Nitroreductase-mediated cell/tissue ablation in zebrafish: a spatially and temporally controlled ablation method with applications in developmental and regeneration studies

A sphingolipid rheostat controls apoptosis versus apical cell extrusion as alternative tumour-suppressive mechanisms

Evasion of cell death is a hallmark of cancer, and consequently the induction of cell death is a common strategy in cancer treatment. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating different types of cell death are poorly understood. We have formerly shown that in the epidermis of hypomorphic zebrafish hai1a mutant embryos, pre-neoplastic transformations of keratinocytes caused by unrestrained activity of the type II transmembrane serine protease Matriptase-1 heal spontaneously. This healing is driven by Matriptase-dependent increased sphingosine kinase (SphK) activity and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)-mediated keratinocyte loss via apical cell extrusion. In contrast, amorphic hai1afr26 mutants with even higher Matriptase-1 and SphK activity die within a few days. Here we show that this lethality is not due to epidermal carcinogenesis, but to aberrant tp53-independent apoptosis of keratinocytes caused by increased levels of pro-apoptotic C16 ceramides, sphingolipid counterparts to S1P within the sphingolipid rheostat, which severely compromises the epidermal barrier. Mathematical modelling of sphingolipid rheostat homeostasis, combined with in vivo manipulations of components of the rheostat or the ceramide de novo synthesis pathway, indicate that this unexpected overproduction of ceramides is caused by a negative feedback loop sensing ceramide levels and controlling ceramide replenishment via de novo synthesis. Therefore, despite their initial decrease due to increased conversion to S1P, ceramides eventually reach cell death-inducing levels, making transformed pre-neoplastic keratinocytes die even before they are extruded, thereby abrogating the normally barrier-preserving mode of apical live cell extrusion. Our results offer an in vivo perspective of the dynamics of sphingolipid homeostasis and its relevance for epithelial cell survival versus cell death, linking apical cell extrusion and apoptosis. Implications for human carcinomas and their treatments are discussed.

Leveraging zebrafish to investigate pancreatic development, regeneration, and diabetes

The zebrafish has become an outstanding model for studying organ development and tissue regeneration, which is prominently leveraged for studies of pancreatic development, insulin-producing β-cells, and diabetes. Although studied for more than two decades, many aspects remain elusive and it has only recently been possible to investigate these due to technical advances in transcriptomics, chemical-genetics, genome editing, drug screening, and in vivo imaging. Here, we review recent findings on zebrafish pancreas development, β-cell regeneration, and how zebrafish can be used to provide novel insights into gene functions, disease mechanisms, and therapeutic targets in diabetes, inspiring further use of zebrafish for the development of novel therapies for diabetes.

Cardiac Fibroblasts regulate myocardium and coronary vasculature development via the collagen signaling pathway

The fibroblast (FB), cardiomyocyte (CM), and vascular endothelial cell (Vas_EC) are the three major cell types in the heart, yet their relationships during development are largely unexplored. To address this gap, we employed RNA staining of the FB marker gene Col1a1 together with the CM marker gene Actn2 and the Vas_EC marker gene Cdh5 at different stages. This approach enabled us to discern the anatomical pattern of cardiac FBs and identify approximately one EC and four CMs directly interacting with each FB. Molecularly, through the analysis of single-cell mRNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data, we unveiled collagen as the top signaling molecule derived from FBs influencing CM and Vas_EC development. Subsequently, we used a Pdgfra-CreER controlled diphtheria toxin A (DTA) system to ablate the FBs at different stages. We found that the ablation of FBs disrupted myocardium and vasculature development and led to embryonic heart defects. Using scRNA-seq, we further profiled the ablated hearts and identified molecular defects in their ventricular CMs and Vas_ECs compared to control hearts. Moreover, we identified a reduction of collagen in the ablated hearts and predicted collagen as the major signaling pathway regulating the differentially expressed genes in the ablated ventricular CMs. Finally, we performed both short-term and long-term fibroblast ablation at the neonatal stage. We found that short-term ablation caused a reduction in collagen and Vas_EC density, while long-term ablation may induce compensatory collagen expression without causing heart function reduction. In summary, our study has identified the function of fibroblasts in regulating myocardium and vasculature development and implicated an important role for the collagen pathway in this process.

A noninvasive photoactivatable split-Cre recombinase system for genome engineering in zebrafish

The cyclic recombinase (Cre)/loxP recombination system is a powerful technique for in vivo cell labeling and tracking. However, achieving high spatiotemporal precision in cell tracking using this system is challenging due to the requirement for reliable tissue-specific promoters. In contrast, light-inducible systems offer superior regional confinement, tunability, and non-invasiveness compared to conventional lineage-tracing methods. Here, we took advantage of the unique strengths of the zebrafish to develop an easy-to-use highly efficient, genetically encoded, magnets-based, light-inducible transgenic Cre/loxP system. We demonstrate that our system does not exhibit phototoxicity or leakiness in the dark, and it enables efficient and robust Cre/loxP recombination in various tissues and cell types at different developmental stages through noninvasive illumination with blue light. Our newly developed tool is expected to open novel opportunities for light-controlled tracking of cell fate and migration in vivo.

Development of a hepatic cryoinjury model to study liver regeneration

The liver is a remarkable organ that can regenerate in response to injury. Depending on the extent of injury, the liver can undergo compensatory hyperplasia or fibrosis. Despite decades of research, the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes are poorly understood. Here, we developed a new model to study liver regeneration based on cryoinjury. To visualise liver regeneration at cellular resolution, we adapted the CUBIC tissue-clearing approach. Hepatic cryoinjury induced a localised necrotic and apoptotic lesion characterised by inflammation and infiltration of innate immune cells. After this initial phase, we observed fibrosis, which resolved as regeneration re-established homeostasis in 30 days. Importantly, this approach enables the comparison of healthy and injured parenchyma within an individual animal, providing unique advantages to previous models. In summary, the hepatic cryoinjury model provides a fast and reproducible method for studying the cellular and molecular pathways underpinning fibrosis and liver regeneration.

The evolutionarily conserved choroid plexus contributes to the homeostasis of brain ventricles in zebrafish

The choroid plexus (ChP) produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It also contributes to brain development and serves as the CSF-blood barrier. Prior studies have identified transporters on the epithelial cells that transport water and ions from the blood vasculature to the ventricles and tight junctions involved in the CSF-blood barrier. Yet, how the ChP epithelial cells control brain physiology remains unresolved. We use zebrafish to provide insights into the physiological roles of the ChP. Upon histological and transcriptomic analyses, we identify that the zebrafish ChP is conserved with mammals and expresses transporters involved in CSF secretion. Next, we show that the ChP epithelial cells secrete proteins into CSF. By ablating the ChP epithelial cells, we identify a reduction of the ventricular sizes without alterations of the CSF-blood barrier. Altogether, our findings reveal that the zebrafish ChP is conserved and contributes to the size and homeostasis of the brain ventricles.

Development of a hepatic cryoinjury model to study liver regeneration

The liver is a remarkable organ that can regenerate in response to injury. Depending on the extent of injury, the liver can undergo compensatory hyperplasia or fibrosis. Despite decades of research, the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes are poorly understood. Here, we developed a new model to study liver regeneration based on cryoinjury. To visualise liver regeneration at cellular resolution, we adapted the CUBIC tissue-clearing approach. Hepatic cryoinjury induced a localised necrotic and apoptotic lesion characterised by inflammation and infiltration of innate immune cells. Following this initial phase, we observed fibrosis, which resolved as regeneration re-established homeostasis in 30 days. Importantly, this approach enables the comparison of healthy and injured parenchyma with an individual animal, providing unique advantages to previous models. In summary, the hepatic cryoinjury model provides a fast and reproducible method for studying the cellular and molecular pathways underpinning fibrosis and liver regeneration.

Elevated phagocytic capacity directs innate spinal cord repair

Immune cells elicit a continuum of transcriptional and functional states after spinal cord injury (SCI). In mammals, inefficient debris clearance and chronic inflammation impede recovery and overshadow pro-regenerative immune functions. We found that, unlike mammals, zebrafish SCI elicits transient immune activation and efficient debris clearance, without causing chronic inflammation. Single-cell transcriptomics and inducible genetic ablation showed zebrafish macrophages are highly phagocytic and required for regeneration. Cross-species comparisons between zebrafish and mammalian macrophages identified transcription and immune response regulator ( tcim ) as a macrophage-enriched zebrafish gene. Genetic deletion of zebrafish tcim impairs phagocytosis and regeneration, causes aberrant and chronic immune activation, and can be rescued by transplanting wild-type immune precursors into tcim mutants. Conversely, genetic expression of human TCIM accelerates debris clearance and regeneration by reprogramming myeloid precursors into activated phagocytes. This study establishes a central requirement for elevated phagocytic capacity to achieve innate spinal cord repair.

A Chemically Inducible Muscle Ablation System for the Zebrafish

An effective method for tissue-specific ablation in zebrafish is the nitroreductase (NTR)/metronidazole (MTZ) system. Expressing bacterial NTR in the presence of nitroimidazole compounds causes apoptotic cell death, which can be useful for understanding many biological processes. However, this requires tissue-specific expression of the NTR enzyme, and many tissues have yet to be targeted with transgenic lines that express NTR. We generated a transgenic zebrafish line expressing NTR in differentiated skeletal muscle. Treatment of embryos with MTZ caused muscle specific cell ablation. We demonstrate this line can be used to monitor muscle regeneration in whole embryos and in transplanted transgenic cells.

Innovations in poultry reproduction using cryopreserved avian germ cells

Meat and eggs from chicken are the major source of animal protein for the human population. The cryopreservation of poultry species is needed to guarantee sustainable production. Here, we describe the existing cryopreservation technologies for avian reproductive cells using embryonic germ cells, spermatozoa and ovarian tissues. We outline strategies to reconstitute chicken breeds from their cryopreserved embryonic germ cells using surrogate hosts and discuss the perspectives for genetic conservation and reconstitution of chicken and wild avian species using surrogate host animals.

ptx3a+ fibroblast/epicardial cells provide a transient macrophage niche to promote heart regeneration

Macrophages conduct critical roles in heart repair, but the niche required to nurture and anchor them is poorly studied. Here, we investigated the macrophage niche in the regenerating heart. We analyzed cell-cell interactions through published single-cell RNA sequencing datasets and identified a strong interaction between fibroblast/epicardial (Fb/Epi) cells and macrophages. We further visualized the association of macrophages with Fb/Epi cells and the blockage of macrophage response without Fb/Epi cells in the regenerating zebrafish heart. Moreover, we found that ptx3a+ epicardial cells associate with reparative macrophages, and their depletion resulted in fewer reparative macrophages. Further, we identified csf1a expression in ptx3a+ cells and determined that pharmacological inhibition of the csf1a pathway or csf1a knockout blocked the reparative macrophage response. Moreover, we found that genetic overexpression of csf1a enhanced the reparative macrophage response with or without heart injury. Altogether, our studies illuminate a cardiac Fb/Epi niche, which mediates a beneficial macrophage response after heart injury.

col1a2+ fibroblasts/muscle progenitors finetune xanthophore countershading by differentially expressing csf1a/1b in embryonic zebrafish

Animals evolve diverse pigment patterns to adapt to the natural environment. Countershading, characterized by a dark-colored dorsum and a light-colored ventrum, is one of the most prevalent pigment patterns observed in vertebrates. In this study, we reveal a mechanism regulating xanthophore countershading in zebrafish embryos. We found that csf1a and csf1b mutants altered xanthophore countershading differently: csf1a mutants lack ventral xanthophores, while csf1b mutants have reduced dorsal xanthophores. Further study revealed that csf1a is expressed throughout the trunk, whereas csf1b is expressed dorsally. Ectopic expression of csf1a or csf1b in neurons attracted xanthophores into the spinal cord. Blocking csf1 signaling by csf1ra mutants disrupts spinal cord distribution and normal xanthophores countershading. Single-cell RNA sequencing identified two col1a2+ populations: csf1ahighcsf1bhigh muscle progenitors and csf1ahighcsf1blow fibroblast progenitors. Ablation of col1a2+ fibroblast and muscle progenitors abolished xanthophore patterns. Our study suggests that fibroblast and muscle progenitors differentially express csf1a and csf1b to modulate xanthophore patterning, providing insights into the mechanism of countershading.

All-in-one IQ toggle switches with high versatilities for fine-tuning of transgene expression in mammalian cells and tissues

The transgene toggling device is recognized as a powerful tool for gene- and cell-based biological research and precision medicine. However, many of these devices often operate in binary mode, exhibit unacceptable leakiness, suffer from transgene silencing, show cytotoxicity, and have low potency. Here, we present a novel transgene switch, SIQ, wherein all the elements for gene toggling are packed into a single vector. SIQ has superior potency in inducing transgene expression in response to tebufenozide compared with the Gal4/UAS system, while completely avoiding transgene leakiness. Additionally, the ease and versatility of SIQ make it possible with a single construct to perform transient transfection, establish stable cell lines by targeting a predetermined genomic locus, and simultaneously produce adenovirus for transduction into cells and mammalian tissues. Furthermore, we integrated a cumate switch into SIQ, called SIQmate, to operate a Boolean AND logic gate, enabling swift toggling-off of the transgene after the removal of chemical inducers, tebufenozide and cumate. Both SIQ and SIQmate offer precise transgene toggling, making them adjustable for various researches, including synthetic biology, genome engineering, and therapeutics.

Definitive hematopoiesis is dispensable to sustain erythrocytes and macrophages during zebrafish ontogeny

In all organisms studied, from flies to humans, blood cells emerge in several sequential waves and from distinct hematopoietic origins. However, the relative contribution of these ontogenetically distinct hematopoietic waves to embryonic blood lineages and to tissue regeneration during development is yet elusive. Here, using a lineage-specific "switch and trace" strategy in the zebrafish embryo, we report that the definitive hematopoietic progeny barely contributes to erythrocytes and macrophages during early development. Lineage tracing further shows that ontogenetically distinct macrophages exhibit differential recruitment to the site of injury based on the developmental stage of the organism. We further demonstrate that primitive macrophages can solely maintain tissue regeneration during early larval developmental stages after selective ablation of definitive macrophages. Our findings highlight that the sequential emergence of hematopoietic waves in embryos ensures the abundance of blood cells required for tissue homeostasis and integrity during development.

Compartmentalization and synergy of osteoblasts drive bone formation in the regenerating fin

Zebrafish regenerate their fins which involves a component of cell plasticity. It is currently unclear how regenerate cells divide labor to allow for appropriate growth and patterning. Here, we studied lineage relationships of fluorescence-activated cell sorting-enriched epidermal, bone-forming (osteoblast), and (non-osteoblast) blastemal fin regenerate cells by single-cell RNA sequencing, lineage tracing, targeted osteoblast ablation, and electron microscopy. Most osteoblasts in the outgrowing regenerate derive from osterix+ osteoblasts, while mmp9+ cells reside at segment joints. Distal blastema cells contribute to distal osteoblast progenitors, suggesting compartmentalization of the regenerating appendage. Ablation of osterix+ osteoblasts impairs segment joint and bone matrix formation and decreases regenerate length which is partially compensated for by distal regenerate cells. Our study characterizes expression patterns and lineage relationships of rare fin regenerate cell populations, indicates inherent detection and compensation of impaired regeneration, suggests variable dependence on growth factor signaling, and demonstrates zonation of the elongating fin regenerate.

LiverZap: a chemoptogenetic tool for global and locally restricted hepatocyte ablation to study cellular behaviours in liver regeneration

The liver restores its mass and architecture after injury. Yet, investigating morphogenetic cell behaviours and signals that repair tissue architecture at high spatiotemporal resolution remains challenging. We developed LiverZap, a tuneable chemoptogenetic liver injury model in zebrafish. LiverZap employs the formation of a binary FAP-TAP photosensitiser followed by brief near-infrared illumination inducing hepatocyte-specific death and recapitulating mammalian liver injury types. The tool enables local hepatocyte ablation and extended live imaging capturing regenerative cell behaviours, which is crucial for studying cellular interactions at the interface of healthy and damaged tissue. Applying LiverZap, we show that targeted hepatocyte ablation in a small region of interest is sufficient to trigger local liver progenitor-like cell (LPC)-mediated regeneration, challenging the current understanding of liver regeneration. Surprisingly, the LPC response is also elicited in adjacent uninjured tissue, at up to 100 µm distance to the injury. Moreover, dynamic biliary network rearrangement suggests active cell movements from uninjured tissue in response to substantial hepatocyte loss as an integral step of LPC-mediated liver regeneration. This precisely targetable liver cell ablation tool will enable the discovery of key molecular and morphogenetic regeneration paradigms.

Live tracking of basal stem cells of the epidermis during growth, homeostasis and injury response in zebrafish

Basal stem cells of the epidermis continuously differentiate into keratinocytes and replenish themselves via self-renewal to maintain skin homeostasis. Numerous studies have attempted to reveal how basal cells undergo differentiation or self-renewal; however, this has been hampered by a lack of robust basal cell markers and analytical platforms that allow single-cell tracking. Here, we report that zebrafish integrin beta 4 is a useful marker for basal cell labelling, irrespective of the body region, stage and regenerative status. We employed Cre-loxP recombination in combination with live cell tracking of single basal clones in the caudal fin and investigated the embryonic origin and behaviour of basal cells during fish growth and homeostasis. Although most basal cells, including those in fins, became quiescent in the adult stage, genetic cell ablation showed that basal cells were reactivated to either self-renew or differentiate, depending on the injured cell type. Our study provides a simple and easy-to-use platform for quantitative in vivo imaging of basal stem cells at wider stages and under various conditions.

Leukotriene B4 receptor 2 governs macrophage migration during tissue inflammation

Chronic inflammation is the underlying cause of many diseases, including type 1 diabetes, obesity, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Macrophages are continuously recruited to tissues during chronic inflammation where they exacerbate or resolve the pro-inflammatory environment. Although leukotriene B4 receptor 2 (BLT2) has been characterized as a low affinity receptor to several key eicosanoids and chemoattractants, its precise roles in the setting of inflammation and macrophage function remain incompletely understood. Here we used zebrafish and mouse models to probe the role of BLT2 in macrophage function during inflammation. We detected BLT2 expression in bone marrow derived and peritoneal macrophages of mouse models. Transcriptomic analysis of Ltb4r2-/- and WT macrophages suggested a role for BLT2 in macrophage migration, and studies in vitro confirmed that whereas BLT2 does not mediate macrophage polarization, it is required for chemotactic function, possibly mediated by downstream genes Ccl5 and Lgals3. Using a zebrafish model of tailfin injury, we demonstrated that antisense morpholino-mediated knockdown of blt2a or chemical inhibition of BLT2 signaling impairs macrophage migration. We further replicated these findings in zebrafish models of islet injury and liver inflammation. Moreover, we established the applicability of our zebrafish findings to mammals by showing that macrophages of Ltb4r2-/- mice have defective migration during lipopolysaccharide stimulation in vivo. Collectively, our results demonstrate that BLT2 mediates macrophage migration during inflammation, which implicates it as a potential therapeutic target for inflammatory pathologies.

Multiple neuronal populations control the eating behavior in Hydra and are responsive to microbial signals

Although recent studies indicate the impact of microbes on the central nervous systems and behavior, it remains unclear how the relationship between the functionality of the nervous system, behavior, and the microbiota evolved. In this work, we analyzed the eating behavior of Hydra, a host that has a simple nervous system and a low-complexity microbiota. To identify the neuronal subpopulations involved, we used a subpopulation-specific cell ablation system and calcium imaging. The role of the microbiota was uncovered by manipulating the diversity of the natural microbiota. We show that different neuronal subpopulations are functioning together to control eating behavior. Animals with a drastically reduced microbiome had severe difficulties in mouth opening due to a significantly increased level of glutamate. This could be reversed by adding a full complement of the microbiota. In summary, we provide a mechanistic explanation of how Hydra's nervous system controls eating behavior and what role microbes play in this.

Neural plate progenitors give rise to both anterior and posterior pituitary cells

The pituitary is the master neuroendocrine gland, which regulates body homeostasis. It consists of the anterior pituitary/adenohypophysis harboring hormones producing cells and the posterior pituitary/neurohypophysis, which relays the passage of hormones from the brain to the periphery. It is accepted that the adenohypophysis originates from the oral ectoderm (Rathke's pouch), whereas the neural ectoderm contributes to the neurohypophysis. Single-cell transcriptomics of the zebrafish pituitary showed that cyp26b1-positive astroglial pituicytes of the neurohypophysis and prop1-positive adenohypophyseal progenitors expressed common markers implying lineage relatedness. Genetic tracing identifies that, in contrast to the prevailing dogma, neural plate precursors of zebrafish (her4.3+) and mouse (Sox1+) contribute to both neurohypophyseal and a subset of adenohypophyseal cells. Pituicyte-derived retinoic-acid-degrading enzyme Cyp26b1 fine-tunes differentiation of prop1+ progenitors into hormone-producing cells. These results challenge the notion that adenohypophyseal cells are exclusively derived from non-neural ectoderm and demonstrate that crosstalk between neuro- and adeno-hypophyseal cells affects differentiation of pituitary cells.

Production of all-male non-transgenic zebrafish by conditional primordial germ cell ablation

Many fish species exhibit remarkable sexual dimorphism, with males possessing numerous advantageous traits for commercial production by aquaculture such as faster growth rate, more efficient food energy utilization for muscle development, and better breeding performance. Several studies have shown that a decrease in the number of primordial germ cells (PGCs) during early development leads predominantly to male progeny. In this study, we developed a method to obtain all-male zebrafish (Danio rerio) by targeted PGC ablation using the nitroreductase/metronidazole (NTR/Mtz) system. Embryos generated by female heterozygous Tg(nanos3:nfsB-mCherry-nanos3 3'UTR) and male wild-types (WTs) were treated with vehicle or Mtz. Compared to vehicle-treated controls, 5.0 and 10.0 mM Mtz treatment for 24 h significantly reduced the number of PGCs and yielded an exclusively male phenotype in adulthood. The gonads of offspring treated with 5.0 mM Mtz exhibited relatively normal morphology and histological characteristics. Furthermore, these males were able to chase females, spawn, and produce viable offspring, while about 20.0% of males treated with 10.0 mM Mtz were unable to produce viable offspring. The 5.0 mM Mtz treatment protocol may thus be suitable for large-scale production of fertile male offspring. Moreover, about half of these males were WT as evidenced by the absence of nfsB gene expression. It may thus be possible to breed an all-male WT fish population by Mtz-mediated PGC ablation.

Glial regulation of critical period plasticity

Animal behavior, from simple to complex, is dependent on the faithful wiring of neurons into functional neural circuits. Neural circuits undergo dramatic experience-dependent remodeling during brief developmental windows called critical periods. Environmental experience during critical periods of plasticity produces sustained changes to circuit function and behavior. Precocious critical period closure is linked to autism spectrum disorders, whereas extended synaptic remodeling is thought to underlie circuit dysfunction in schizophrenia. Thus, resolving the mechanisms that instruct critical period timing is important to our understanding of neurodevelopmental disorders. Control of critical period timing is modulated by neuron-intrinsic cues, yet recent data suggest that some determinants are derived from neighboring glial cells (astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes). As glia make up 50% of the human brain, understanding how these diverse cells communicate with neurons and with each other to sculpt neural plasticity, especially during specialized critical periods, is essential to our fundamental understanding of circuit development and maintenance.

Her6 and Prox1a are novel regulators of photoreceptor regeneration in the zebrafish retina

Damage to light-sensing photoreceptors (PRs) occurs in highly prevalent retinal diseases. As humans cannot regenerate new PRs, these diseases often lead to irreversible blindness. Intriguingly, animals, such as the zebrafish, can regenerate PRs efficiently and restore functional vision. Upon injury, mature Müller glia (MG) undergo reprogramming to adopt a stem cell-like state. This process is similar to cellular dedifferentiation, and results in the generation of progenitor cells, which, in turn, proliferate and differentiate to replace lost retinal neurons. In this study, we tested whether factors involved in dedifferentiation of Drosophila CNS are implicated in the regenerative response in the zebrafish retina. We found that hairy-related 6 (her6) negatively regulates of PR production by regulating the rate of cell divisions in the MG-derived progenitors. prospero homeobox 1a (prox1a) is expressed in differentiated PRs and may promote PR differentiation through phase separation. Interestingly, upon Her6 downregulation, Prox1a is precociously upregulated in the PRs, to promote PR differentiation; conversely, loss of Prox1a also induces a downregulation of Her6. Together, we identified two novel candidates of PR regeneration that cross regulate each other; these may be exploited to promote human retinal regeneration and vision recovery.

Antisense Oligonucleotide Activation via Enzymatic Antibiotic Resistance Mechanism

The structure and mechanism of the bacterial enzyme β-lactamase have been well-studied due to its clinical role in antibiotic resistance. β-Lactamase is known to hydrolyze the β-lactam ring of the cephalosporin scaffold, allowing a spontaneous self-immolation to occur. Previously, cephalosporin-based sensors have been developed to evaluate β-lactamase expression in both mammalian cells and zebrafish embryos. Here, we present a circular caged morpholino oligonucleotide (cMO) activated by β-lactamase-mediated cleavage of a cephalosporin motif capable of silencing the expression of T-box transcription factor Ta (tbxta), also referred to as no tail a (ntla), eliciting a distinct, observable phenotype. We explore the use of β-lactamase to elicit a biological response in aquatic embryos for the first time and expand the utility of cephalosporin as a cleavable linker beyond targeting antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The addition of β-lactamase to the current suite of enzymatic triggers presents unique opportunities for robust, orthogonal control over endogenous gene expression in a spatially resolved manner.

The Chordate Origins of Heart Regeneration

The human heart is infamous for not healing after infarction in adults, prompting biomedical interest in species that can regenerate damaged hearts. In such animals as zebrafish and neonatal mice, cardiac repair relies on remaining heart tissue supporting cardiomyocyte proliferation. Natural de novo cardiogenesis in post-embryonic stages thus remains elusive. Here we show that the tunicate Ciona, an ascidian among the closest living relatives to the vertebrates, can survive complete chemogenetic ablation of the heart and loss of cardiac function, and recover both cardiac tissue and contractility. As in vertebrates, Ciona heart regeneration relies on Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) signaling-dependent proliferation of cardiomyocytes, providing insights into the evolutionary origins of regenerative cardiogenesis in chordates. Remarkably, prospective lineage tracing by photoconversion of the fluorescent protein Kaede suggested that new cardiomyocytes can emerge from endodermal lineages in post-metamorphic animals, providing an unprecedented case of regenerative de novo cardiogenesis. Finally, while embryos cannot compensate for early losses of the cardiogenic lineage, forming heartless juveniles, developing animals gain their regenerative ability during metamorphosis, uncovering a fundamental transition between deterministic embryogenesis and regulative post-embryonic development.

An inducible germ cell ablation chicken model for high-grade germline chimeras

Chicken embryos are a powerful and widely used animal model in developmental biology studies. Since the development of CRISPR technology, gene-edited chickens have been generated by transferring primordial germ cells (PGCs) into recipients after genetic modifications. However, low inheritance caused by competition between host germ cells and the transferred cells is a common complication and greatly reduces production efficiency. Here, we generated a gene-edited chicken, in which germ cells can be ablated in a drug-dependent manner, as recipients for gene-edited PGC transfer. We used the nitroreductase/metronidazole (NTR/Mtz) system for cell ablation, in which nitroreductase produces cytotoxic alkylating agents from administered metronidazole, causing cell apoptosis. The chicken Vasa homolog (CVH) gene locus was used to drive the expression of the nitroreductase gene in a germ cell-specific manner. In addition, a fluorescent protein gene, mCherry, was also placed in the CVH locus to visualize the PGCs. We named this system 'germ cell-specific autonomous removal induction' (gSAMURAI). gSAMURAI chickens will be an ideal recipient to produce offspring derived from transplanted exogenous germ cells.

Zebrafish as a Useful Model System for Human Liver Disease

Liver diseases represent a significant global health challenge, thereby necessitating extensive research to understand their intricate complexities and to develop effective treatments. In this context, zebrafish (Danio rerio) have emerged as a valuable model organism for studying various aspects of liver disease. The zebrafish liver has striking similarities to the human liver in terms of structure, function, and regenerative capacity. Researchers have successfully induced liver damage in zebrafish using chemical toxins, genetic manipulation, and other methods, thereby allowing the study of disease mechanisms and the progression of liver disease. Zebrafish embryos or larvae, with their transparency and rapid development, provide a unique opportunity for high-throughput drug screening and the identification of potential therapeutics. This review highlights how research on zebrafish has provided valuable insights into the pathological mechanisms of human liver disease.

Decoding pancreatic endocrine cell differentiation and β cell regeneration in zebrafish

In contrast to mice, zebrafish have an exceptional yet elusive ability to replenish lost β cells in adulthood. Understanding this framework would provide mechanistic insights for β cell regeneration, which may be extrapolated to humans. Here, we characterize a krt4-expressing ductal cell type, which is distinct from the putative Notch-responsive cells, showing neogenic competence and giving rise to the majority of endocrine cells during postembryonic development. Furthermore, we demonstrate a marked ductal remodeling process featuring a Notch-responsive to krt4+ luminal duct transformation during late development, indicating several origins of krt4+ ductal cells displaying similar transcriptional patterns. Single-cell transcriptomics upon a series of time points during β cell regeneration unveil a previously unrecognized dlb+ transitional endocrine precursor cell, distinct regulons, and a differentiation trajectory involving cellular shuffling through differentiation and dedifferentiation dynamics. These results establish a model of zebrafish pancreatic endocrinogenesis and highlight key values of zebrafish for translational studies of β cell regeneration.

Target-selective vertebrate motor axon regeneration depends on interaction with glial cells at a peripheral nerve plexus

A critical step for functional recovery from peripheral nerve injury is for regenerating axons to connect with their pre-injury targets. Reestablishing pre-injury target specificity is particularly challenging for limb-innervating axons as they encounter a plexus, a network where peripheral nerves converge, axons from different nerves intermingle, and then re-sort into target-specific bundles. Here, we examine this process at a plexus located at the base of the zebrafish pectoral fin, equivalent to tetrapod forelimbs. Using live cell imaging and sparse axon labeling, we find that regenerating motor axons from 3 nerves coalesce into the plexus. There, they intermingle and sort into distinct branches, and then navigate to their original muscle domains with high fidelity that restores functionality. We demonstrate that this regeneration process includes selective retraction of mistargeted axons, suggesting active correction mechanisms. Moreover, we find that Schwann cells are enriched and associate with axons at the plexus, and that Schwann cell ablation during regeneration causes profound axonal mistargeting. Our data provide the first real-time account of regenerating vertebrate motor axons navigating a nerve plexus and reveal a previously unappreciated role for Schwann cells to promote axon sorting at a plexus during regeneration.

Heterogeneity and Functional Analysis of Cardiac Fibroblasts in Heart Development

Background

As one of the major cell types in the heart, fibroblasts play critical roles in multiple biological processes. Cardiac fibroblasts are known to develop from multiple sources, but their transcriptional profiles have not been systematically compared. Furthermore, while the function of a few genes in cardiac fibroblasts has been studied, the overall function of fibroblasts as a cell type remains uninvestigated.

Methods

Single-cell mRNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and bioinformatics approaches were used to analyze the genome-wide genes expression and extracellular matrix genes expression in fibroblasts, as well as the ligand-receptor interactions between fibroblasts and cardiomyocytes. Single molecular in situ hybridization was employed to analyze the expression pattern of fibroblast subpopulation-specific genes. The Diphtheria toxin fragment A (DTA) system was utilized to ablate fibroblasts at each developmental phase.

Results

Using RNA staining of Col1a1 at different stages, we grouped cardiac fibroblasts into four developmental phases. Through the analysis of scRNA-seq profiles of fibroblasts at 18 stages from two mouse strains, we identified significant heterogeneity, preserving lineage gene expression in their precursor cells. Within the main fibroblast population, we found differential expressions of Wt1, Tbx18, and Aldh1a2 genes in various cell clusters. Lineage tracing studies showed Wt1- and Tbx18-positive fibroblasts originated from respective epicardial cells. Furthermore, using a conditional DTA system-based elimination, we identified the crucial role of fibroblasts in early embryonic and heart growth, but not in neonatal heart growth. Additionally, we identified the zone- and stage-associated expression of extracellular matrix genes and fibroblast-cardiomyocyte ligand-receptor interactions. This comprehensive understanding sheds light on fibroblast function in heart development.

Conclusion

We observed cardiac fibroblast heterogeneity at embryonic and neonatal stages, with preserved lineage gene expression. Ablation studies revealed their distinct roles during development, likely influenced by varying extracellular matrix genes and ligand-receptor interactions at different stages.

Heterogeneity in quiescent Müller glia in the uninjured zebrafish retina drive differential responses following photoreceptor ablation

Introduction

Loss of neurons in the neural retina is a leading cause of vision loss. While humans do not possess the capacity for retinal regeneration, zebrafish can achieve this through activation of resident Müller glia. Remarkably, despite the presence of Müller glia in humans and other mammalian vertebrates, these cells lack an intrinsic ability to contribute to regeneration. Upon activation, zebrafish Müller glia can adopt a stem cell-like state, undergo proliferation and generate new neurons. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of this activation subsequent retinal regeneration remains unclear.

Methods/Results

To address this, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and report remarkable heterogeneity in gene expression within quiescent Müller glia across distinct dorsal, central and ventral retina pools of such cells. Next, we utilized a genetically driven, chemically inducible nitroreductase approach to study Müller glia activation following selective ablation of three distinct photoreceptor subtypes: long wavelength sensitive cones, short wavelength sensitive cones, and rods. There, our data revealed that a region-specific bias in activation of Müller glia exists in the zebrafish retina, and this is independent of the distribution of the ablated cell type across retinal regions. Notably, gene ontology analysis revealed that injury-responsive dorsal and central Müller glia express genes related to dorsal/ventral pattern formation, growth factor activity, and regulation of developmental process. Through scRNA-seq analysis, we identify a shared genetic program underlying initial Müller glia activation and cell cycle entry, followed by differences that drive the fate of regenerating neurons. We observed an initial expression of AP-1 and injury-responsive transcription factors, followed by genes involved in Notch signaling, ribosome biogenesis and gliogenesis, and finally expression of cell cycle, chromatin remodeling and microtubule-associated genes.

Discussion

Taken together, our findings document the regional specificity of gene expression within quiescent Müller glia and demonstrate unique Müller glia activation and regeneration features following neural ablation. These findings will improve our understanding of the molecular pathways relevant to neural regeneration in the retina.

A macrophage subpopulation promotes airineme-mediated intercellular communication in a matrix metalloproteinase-9 dependent manner

Tissue-resident macrophages are heterogeneous and perform location-dependent functions. Skin resident macrophages play intriguing roles in long-distance intercellular signaling by mediating cellular protrusions called airinemes in zebrafish. These macrophages relay signaling molecules containing airineme vesicles between pigment cells, and their absence disrupts airineme-mediated signaling and pigment pattern formation. It is unknown if the same macrophages control both these signaling and typical immune functions or if a separate subpopulation functions in intercellular communication. With high-resolution imaging and genetic ablation approaches, we identify a macrophage subpopulation responsible for airineme-mediated signaling. These seem to be distinct from conventional skin-resident macrophages by their ameboid morphology and faster or expansive migratory behaviors. They resemble ectoderm-derived macrophages termed metaphocytes. Metaphocyte ablation markedly decreases airineme extension and signaling. In addition, these ameboid/metaphocytes require matrix metalloproteinase-9 for their migration and airineme-mediated signaling. These results reveal a macrophage subpopulation with specialized functions in airineme-mediated signaling, which may play roles in other aspects of intercellular communication.

IFT46 gene promoter-driven ciliopathy disease model in zebrafish

Ciliopathies are human genetic disorders caused by abnormal formation and dysfunction of cellular cilia. Cilia are microtubule-based organelles that project into the extracellular space and transduce molecular and chemical signals from the extracellular environment or neighboring cells. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins are required for the assembly and maintenance of cilia by transporting proteins along the axoneme which consists of complexes A and B. IFT46, a core IFT-B protein complex, is required for cilium formation and maintenance during vertebrate embryonic development. Here, we introduce transgenic zebrafish lines under the control of ciliated cell-specific IFT46 promoter to recapitulate human ciliopathy-like phenotypes. We generated a Tg(IFT46:GAL4-VP16) line to temporo-spatially control the expression of effectors including fluorescent reporters or nitroreductase based on the GAL4/UAS system, which expresses GAL4-VP16 chimeric transcription factors in most ciliated tissues during embryonic development. To analyze the function of IFT46-expressing ciliated cells during zebrafish development, we generated the Tg(IFT46:GAL4-VP16;UAS;nfsb-mCherry) line, a ciliated cell-specific injury model induced by nitroreductase (NTR)/metrodinazole (MTZ). Conditionally, controlled ablation of ciliated cells in transgenic animals exhibited ciliopathy-like phenotypes including cystic kidneys and pericardial and periorbital edema. Altogether, we established a zebrafish NTR/MTZ-mediated ciliated cell injury model that recapitulates ciliopathy-like phenotypes and may be a vertebrate animal model to further investigate the etiology and therapeutic approaches to human ciliopathies.

Ronidazole Is a Superior Prodrug to Metronidazole for Nitroreductase-Mediated Hepatocytes Ablation in Zebrafish Larvae

The liver plays a very important role in physiological processes of the human body. Liver regeneration has developed into an important area of study in liver disease. The Mtz (metronidazole)/NTR (nitroreductase)-mediated cell ablation system has been widely used to study the processes and mechanisms of liver injury and regeneration. However, high concentrations and toxic side effects of Mtz severely limit the application of the Mtz/NTR system. Therefore, screening new analogs to replace Mtz has become an important means to optimize the NTR ablation system. In this study, we screened five Mtz analogs including furazolidone, ronidazole, ornidazole, nitromide, and tinidazole. We compared their toxicity on the transgenic fish line Tg(fabp10a: mCherry-NTR) and their specific ablation ability on liver cells. The results showed that Ronidazole at a lower concentration (2 mM) had the same ability to ablate liver cells comparable with that of Mtz (10 mM), almost without toxic side effects on juvenile fish. Further study found that zebrafish hepatocyte injury caused by the Ronidazole/NTR system achieved the same liver regenerative effect as the Mtz/NTR system. The above results show that Ronidazole can replace Mtz with NTR to achieve superior damage and ablation effects in zebrafish liver.

Progenitor-derived glia are required for spinal cord regeneration in zebrafish

Unlike mammals, adult zebrafish undergo spontaneous recovery after major spinal cord injury. Whereas reactive gliosis presents a roadblock for mammalian spinal cord repair, glial cells in zebrafish elicit pro-regenerative bridging functions after injury. Here, we perform genetic lineage tracing, assessment of regulatory sequences and inducible cell ablation to define mechanisms that direct the molecular and cellular responses of glial cells after spinal cord injury in adult zebrafish. Using a newly generated CreERT2 transgenic line, we show that the cells directing expression of the bridging glial marker ctgfa give rise to regenerating glia after injury, with negligible contribution to either neuronal or oligodendrocyte lineages. A 1 kb sequence upstream of the ctgfa gene was sufficient to direct expression in early bridging glia after injury. Finally, ablation of ctgfa-expressing cells using a transgenic nitroreductase strategy impaired glial bridging and recovery of swim behavior after injury. This study identifies key regulatory features, cellular progeny, and requirements of glial cells during innate spinal cord regeneration.

Direct BMP signaling to chordoblasts is required for the initiation of segmented notochord sheath mineralization in zebrafish vertebral column development

The vertebral column, with the centra as its iteratively arranged building blocks, represents the anatomical key feature of the vertebrate phylum. In contrast to amniotes, where vertebrae are formed from chondrocytes and osteoblasts deriving from the segmentally organized neural crest or paraxial sclerotome, teleost vertebral column development is initiated by chordoblasts of the primarily unsegmented axial notochord, while sclerotomal cells only contribute to later steps of vertebrae formation. Yet, for both mammalian and teleostean model systems, unrestricted signaling by Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) or retinoic acid (RA) has been reported to cause fusions of vertebral elements, while the interplay of the two signaling processes and their exact cellular targets remain largely unknown. Here, we address this interplay in zebrafish, identifying BMPs as potent and indispensable factors that, as formerly shown for RA, directly signal to notochord epithelial cells/chordoblasts to promote entpd5a expression and thereby metameric notochord sheath mineralization. In contrast to RA, however, which promotes sheath mineralization at the expense of further collagen secretion and sheath formation, BMP defines an earlier transitory stage of chordoblasts, characterized by sustained matrix production/col2a1 expression and concomitant matrix mineralization/entpd5a expression. BMP-RA epistasis analyses further indicate that RA can only affect chordoblasts and their further progression to merely mineralizing cells after they have received BMP signals to enter the transitory col2a1/entpd5a double-positive stage. This way, both signals ensure consecutively for proper mineralization of the notochord sheath within segmented sections along its anteroposterior axis. Our work sheds further light onto the molecular mechanisms that orchestrate early steps of vertebral column segmentation in teleosts. Similarities and differences to BMP's working mechanisms during mammalian vertebral column formation and the pathomechanisms underlying human bone diseases such as Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) caused by constitutively active BMP signaling are discussed.

Metaphocytes are IL-22BP-producing cells regulated by ETS transcription factor Spic and essential for zebrafish barrier immunity

Metaphocytes are tissue-resident macrophage (TRM)/dendritic cell (DC)-like cells of non-hematopoietic origin in zebrafish barrier tissues. One remarkable property of metaphocytes is their ability to capture soluble antigens from the external environment via transepithelial protrusions, a unique function manifested by specialized subpopulations of the TRMs/DCs in mammal barrier tissues. Yet, how metaphocytes acquire myeloid-like cell properties from non-hematopoietic precursors and how they regulate barrier immunity remains unknown. Here, we show that metaphocytes are in situ generated from local progenitors guided by the ETS transcription factor Spic, the deficiency of which results in the absence of metaphocytes. We further document that metaphocytes are the major IL-22BP-producing cells, and the depletion of metaphocytes causes dysregulated barrier immunity that resembles the phenotype of IL-22BP-deficient mice. These findings reveal the ontogeny, development, and function of metaphocytes in zebrafish, which facilitates our understanding of the nature and function of the mammalian TRM/DC counterparts.

The developing epicardium regulates cardiac chamber morphogenesis by promoting cardiomyocyte growth

The epicardium, the outermost layer of the heart, is an important regulator of cardiac regeneration. However, a detailed understanding of the crosstalk between the epicardium and myocardium during development requires further investigation. Here, we generated three models of epicardial impairment in zebrafish by mutating the transcription factor genes tcf21 and wt1a, and ablating tcf21+ epicardial cells. Notably, all three epicardial impairment models exhibited smaller ventricles. We identified the initial cause of this phenotype as defective cardiomyocyte growth, resulting in reduced cell surface and volume. This failure of cardiomyocyte growth was followed by decreased proliferation and increased abluminal extrusion. By temporally manipulating its ablation, we show that the epicardium is required to support cardiomyocyte growth mainly during early cardiac morphogenesis. By transcriptomic profiling of sorted epicardial cells, we identified reduced expression of FGF and VEGF ligand genes in tcf21-/- hearts, and pharmacological inhibition of these signaling pathways in wild type partially recapitulated the ventricular growth defects. Taken together, these data reveal distinct roles of the epicardium during cardiac morphogenesis and signaling pathways underlying epicardial-myocardial crosstalk.

Perfect duet: Dual recombinases improve genetic resolution

As a powerful genetic tool, site-specific recombinases (SSRs) have been widely used in genomic manipulation to elucidate cell fate plasticity in vivo, advancing research in stem cell and regeneration medicine. However, the low resolution of conventional single-recombinase-mediated lineage tracing strategies, which rely heavily on the specificity of one marker gene, has led to controversial conclusions in many scientific questions. Therefore, different SSRs systems are combined to improve the accuracy of lineage tracing. Here we review the recent advances in dual-recombinase-mediated genetic approaches, including the development of novel genetic recombination technologies and their applications in cell differentiation, proliferation, and genetic manipulation. In comparison with the single-recombinase system, we also discuss the advantages of dual-genetic strategies in solving scientific issues as well as their technical limitations.

Efficient knock-in method enabling lineage tracing in zebrafish

Here, we devised a cloning-free 3' knock-in strategy for zebrafish using PCR amplified dsDNA donors that avoids disrupting the targeted genes. The dsDNA donors carry genetic cassettes coding for fluorescent proteins and Cre recombinase in frame with the endogenous gene but separated from it by self-cleavable peptides. Primers with 5' AmC6 end-protections generated PCR amplicons with increased integration efficiency that were coinjected with preassembled Cas9/gRNA ribonucleoprotein complexes for early integration. We targeted four genetic loci (krt92, nkx6.1, krt4, and id2a) and generated 10 knock-in lines, which function as reporters for the endogenous gene expression. The knocked-in iCre or CreERT2 lines were used for lineage tracing, which suggested that nkx6.1 + cells are multipotent pancreatic progenitors that gradually restrict to the bipotent duct, whereas id2a + cells are multipotent in both liver and pancreas and gradually restrict to ductal cells. In addition, the hepatic id2a + duct show progenitor properties upon extreme hepatocyte loss. Thus, we present an efficient and straightforward knock-in technique with widespread use for cellular labelling and lineage tracing.

Hepatocyte-to-cholangiocyte conversion occurs through transdifferentiation independently of proliferation in zebrafish

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Injury to biliary epithelial cells (BECs) lining the hepatic bile ducts leads to cholestatic liver diseases. Upon severe biliary damage, hepatocytes can convert to BECs, thereby contributing to liver recovery. Given a potential of augmenting this hepatocyte-to-BEC conversion as a therapeutic option for cholestatic liver diseases, it will be important to thoroughly understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the conversion process.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Towards this aim, we have established a zebrafish model for hepatocyte-to-BEC conversion by employing Tg(fabp10a:CFP-NTR) zebrafish with a temporal inhibition of Notch signaling during regeneration. Cre/loxP-mediated permanent and H2B-mCherry-mediated short-term lineage tracing revealed that in the model, all BECs originate from hepatocytes. During the conversion, BEC markers are sequentially induced in the order of Sox9b, Yap/Taz, Notch activity/ epcam , and Alcama/ krt18 ; the expression of the hepatocyte marker Bhmt disappears between the Sox9b and Yap/Taz induction. Importantly, live time-lapse imaging unambiguously revealed transdifferentiation of hepatocytes into BECs: hepatocytes convert to BECs without transitioning through a proliferative intermediate state. In addition, using compounds and transgenic and mutant lines that modulate Notch and Yap signaling, we found that both Notch and Yap signaling are required for the conversion even in Notch- and Yap-overactivating settings.

CONCLUSIONS

Hepatocyte-to-BEC conversion occurs through transdifferentiation independently of proliferation, and Notch and Yap signaling control the process in parallel with a mutually positive interaction. The new zebrafish model will further contribute to a thorough understanding of the mechanisms of the conversion process.

Origin and diversification of fibroblasts from the sclerotome in zebrafish

Fibroblasts play an important role in maintaining tissue integrity by secreting components of the extracellular matrix and initiating response to injury. Although the function of fibroblasts has been extensively studied in adults, the embryonic origin and diversification of different fibroblast subtypes during development remain largely unexplored. Using zebrafish as a model, we show that the sclerotome, a sub-compartment of the somite, is the embryonic source of multiple fibroblast subtypes including tenocytes (tendon fibroblasts), blood vessel associated fibroblasts, fin mesenchymal cells, and interstitial fibroblasts. High-resolution imaging shows that different fibroblast subtypes occupy unique anatomical locations with distinct morphologies. Long-term Cre-mediated lineage tracing reveals that the sclerotome also contributes to cells closely associated with the axial skeleton. Ablation of sclerotome progenitors results in extensive skeletal defects. Using photoconversion-based cell lineage analysis, we find that sclerotome progenitors at different dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior positions display distinct differentiation potentials. Single-cell clonal analysis combined with in vivo imaging suggests that the sclerotome mostly contains unipotent and bipotent progenitors prior to cell migration, and the fate of their daughter cells is biased by their migration paths and relative positions. Together, our work demonstrates that the sclerotome is the embryonic source of trunk fibroblasts as well as the axial skeleton, and local signals likely contribute to the diversification of distinct fibroblast subtypes.

mTORC1 signaling pathway regulates tooth repair

Tooth germ injury can lead to abnormal tooth development and even tooth loss, affecting various aspects of the stomatognathic system including form, function, and appearance. However, the research about tooth germ injury model on cellular and molecule mechanism of tooth germ repair is still very limited. Therefore, it is of great importance for the prevention and treatment of tooth germ injury to study the important mechanism of tooth germ repair by a tooth germ injury model. Here, we constructed a Tg(dlx2b:Dendra2-NTR) transgenic line that labeled tooth germ specifically. Taking advantage of the NTR/Mtz system, the dlx2b⁺ tooth germ cells were depleted by Mtz effectively. The process of tooth germ repair was evaluated by antibody staining, in situ hybridization, EdU staining and alizarin red staining. The severely injured tooth germ was repaired in several days after Mtz treatment was stopped. In the early stage of tooth germ repair, the expression of phosphorylated 4E-BP1 was increased, indicating that mTORC1 is activated. Inhibition of mTORC1 signaling in vitro or knockdown of mTORC1 signaling in vivo could inhibit the repair of injured tooth germ. Normally, mouse incisors were repaired after damage, but inhibition/promotion of mTORC1 signaling inhibited/promoted this repair progress. Overall, we are the first to construct a stable and repeatable repair model of severe tooth germ injury, and our results reveal that mTORC1 signaling plays a crucial role during tooth germ repair, providing a potential target for clinical treatment of tooth germ injury.

AgRP Neuron-Specific Ablation Represses Appetite, Energy Intake, and Somatic Growth in Larval Zebrafish

Neuronal circuits regulating appetite are dominated by arcuate nucleus neurons, which include appetite-promoting and -suppressing neurons that release the orexigenic neuropeptide agouti-related protein (AgRP) and anorexigenic neuropeptide pro-opiomelanocortin, respectively, to compete for melanocortin receptors to modulate feeding behavior. In this study, we expressed novel agrp promoters, including different lengths of the 5' flanking regions of the agrp gene (4749 bp) in the zebrafish genome. We used the agrp promoter to derive the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-nitroreductase (NTR) fusion protein, allowing expression of the green fluorescence signal in the AgRP neurons. Then, we treated the transgenic zebrafish AgRP4.7^NTR (Tg [agrp-EGFP-NTR]) with metronidazole to ablate the AgRP neurons in the larvae stage and observed a decline in their appetite and growth. The expression of most orexigenic and growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor axis genes decreased, whereas that of several anorexigenic genes increased. Our findings demonstrate that AgRP is a critical regulator of neuronal signaling for zebrafish appetite and energy intake control. Thus, AgRP4.7^NTR can be used as a drug-screening platform for therapeutic targets to treat human appetite disorders, including obesity. Furthermore, the unique agrp promoter we identified can be a powerful tool for research on AgRP neurons, especially AgRP neuron-mediated pathways in the hypothalamus, and appetite.

Liver Regeneration and Immunity: A Tale to Tell

The physiological importance of the liver is demonstrated by its unique and essential ability to regenerate following extensive injuries affecting its function. By regenerating, the liver reacts to hepatic damage and thus enables homeostasis to be restored. The aim of this review is to add new findings that integrate the regenerative pathway to the current knowledge. An optimal regeneration is achieved through the integration of two main pathways: IL-6/JAK/STAT3, which promotes hepatocyte proliferation, and PI3K/PDK1/Akt, which in turn enhances cell growth. Proliferation and cell growth are events that must be balanced during the three phases of the regenerative process: initiation, proliferation and termination. Achieving the correct liver/body weight ratio is ensured by several pathways as extracellular matrix signalling, apoptosis through caspase-3 activation, and molecules including transforming growth factor-beta, and cyclic adenosine monophosphate. The actors involved in the regenerative process are numerous and many of them are also pivotal players in both the immune and non-immune inflammatory process, that is observed in the early stages of hepatic regeneration. Balance of Th17/Treg is important in liver inflammatory process outcomes. Knowledge of liver regeneration will allow a more detailed characterisation of the molecular mechanisms that are crucial in the interplay between proliferation and inflammation.

A glia cell dependent mechanism at a peripheral nerve plexus critical for target-selective axon regeneration

A critical step for functional recovery from peripheral nerve injury is for regenerating axons to connect with their pre-injury targets. Reestablishing pre-injury target specificity is particularly challenging for limb-innervating axons as they encounter a plexus, a network where peripheral nerves converge, axons from different nerves intermingle, and then re-sort into target-specific bundles. Here, we examine this process at a plexus located at the base of the zebrafish pectoral fin, equivalent to tetrapod forelimbs. Using live cell imaging and sparse axon labeling, we find that regenerating motor axons from three nerves coalesce into the plexus. There, they intermingle and sort into distinct branches, and then navigate to their original muscle domains with high fidelity that restores functionality. We demonstrate that this regeneration process includes selective retraction of mistargeted axons, suggesting active correction mechanisms. Moreover, we find that Schwann cells are enriched and associate with axons at the plexus, and that Schwann cell ablation during regeneration causes profound axonal mistargeting. Our data provide the first real time account of regenerating vertebrate motor axons navigating a nerve plexus and reveal a previously unappreciated role for Schwann cells to promote axon sorting at a plexus during regeneration.

Stimulating the autophagic-lysosomal axis enhances host defense against fungal infection in a zebrafish model of invasive Aspergillosis

The increasing prevalence of antifungal-resistant human pathogenic fungi, particularly azole-resistant Aspergillus fumigatus, is a life-threatening challenge to the immunocompromised population. Autophagy-related processes such as LC3-associated phagocytosis have been shown to be activated in the host response against fungal infection, but their overall effect on host resistance remains uncertain. To analyze the relevance of these processes in vivo, we used a zebrafish animal model of invasive Aspergillosis. To confirm the validity of this model to test potential treatments for this disease, we confirmed that immunosuppressive treatments or neutropenia rendered zebrafish embryos more susceptible to A. fumigatus. We used GFP-Lc3 transgenic zebrafish to visualize the autophagy-related processes in innate immune phagocytes shortly after phagocytosis of A. fumigatus conidia, and found that both wild-type and melanin-deficient conidia elicited Lc3 recruitment. In macrophages, we observed GFP-Lc3 accumulation in puncta after phagocytosis, as well as short, rapid events of GFP-Lc3 decoration of single and multiple conidia-containing vesicles, while neutrophils covered single conidia-containing vesicles with bright and long-lasting GFP-Lc3 signal. Next, using genetic and pharmacological stimulation of three independent autophagy-inducing pathways, we showed that the antifungal autophagy response improves the host survival against A. fumigatus infection, but only in the presence of phagocytes. Therefore, we provide proof-of-concept that stimulating the (auto)phagolysosomal pathways is a promising approach to develop host-directed therapies against invasive Aspergillosis, and should be explored further either as adjunctive or stand-alone therapy for drug-resistant Aspergillus infections.Abbreviations: DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide; HR: hazard ratio; HDT: host-directed therapy; Hpf: hours post fertilization; IA: invasive Aspergillosis; LAP: LC3-associated phagocytosis; MTZ: metronidazole; PTU: N-phenylthiourea; ROS: reactive oxygen species.

Wnt signaling in liver regeneration, disease, and cancer

The liver exhibits the highest recovery rate from acute injuries. However, in chronic liver disease, the long-term loss of hepatocytes often leads to adverse consequences such as fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. The Wnt signaling plays a pivotal role in both liver regeneration and tumorigenesis. Therefore, manipulating the Wnt signaling has become an attractive approach to treating liver disease, including cancer. Nonetheless, given the crucial roles of Wnt signaling in physiological processes, blocking Wnt signaling can also cause several adverse effects. Recent studies have identified cancer-specific regulators of Wnt signaling, which would overcome the limitation of Wnt signaling target approaches. In this review, we discussed the role of Wnt signaling in liver regeneration, precancerous lesion, and liver cancer. Furthermore, we summarized the basic and clinical approaches of Wnt signaling blockade and proposed the therapeutic prospects of cancer-specific Wnt signaling blockade for liver cancer treatment.

Zebrafish endochondral growth zones as they relate to human bone size, shape and disease

Research on the genetic mechanisms underlying human skeletal development and disease have largely relied on studies in mice. However, recently the zebrafish has emerged as a popular model for skeletal research. Despite anatomical differences such as a lack of long bones in their limbs and no hematopoietic bone marrow, both the cell types in cartilage and bone as well as the genetic pathways that regulate their development are remarkably conserved between teleost fish and humans. Here we review recent studies that highlight this conservation, focusing specifically on the cartilaginous growth zones (GZs) of endochondral bones. GZs can be unidirectional such as the growth plates (GPs) of long bones in tetrapod limbs or bidirectional, such as in the synchondroses of the mammalian skull base. In addition to endochondral growth, GZs play key roles in cartilage maturation and replacement by bone. Recent studies in zebrafish suggest key roles for cartilage polarity in GZ function, surprisingly early establishment of signaling systems that regulate cartilage during embryonic development, and important roles for cartilage proliferation rather than hypertrophy in bone size. Despite anatomical differences, there are now many zebrafish models for human skeletal disorders including mutations in genes that cause defects in cartilage associated with endochondral GZs. These point to conserved developmental mechanisms, some of which operate both in cranial GZs and limb GPs, as well as others that act earlier or in parallel to known GP regulators. Experimental advantages of zebrafish for genetic screens, high resolution live imaging and drug screens, set the stage for many novel insights into causes and potential therapies for human endochondral bone diseases.

Regeneration and developmental enhancers are differentially compatible with minimal promoters

Enhancers and promoters are cis-regulatory elements that control gene expression. Enhancers are activated in a cell type-, tissue-, and condition-specific manner to stimulate promoter function and transcription. Zebrafish have emerged as a powerful animal model for examining the activities of enhancers derived from various species through transgenic enhancer assays, in which an enhancer is coupled with a minimal promoter. However, the efficiency of minimal promoters and their compatibility with multiple developmental and regeneration enhancers have not been systematically tested in zebrafish. Thus, we assessed the efficiency of six minimal promoters and comprehensively interrogated the compatibility of the promoters with developmental and regeneration enhancers. We found that the fos minimal promoter and Drosophila synthetic core promoter (DSCP) yielded high rates of leaky expression that may complicate the interpretation of enhancer assays. Notably, the adenovirus E1b promoter, the zebrafish lepb 0.8-kb (P0.8) and lepb 2-kb (P2) promoters, and a new zebrafish synthetic promoter (ZSP) that combines elements of the E1b and P0.8 promoters drove little or no ectopic expression, making them suitable for transgenic assays. We also found significant differences in compatibility among specific combinations of promoters and enhancers, indicating the importance of promoters as key regulatory elements determining the specificity of gene expression. Our study provides guidelines for transgenic enhancer assays in zebrafish to aid in the discovery of functional enhancers regulating development and regeneration.