highlighting their differentiation into M2 cells involved in the survival of infected mice through limitation of immunopathology. However, little is known regarding the mechanisms of regulating macrophage differentiation. Here, we showed that the early stage of infection by Schistosoma japonicum induced expression of type 1 T-helper-cell (Th1) cytokine, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), leading to increase in M1 cells. However, the presence of liver-trapped eggs induced the expression of Th2 cytokines including interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-10, and IL-13 that upregulated the transcription of miR-146b by activating signal transducer and activator of transcription 3/6 (STAT3/6) that bind to the promoter of the pre-miR-146b gene. We found that the miR-146a/b was significantly upregulated in macrophages during the progression of hepatic schistosomiasis. The elevated miR-146a/b inhibited the IFN-γ-induced differentiation of macrophages to M1 cells through targeting STAT1. Our data indicate the protective roles of miR-146a/b in hepatic schistosomiasis through regulating the differentiation of macrophages into M2 cells. miR-146 was selectively upregulated in macrophages during hepatic schistosomiasis. miR-146 blocked the differentiation of macrophages into M1 cells by targeting STAT1 in hepatic schistosomiasis. Th2 cytokines induced the expression of miR-146b by activating STAT3/6 that bind to the promoter of the pre-miR-146b gene. Th2 cytokines inhibited the activation of M1 macrophages by induction of miR-146b.
Macrophages play a central role in schistosomiasis by differentiating into various activation states. Previous studies have highlighted the importance of differentiation of macrophages into M2 cells for host survival. In this study, we revealed that the presence of liver-trapped parasite eggs induced expression of Th2 cytokines that promoted transcription of miR-146b by activating STAT3/6 that bind to the promoter of the pre-miR-146b gene, and the elevated miR-146b inhibited the IFN-γ-induced differentiation of macrophages into M1 cells by suppressing STAT1. These findings indicate the protective roles of miR-146a/b in hepatic schistosomiasis through regulating the differentiation of macrophages into M2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing He
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Rui Tang
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; Department of Pathogen Biology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221000, China
| | - Yue Sun
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; Department of Pathogen Biology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221000, China
| | - Yan-Ge Wang
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Kui-Yang Zhen
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Dong-Mei Zhang
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Wei-Qing Pan
- Department of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China.
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Schiechl G, Hermann FJ, Rodriguez Gomez M, Kutzi S, Schmidbauer K, Talke Y, Neumayer S, Goebel N, Renner K, Brühl H, Karasuyama H, Obata-Ninomiya K, Utpatel K, Evert M, Hirt SW, Geissler EK, Fichtner-Feigl S, Mack M. Basophils Trigger Fibroblast Activation in Cardiac Allograft Fibrosis Development. Am J Transplant 2016; 16:2574-88. [PMID: 26932231 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.13764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Fibrosis is a major component of chronic cardiac allograft rejection. Although several cell types are able to produce collagen, resident (donor-derived) fibroblasts are mainly responsible for excessive production of extracellular matrix proteins. It is currently unclear which cells regulate production of connective tissue elements in allograft fibrosis and how basophils, as potential producers of profibrotic cytokines, are involved this process. We studied this question in a fully MHC-mismatched model of heart transplantation with transient depletion of CD4(+) T cells to largely prevent acute rejection. The model is characterized by myocardial infiltration of leukocytes and development of interstitial fibrosis and allograft vasculopathy. Using depletion of basophils, IL-4-deficient recipients and IL-4 receptor-deficient grafts, we showed that basophils and IL-4 play crucial roles in activation of fibroblasts and development of fibrotic organ remodeling. In the absence of CD4(+) T cells, basophils are the predominant source of IL-4 in the graft and contribute to expansion of myofibroblasts, interstitial deposition of collagen and development of allograft vasculopathy. Our results indicated that basophils trigger the production of various connective tissue elements by myofibroblasts. Basophil-derived IL-4 may be an attractive target for treatment of chronic allograft rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schiechl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - F J Hermann
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - M Rodriguez Gomez
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - S Kutzi
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - K Schmidbauer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Y Talke
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - S Neumayer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - N Goebel
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - K Renner
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H Brühl
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H Karasuyama
- Department of Immune Regulation, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - K Obata-Ninomiya
- Department of Immune Regulation, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - K Utpatel
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - M Evert
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - S W Hirt
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - E K Geissler
- Department of Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - S Fichtner-Feigl
- Department of Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.,RCI Regensburg Center for Interventional Immunology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - M Mack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Nephrology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.,RCI Regensburg Center for Interventional Immunology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Aberrant immune response with consequent vascular and connective tissue remodeling - causal to scleroderma and associated syndromes such as Raynaud phenomenon and other fibrosing syndromes? Curr Opin Rheumatol 2016; 28:571-6. [PMID: 27548652 DOI: 10.1097/bor.0000000000000333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Scleroderma and other autoimmune-induced connective tissue diseases are characterized by dysfunctions in the immune system, connective tissue and the vasculature. We are focusing on systemic sclerosis (SSc)-associated pulmonary hypertension, which remains a leading cause of death with only a 50-60% of 2-year survival rate. RECENT FINDINGS Much research and translational efforts have been directed at understanding the immune response that causes SSc and the networked interactions with the connective tissue and the vasculature. One of the unexpected findings was that in some cases the pathogenic immune response in SSc resembles the immune response to helminth parasites. During coevolution, means of communication were developed which protect the host from over-colonization with parasites and which protect the parasite from excessive host responses. One explanation for the geographically clustered occurrence of SSc is that environmental exposures combined with genetic predisposition turn on triggers of molecular and cellular modules that were once initiated by parasites. SUMMARY Future research is needed to further understand the parasite-derived signals that dampen the host response. Therapeutic helminth infection or treatment with parasite-derived response modifiers could be promising new management tools for autoimmune connective tissue diseases.
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Kannan Y, Perez-Lloret J, Li Y, Entwistle LJ, Khoury H, Papoutsopoulou S, Mahmood R, Mansour NR, Ching-Cheng Huang S, Pearce EJ, Pedro S. de Carvalho L, Ley SC, Wilson MS. TPL-2 Regulates Macrophage Lipid Metabolism and M2 Differentiation to Control TH2-Mediated Immunopathology. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005783. [PMID: 27487182 PMCID: PMC4972396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Persistent TH2 cytokine responses following chronic helminth infections can often lead to the development of tissue pathology and fibrotic scarring. Despite a good understanding of the cellular mechanisms involved in fibrogenesis, there are very few therapeutic options available, highlighting a significant medical need and gap in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of TH2-mediated immunopathology. In this study, we found that the Map3 kinase, TPL-2 (Map3k8; Cot) regulated TH2-mediated intestinal, hepatic and pulmonary immunopathology following Schistosoma mansoni infection or S. mansoni egg injection. Elevated inflammation, TH2 cell responses and exacerbated fibrosis in Map3k8–/–mice was observed in mice with myeloid cell-specific (LysM) deletion of Map3k8, but not CD4 cell-specific deletion of Map3k8, indicating that TPL-2 regulated myeloid cell function to limit TH2-mediated immunopathology. Transcriptional and metabolic assays of Map3k8–/–M2 macrophages identified that TPL-2 was required for lipolysis, M2 macrophage activation and the expression of a variety of genes involved in immuno-regulatory and pro-fibrotic pathways. Taken together this study identified that TPL-2 regulated TH2-mediated inflammation by supporting lipolysis and M2 macrophage activation, preventing TH2 cell expansion and downstream immunopathology and fibrosis. Chronic helminth infections can cause significant morbidity and organ damage in their definitive mammalian hosts. Managing this collateral damage can reduce morbidity and preserve vital tissues for normal organ function. One particular consequence of some chronic helminth infections is the deposition of fibrotic scar tissue, following immune responses directed towards helminth material. In this study we tested the role of a particular signalling kinase, TPL-2, and identified that it critically regulated the magnitude of fibrotic scarring following infection. Using several murine models with genetic deletions of TPL-2 in either all cells or specific deletion in subsets of immune cells (Map3k8–/–Map3k8fl/fl) we identified that expression of TPL-2 in myeloid cells was essential to prevent severe immune-mediated pathology. Using genome-wide analyses and metabolic assays, we discovered that TPL-2 was required for normal lipid metabolism and appropriate activation of myeloid cells / macrophages to limit fibrosis. These results revealed a previously unappreciated role for TPL-2 in preventing severe pathology following infection. Thus, activating this pathway may limit immune mediated pathology following chronic helminth infection. More broadly, this pathway is being targeted to treat inflammatory diseases and cancer [1, 2]. This study would suggest that caution should be taken to prevent untoward co-morbidities and fibrosis-related pathologies in patients when targeting TPL-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashaswini Kannan
- Allergy and Anti-Helminth Immunity Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jimena Perez-Lloret
- Allergy and Anti-Helminth Immunity Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yanda Li
- Allergy and Anti-Helminth Immunity Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis J. Entwistle
- Allergy and Anti-Helminth Immunity Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hania Khoury
- Mycobacterial Metabolism and Antibiotic Research Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Radma Mahmood
- Experimental Histopathology, Mill Hill Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nuha R. Mansour
- Department of Infection and Immunity, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stanley Ching-Cheng Huang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Edward J. Pearce
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Luiz Pedro S. de Carvalho
- Mycobacterial Metabolism and Antibiotic Research Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Steven C. Ley
- Immune Cell Signaling Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark S. Wilson
- Allergy and Anti-Helminth Immunity Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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46
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Mehal W, To U. New approaches for fibrosis regression in alcoholic cirrhosis. Hepatol Int 2016; 10:773-8. [PMID: 27460408 DOI: 10.1007/s12072-016-9752-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Liver fibrosis is a dynamic process of fibrinogenesis and fibrinolysis. It is sequelae of recurrent injury and inflammation to the liver. Only recently has there been significant progress in understanding the pathophysiology behind liver fibrosis. This has allowed for the development of identifiable targets for potential therapies. In this article we will discuss the underlying general cellular mechanisms that play a key role in the pathway of fibrinogenesis and fibrinolysis and then focus on the mechanisms that are key in alcohol-induced liver fibrosis. Challenges in formulating potential fibrosis therapies as well as current potential targets for liver fibrosis will be reviewed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wajahat Mehal
- Section of Digestive Diseases, Department of Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA. .,Section of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
| | - Uyen To
- Section of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
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47
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Ramalingam TR, Gieseck RL, Acciani TH, M Hart K, Cheever AW, Mentink-Kane MM, Vannella KM, Wynn TA. Enhanced protection from fibrosis and inflammation in the combined absence of IL-13 and IFN-γ. J Pathol 2016; 239:344-54. [PMID: 27125685 DOI: 10.1002/path.4733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Persistent or dysregulated IL-13 responses are key drivers of fibrosis in multiple organ systems, and this identifies this cytokine as an important therapeutic target. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which IL-13 blockade leads to the amelioration of fibrosis remain unclear. Because IFN-γ exhibits potent anti-fibrotic activity, and IL-4Rα signalling antagonizes IFN-γ effector function, compensatory increases in IFN-γ activity following IL-13/IL-4Rα blockade might contribute to the reduction in fibrosis. To investigate the role of IFN-γ, we developed novel IL-13(-/-) /IFN-γ(-/-) double cytokine-deficient mice and examined disease progression in models of type 2-driven fibrosis. As predicted, we showed that fibrosis in the lung and liver are both highly dependent on IL-13. We also observed increased IFN-γ production and inflammatory activity in the tissues of IL-13-deficient mice. Surprisingly, however, an even greater reduction in fibrosis was observed in IL-13/IFN-γ double deficient mice, most notably in the livers of mice chronically infected with Schistosoma mansoni. The increased protection was associated with marked decreases in Tgfb1, Mmp12, and Timp1 mRNA expression in the tissues; reduced inflammation; and decreased expression of important pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α. Experiments conducted with neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to IL-13 and IFN-γ validated the findings with the genetically deficient mice. Together, these studies demonstrate that the reduction in fibrosis observed when IL-13 signalling is suppressed is not dependent on increased IFN-γ activity. Instead, by reducing compensatory increases in type 1-associated inflammation, therapeutic strategies that block IFN-γ and IL-13 activity simultaneously can confer greater protection from progressive fibrosis than IL-13 blockade alone. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thirumalai R Ramalingam
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Richard L Gieseck
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Thomas H Acciani
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kevin M Hart
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Allen W Cheever
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Kevin M Vannella
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Thomas A Wynn
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
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48
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Toffoli da Silva G, Espíndola MS, Fontanari C, Rosada RS, Faccioli LH, Ramos SG, Rodrigues V, Frantz FG. 5-lipoxygenase pathway is essential for the control of granuloma extension induced by Schistosoma mansoni eggs in lung. Exp Parasitol 2016; 167:124-9. [PMID: 27262746 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
According to WHO, it is estimated that approximately 2 billion people are infected with intestinal helminths worldwide and the number of people who are cured of these diseases is relatively low, resulting in a large percentage of chronically infected individuals. Schistosomiasis is one of the most important parasitic diseases present in developing countries configuring it as a serious public health problem, directly related to poverty and social disadvantage. Once the parasite infection is established, Schistosoma mansoni eggs fall into the bloodstream and are trapped in the liver microcirculation where a strong granulomatous response and fibrosis formation occurs. In the experimental model, granulomas develop in the mouse lung after intravenous injection of purified eggs. Here we aim to understand how leukotrienes are involved in the granuloma formation. Leukotrienes are lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid metabolites via 5-lipoxygenase (5LO) enzyme. They are potent proinflammatory agents and induce recruitment, cell activation, regulation of microbicidal activity of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells. In this study, 5LO deficient mice (5LO(-/-)) were inoculated with S. mansoni eggs for evaluation of immunopathological parameters involved in the induction of type 2 granulomas. We showed that in the absence of leukotrienes, the size of granulomas were decreased comparing to the wild type mice and the inflammatory compromised areas had a lower extension. In 5LO(-/-) mice granulomas presented extensive areas of fibrosis, detected by α-SMA expression along the lesions, indicating remodeling in attempt to reestablish the normal tissue. Also, comparing to WT mice we detected decrease of IL-4 and IL-13 and increase of TGF-β in the lung of 5LO(-/-), but these mice failed to produce protective IFN-γ and IL-12. These results evidenced 5-Lipoxygenase as an important pathway during lung injury due to Schistosoma-eggs injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Toffoli da Silva
- Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av do Cafe s/n, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Milena Sobral Espíndola
- Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av do Cafe s/n, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Caroline Fontanari
- Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av do Cafe s/n, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Rogerio Silva Rosada
- Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av do Cafe s/n, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Lúcia Helena Faccioli
- Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av do Cafe s/n, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Simone Gusmão Ramos
- Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av dos Bandeirantes, 1900, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Vanderlei Rodrigues
- Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av dos Bandeirantes, 1900, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Fabiani Gai Frantz
- Faculdade de Ciencias Farmaceuticas de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Av do Cafe s/n, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
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49
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Jacob N, Targan SR, Shih DQ. Cytokine and anti-cytokine therapies in prevention or treatment of fibrosis in IBD. United European Gastroenterol J 2016; 4:531-40. [PMID: 27536363 DOI: 10.1177/2050640616649356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequency of fibrosing Crohn's disease (CD) is significant, with approximately 40% of CD patients with ileal disease developing clinically apparent strictures throughout their lifetime. Although strictures may be subdivided into fibrotic, inflammatory, or mixed forms, despite immunosuppressive therapy in CD patients in the form of steroids or immunomodulators, the frequency of fibrostenosing complications has still remained significant. A vast number of genetic and epigenetic variables are thought to contribute to fibrostenosing disease, including those that affect cytokine biology, and therefore highlight the complexity of disease, but also shed light on targetable pathways. Exclusively targeting fibrosis may be difficult, however, because of the relatively slow evolution of fibrosis in CD, and the potential adverse effects of inhibiting pathways involved in tissue repair and mucosal healing. Acknowledging these caveats, cytokine-targeted therapy has become the mainstay of treatment for many inflammatory conditions and is being evaluated for fibrotic disorders. The question of whether anti-cytokine therapy will prove useful for intestinal fibrosis is, therefore, acutely relevant. This review will highlight some of the current therapeutics targeting cytokines involved in fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noam Jacob
- F. Widjaja Foundation, Inflammatory Bowel & Immunobiology Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Division of Digestive Diseases, Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Stephan R Targan
- F. Widjaja Foundation, Inflammatory Bowel & Immunobiology Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - David Q Shih
- F. Widjaja Foundation, Inflammatory Bowel & Immunobiology Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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50
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Xu Y, Liang P, Bian M, Chen W, Wang X, Lin J, Shang M, Qu H, Wu Z, Huang Y, Yu X. Interleukin-13 is involved in the formation of liver fibrosis in Clonorchis sinensis-infected mice. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:2653-60. [PMID: 26993324 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5012-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Clonorchiasis is a chronic infection disease often accompanied by formation of liver fibrosis. Previous study has identified that Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis, Cs) infection and CsRNASET2 (a member of CsESPs) immunization can drive Th2 immune response. IL-13, a multifunctional Th2 cytokine, has been widely confirmed to be profibrotic mediator. We want to determine whether IL-13 is involved in the generation of liver fibrosis during C. sinensis infection. A part of mice were infected with C. sinensis or immunized with CsRNASET2, respectively. Another part of mice were intravenously injected with rIL-13. Liver tissues of C. sinensis-infected mice were stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's trichrome, respectively. The transcriptional levels of collagen-I, collagen-III, α-SMA, and TIMP-1 in the livers of infected mice and rIL-13-treated mice were measured by quantitative RT-PCR. Besides, splenocytes of C. sinensis-infected and CsRNASET2-immunized mice were isolated, respectively. The levels of IL-13 in splenocytes were detected by ELISA. Our results displayed that the livers of C. sinensis-infected mice had serious chronic inflammation and collagen deposition. The transcriptional levels of collagen-I, collagen-III, α-SMA, and TIMP-1 in the livers of C. sinensis-infected mice were obviously increased. Splenocytes from both C. sinensis-infected and CsRNASET2-immunized mice expressed high levels of IL-13. Moreover, rIL-13 treatment markedly promoted the transcriptional levels of collagen-I, collagen-III, α-SMA, and TIMP-1. These data implied that hepatic fibrosis was formed in the livers of C. sinensis-infected mice, and IL-13 induced by C. sinensis infection and CsRNASET2 immunization might favor this progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanquan Xu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei Liang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China.,School of Tropical Medicine and Laboratory Medicine, Hainan Medical University, No. 3 Xueyuan Road, Haikou, Hainan, 571199, China
| | - Meng Bian
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjun Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyun Wang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinsi Lin
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei Shang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongling Qu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongdao Wu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xinbing Yu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, People's Republic of China.
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