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Ngure FM, Makule E, Mgongo W, Phillips E, Kassim N, Stoltzfus R, Nelson R. Processing complementary foods to reduce mycotoxins in a medium scale Tanzanian mill: A hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) approach. Food Control 2024; 162:110463. [PMID: 39092408 PMCID: PMC11064123 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Designing and implementing processing procedures for producing safe complementary foods in dynamic and unregulated food systems where common food staples are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins is challenging. This paper presents lessons about minimizing aflatoxins (AF) in groundnut flour and AF and/or fumonisins (FUM) in maize and groundnut pre-blended flour for complementary feeding in the context of a dietary research intervention in rural Tanzania. The flours were processed in collaboration with Halisi Products Limited (Halisi), a medium scale enterprise with experience in milling cereal-based flours in Arusha, Tanzania. Using a hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) approach for quality assurance, two critical control points (CCPs) for AF in processing the pre-blended flour were identified: 1) screening maize before procurement, and 2) blending during the processing of each constituent flour. Blending of maize flour was also identified as a CCP for FUM. Visual inspection during screening and sorting were identified as important control measures for reducing AF, but these steps did not meet the criteria for a CCP due to lack of objective measurement and verifiable standards for AF. The HACCP approach enabled the production of low AF (<5 μg/kg) and FUM (<2 μg/g) flours with low rejection rates for the final products. The paper presents practical lessons that could be of value to a range of commercial processors in similar low- and middle-income contexts who are keen on improving food quality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Edna Makule
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Science and Bio-Engineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), P.O.Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - William Mgongo
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Science and Bio-Engineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), P.O.Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Erica Phillips
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Neema Kassim
- Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Science and Bio-Engineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), P.O.Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Rebecca Stoltzfus
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
- Goshen College, 1700 S. Main Street, Goshen, IN, 46526, USA
| | - Rebecca Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Osoro E, Awuor AO, Inwani I, Mugo C, Hunsperger E, Verani JR, Nduati R, Kinuthia J, Okutoyi L, Mwaengo D, Maugo B, Otieno NA, Mirieri H, Ombok C, Nyawanda B, Agogo GO, Ngere I, Zitomer NC, Rybak ME, Munyua P, Njenga K, Widdowson MA. Association between low maternal serum aflatoxin B1 exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Mombasa, Kenya, 2017-2019: A nested matched case-control study. MATERNAL & CHILD NUTRITION 2024:e13688. [PMID: 38886171 DOI: 10.1111/mcn.13688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
We examined the association between serum aflatoxin B1-lysine adduct (AFB1-lys) levels in pregnant women and adverse pregnancy outcomes (low birthweight, miscarriage and stillbirth) through a nested matched case-control study of pregnant women enroled at ≤28 weeks' gestation in Mombasa, Kenya, from 2017 to 2019. Cases comprised women with an adverse birth outcome, defined as either delivery of a singleton infant weighing <2500 g, or a miscarriage, or a stillbirth, while controls were women who delivered a singleton live infant with a birthweight of ≥2500 g. Cases were matched to controls at a ratio of 1:2 based on maternal age at enrolment, gestational age at enrolment and study site. The primary exposure was serum AFB1-lys. The study included 125 cases and 250 controls. The median gestation age when serum samples were collected was 23.0 weeks (interquartile range [IQR]: 18.1-26.0) and 23.5 (IQR: 18.1-26.5) among cases and controls, respectively. Of the 375 tested sera, 145 (38.7%) had detectable serum AFB1-lys: 36.0% in cases and 40.0% in controls. AFB1-lys adduct levels were not associated with adverse birth outcomes on multivariable analysis. Mid-upper arm circumference was associated with a 6% lower odds of adverse birth outcome for every unit increase (p = 0.023). Two-fifths of pregnant women had detectable levels of aflatoxin midway through pregnancy. However, we did not detect an association with adverse pregnancy outcomes, likely because of low serum AFB1-lys levels and low power, restricting meaningful comparison. More research is needed to understand the public health risk of aflatoxin in pregnant women to unborn children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Osoro
- Washington State University Global Health Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Abigael O Awuor
- Washington State University Global Health Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC Kenya, Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Irene Inwani
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health/Kenyatta National Hospital, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Cyrus Mugo
- Research and Programs Department, Kenyatta National Hospital/University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Elizabeth Hunsperger
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC Kenya, Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jennifer R Verani
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC Kenya, Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Ruth Nduati
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health/Kenyatta National Hospital, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - John Kinuthia
- Research and Programs Department, Kenyatta National Hospital/University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lydia Okutoyi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology/Kenyatta National Hospital, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Dufton Mwaengo
- Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Brian Maugo
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health/Kenyatta National Hospital, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nancy A Otieno
- Center for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Harriet Mirieri
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Cynthia Ombok
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Bryan Nyawanda
- Center for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - George O Agogo
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC Kenya, Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Isaac Ngere
- Washington State University Global Health Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Nicholas C Zitomer
- National Center for Environmental Health, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Laboratory Sciences, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Michael E Rybak
- National Center for Environmental Health, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Laboratory Sciences, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Peninah Munyua
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC Kenya, Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kariuki Njenga
- Washington State University Global Health Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Marc-Alain Widdowson
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC Kenya, Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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Hassen JY, Debella A, Eyeberu A, Mussa I. Level of exposure to aflatoxins during pregnancy and its association with adverse birth outcomes in Africa: a meta-analysis. Int Health 2024:ihae015. [PMID: 38339961 DOI: 10.1093/inthealth/ihae015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aflatoxins are various poisonous carcinogens and mutagens produced by Aspergillus species. Exposure to aflatoxins during pregnancy results in adverse birth outcomes. This meta-analysis was carried out to determine the estimates of how much aflatoxin is harmful to the pregnancy and its outcome, including birthweight, birth length, low birthweight (LBW), small for gestational age (SGA), stunting, poverty, food insecurity, income, pesticides and stillbirth, in an African context. METHODS Both published and unpublished studies in Africa were searched on MEDLINE, PubMed, Embase, SCOPUS, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Stata version 18.2 software was used for cleaning and analysis. The prevalence with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated using the random effects model and a forest plot was used to present the findings. In addition, the heterogeneity of the study was assessed using Cochrane I2 statistics and publication bias was assessed using Egger's intercept and funnel plot. RESULTS This review included 28 studies with a total of 6283 pregnant women and newborns. The analysis showed the overall level of exposure to aflatoxins was 64% (95% CI 48 to 78, τ2=0.66, I2=99.34%, p=0.001). In the subgroup analysis by publication year, the highest level of exposure to aflatoxins (82% [95% CI 69 to 92]) was observed among studies published from 2020 to 2023. This study also found that exposure to aflatoxins during pregnancy had an association with prematurity, LBW, SGA and stillbirth. CONCLUSIONS The data analysed in this study indicated that three of every five pregnant women had exposure to aflatoxins in Africa. Moreover, pregnant women exposed to aflatoxins had a higher likelihood of having a LBW and SGA newborn. Thus governments and all stakeholders should initiate policies that mitigate the toxicity of aflatoxins in pregnant women, foetuses and newborns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jemal Y Hassen
- School of Rural Development and Agricultural Innovation, Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
| | - Adera Debella
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, College of Health and Medical Sciences, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia
| | - Addis Eyeberu
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, College of Health and Medical Sciences, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia
| | - Ibsa Mussa
- School of Public Health, College of Health and Medical Sciences, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia
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Awuor AO, Wambura G, Ngere I, Hunsperger E, Onyango C, Bigogo G, Blum LS, Munyua P, Njenga MK, Widdowson MA. A mixed methods assessment of knowledge, attitudes and practices related to aflatoxin contamination and exposure among caregivers of children under 5 years in western Kenya. Public Health Nutr 2023; 26:3013-3022. [PMID: 36871962 PMCID: PMC10755389 DOI: 10.1017/s1368980023000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Identifying factors that may influence aflatoxin exposure in children under 5 years of age living in farming households in western Kenya. DESIGN We used a mixed methods design. The quantitative component entailed serial cross-sectional interviews in 250 farming households to examine crop processing and conservation practices, household food storage and consumption and local understandings of aflatoxins. Qualitative data collection included focus group discussions (N 7) and key informant interviews (N 13) to explore explanations of harvesting and post-harvesting techniques and perceptions of crop spoilage. SETTING The study was carried out in Asembo, a rural community where high rates of child stunting exist. PARTICIPANTS A total of 250 female primary caregivers of children under 5 years of age and thirteen experts in farming and food management participated. RESULTS Study results showed that from a young age, children routinely ate maize-based dishes. Economic constraints and changing environmental patterns guided the application of sub-optimal crop practices involving early harvest, poor drying, mixing spoiled with good cereals and storing cereals in polypropylene bags in confined quarters occupied by humans and livestock and raising risks of aflatoxin contamination. Most (80 %) smallholder farmers were unaware of aflatoxins and their harmful economic and health consequences. CONCLUSIONS Young children living in subsistence farming households may be at risk of exposure to aflatoxins and consequent ill health and stunting. Sustained efforts to increase awareness of the risks of aflatoxins and control measures among subsistence farmers could help to mitigate practices that raise exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigael O Awuor
- Division of Global Health Protection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gati Wambura
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Nairobi, Kenya
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Global Health Research, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Isaac Ngere
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G Allen School of Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman99164, USA
| | - Elizabeth Hunsperger
- Division of Global Health Protection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Clayton Onyango
- Division of Global Health Protection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Godfrey Bigogo
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Global Health Research, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Lauren S Blum
- Paul G Allen School of Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman99164, USA
| | - Peninah Munyua
- Division of Global Health Protection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - M Kariuki Njenga
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G Allen School of Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman99164, USA
| | - Marc-Alain Widdowson
- Division of Global Health Protection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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Castano-Duque L, Winzeler E, Blackstock JM, Liu C, Vergopolan N, Focker M, Barnett K, Owens PR, van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Vaughan MM, Rajasekaran K. Dynamic geospatial modeling of mycotoxin contamination of corn in Illinois: unveiling critical factors and predictive insights with machine learning. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1283127. [PMID: 38029202 PMCID: PMC10646420 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1283127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of corn is a pervasive problem that negatively impacts human and animal health and causes economic losses to the agricultural industry worldwide. Historical aflatoxin (AFL) and fumonisin (FUM) mycotoxin contamination data of corn, daily weather data, satellite data, dynamic geospatial soil properties, and land usage parameters were modeled to identify factors significantly contributing to the outbreaks of mycotoxin contamination of corn grown in Illinois (IL), AFL >20 ppb, and FUM >5 ppm. Two methods were used: a gradient boosting machine (GBM) and a neural network (NN). Both the GBM and NN models were dynamic at a state-county geospatial level because they used GPS coordinates of the counties linked to soil properties. GBM identified temperature and precipitation prior to sowing as significant influential factors contributing to high AFL and FUM contamination. AFL-GBM showed that a higher aflatoxin risk index (ARI) in January, March, July, and November led to higher AFL contamination in the southern regions of IL. Higher values of corn-specific normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in July led to lower AFL contamination in Central and Southern IL, while higher wheat-specific NDVI values in February led to higher AFL. FUM-GBM showed that temperature in July and October, precipitation in February, and NDVI values in March are positively correlated with high contamination throughout IL. Furthermore, the dynamic geospatial models showed that soil characteristics were correlated with AFL and FUM contamination. Greater calcium carbonate content in soil was negatively correlated with AFL contamination, which was noticeable in Southern IL. Greater soil moisture and available water-holding capacity throughout Southern IL were positively correlated with high FUM contamination. The higher clay percentage in the northeastern areas of IL negatively correlated with FUM contamination. NN models showed high class-specific performance for 1-year predictive validation for AFL (73%) and FUM (85%), highlighting their accuracy for annual mycotoxin prediction. Our models revealed that soil, NDVI, year-specific weekly average precipitation, and temperature were the most important factors that correlated with mycotoxin contamination. These findings serve as reliable guidelines for future modeling efforts to identify novel data inputs for the prediction of AFL and FUM outbreaks and potential farm-level management practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Castano-Duque
- Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, Southern Regional Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Edwin Winzeler
- Dale Bumpers Small Farms Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Booneville, AR, United States
| | - Joshua M. Blackstock
- Dale Bumpers Small Farms Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Booneville, AR, United States
| | - Cheng Liu
- Microbiology and Agrochains Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Noemi Vergopolan
- Atmospheric and Ocean Science Program, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - Marlous Focker
- Microbiology and Agrochains Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Kristin Barnett
- Agricultural Products Inspection, Illinois Department of Agriculture, Springfield, IL, United States
| | - Phillip Ray Owens
- Dale Bumpers Small Farms Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Booneville, AR, United States
| | | | - Martha M. Vaughan
- Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, United States
| | - Kanniah Rajasekaran
- Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, Southern Regional Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, LA, United States
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Nji QN, Babalola OO, Mwanza M. Soil Aspergillus Species, Pathogenicity and Control Perspectives. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:766. [PMID: 37504754 PMCID: PMC10381279 DOI: 10.3390/jof9070766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Five Aspergillus sections have members that are established agricultural pests and producers of different metabolites, threatening global food safety. Most of these pathogenic Aspergillus species have been isolated from almost all major biomes. The soil remains the primary habitat for most of these cryptic fungi. This review explored some of the ecological attributes that have contributed immensely to the success of the pathogenicity of some members of the genus Aspergillus over time. Hence, the virulence factors of the genus Aspergillus, their ecology and others were reviewed. Furthermore, some biological control techniques were recommended. Pathogenic effects of Aspergillus species are entirely accidental; therefore, the virulence evolution prediction model in such species becomes a challenge, unlike their obligate parasite counterparts. In all, differences in virulence among organisms involved both conserved and species-specific genetic factors. If the impacts of climate change continue, new cryptic Aspergillus species will emerge and mycotoxin contamination risks will increase in all ecosystems, as these species can metabolically adjust to nutritional and biophysical challenges. As most of their gene clusters are silent, fungi continue to be a source of underexplored bioactive compounds. The World Soil Charter recognizes the relevance of soil biodiversity in supporting healthy soil functions. The question of how a balance may be struck between supporting healthy soil biodiversity and the control of toxic fungi species in the field to ensure food security is therefore pertinent. Numerous advanced strategies and biocontrol methods so far remain the most environmentally sustainable solution to the control of toxigenic fungi in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Queenta Ngum Nji
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Olubukola Oluranti Babalola
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Mulunda Mwanza
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
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Kleber A, Gruber-Dorninger C, Platzer A, Payet C, Novak B. Effect of Fungicide Treatment on Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in French Wheat during a 4-Year Period. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:443. [PMID: 37505712 PMCID: PMC10467151 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Wheat represents one of the most widely consumed cereals worldwide. Cultivated in winter and spring, it is vulnerable to an array of different pathogens, including fungi, which are managed largely through the in-field application of fungicides. During this study, a 4-year field investigation (2018-2021) was performed in France, aiming to assess the efficacy of fungicide treatment to reduce mycotoxin contamination in common and durum wheat. Several different commercially available fungicides were applied via sprayers. Concentrations of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in wheat were determined using a multi-analyte liquid-chromatography-tandem-mass-spectrometry-based method. The highest contamination levels and strongest effects of fungicides were observed in 2018, followed by 2021. A significant fungicide-mediated reduction was observed for the trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and nivalenol-3-glucoside. Furthermore, fungicide treatment also reduced levels of culmorin and its hydroxy metabolites 5- and 15-hydroxy-culmorin, as well as aurofusarin. Interestingly, the Alternaria metabolite infectopyron was increased following fungicide treatment. In conclusion, fungicide treatment was effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in wheat. However, as complete prevention of mycotoxin contamination was not achieved, fungicide treatment should always be combined with other pre- and post-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to improve food and feed safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kleber
- DSM-BIOMIN Research Center, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (C.G.-D.); (A.P.); (B.N.)
| | | | - Alexander Platzer
- DSM-BIOMIN Research Center, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (C.G.-D.); (A.P.); (B.N.)
| | | | - Barbara Novak
- DSM-BIOMIN Research Center, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (C.G.-D.); (A.P.); (B.N.)
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Wenndt A, Boyles R, Ackerman A, Sapkota S, Repka A, Nelson R. Host Determinants of Fungal Species Composition and Symptom Manifestation in the Sorghum Grain Mold Disease Complex. PLANT DISEASE 2023; 107:315-325. [PMID: 36800304 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-03-22-0675-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Sorghum grain mold (SGM) is an important multifungal disease complex affecting sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) production systems worldwide. SGM-affected sorghum grain can be contaminated with potent fumonisin mycotoxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides, a prevalent SGM-associated taxon. Historically, efforts to improve resistance to SGM have achieved only limited success. Classical approaches to evaluating SGM resistance are based solely on disease severity, which offers little insight regarding the distinct symptom manifestations within the disease complex. In this study, three novel phenotypes were developed to facilitate assessment of SGM symptom manifestation. A sorghum diversity panel composed of 390 accessions was inoculated with endogenous strains of F. verticillioides and evaluated for these phenotypes, as well as for the conventional panicle grain mold severity rating phenotype, in South Carolina, U.S.A., in 2017 and 2019. Distributions of phenotype values were examined, broad-sense heritability was estimated, and relationships to botanical race were explored. A typology of SGM symptom manifestations was developed to classify accessions using principal component analysis and k-means clustering, constituting a novel option for basing breeding decisions on SGM outcomes more nuanced than disease severity. Genome-wide association studies were performed using SGM trait data, resulting in the identification of 19 significant single nucleotide polymorphisms in linkage disequilibrium with a total of 86 gene models. Our findings provide a basis of exploratory evidence regarding the genetic architecture of SGM symptom manifestation and indicate that traits other than disease severity could be tractable targets for SGM resistance breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Wenndt
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Richard Boyles
- Plant and Environmental Sciences, Pee Dee Research and Education Center, Clemson University, Florence, SC 29506
| | - Arlyn Ackerman
- Plant and Environmental Sciences, Pee Dee Research and Education Center, Clemson University, Florence, SC 29506
| | - Sirjan Sapkota
- Advanced Plant Technology Program, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
| | - Ace Repka
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Rebecca Nelson
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
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Gachara G, Suleiman R, El Kadili S, Ait Barka E, Kilima B, Lahlali R. Drivers of Post-Harvest Aflatoxin Contamination: Evidence Gathered from Knowledge Disparities and Field Surveys of Maize Farmers in the Rift Valley Region of Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14090618. [PMID: 36136556 PMCID: PMC9500662 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize-dependent populations in sub-Saharan Africa are continually exposed to aflatoxin poisoning owing to their regular consumption of this dietetic cereal. Being a staple in Kenyan households, consumption of maize-based meals is done almost daily, thereby exposing consumers to aflatoxicoses. This study assessed awareness levels, knowledge disparities, and perceptions regarding aflatoxin contamination at the post-harvest phase among farmers in the Rift Valley Region of Kenya. Households were randomly selected using a geographical positioning system (GPS) overlay of the agro-ecological zones within Uasin Gishu and Elgeyo Marakwet counties. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in 212 smallholder and large-scale farms. The study documented the demographic profiles of farmers and knowledge, awareness, and perceptions of aflatoxin contamination using a pre-designed structured questionnaire. Most farmers were familiar with aflatoxins and the adverse effects they present to health (61.32%). Almost all the farmers (94.37%) were aware of storage molds and food-spoilage fungi. However, few farmers adopted good post-harvest practices (PHPs), such as avoiding premature harvests (49.8%), using well-ventilated storage spaces (44.6%), grain sorting (30.5%), proper drying of maize (17.8%), and using hermetic bags for storage (30.5%). Conclusively, intensified farmer education is required to train farmers on good PHPs to protect their maize from aflatoxigenic fungi and aflatoxin accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Gachara
- Department of Food Sciences and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro P.O. Box 3006, Tanzania
- Southern Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases (SACIDS), SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro P.O. Box 3019, Tanzania
- Correspondence: (G.G.); (R.L.); Tel.: +255-725109725 (G.G.); +212-55-30-02-39 (R.L.)
| | - Rashid Suleiman
- Department of Food Sciences and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro P.O. Box 3006, Tanzania
| | - Sara El Kadili
- Department of Animal Production, Ecole Nationale d’Agriculture de Meknès, Km10, Rte Haj Kaddour, BP S/40, Meknès 50001, Morocco
| | - Essaid Ait Barka
- Unité de Recherche Résistance Induite et Bio-Protection des Plantes-EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Beatrice Kilima
- Department of Food Sciences and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro P.O. Box 3006, Tanzania
| | - Rachid Lahlali
- Phytopathology Unit, Department of Plant Protection, Ecole Nationale d’Agriculture de Meknès, Km10, Rte Haj Kaddour, BP S/40, Meknès 50001, Morocco
- Correspondence: (G.G.); (R.L.); Tel.: +255-725109725 (G.G.); +212-55-30-02-39 (R.L.)
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10
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Aoun M, Siegel C, Windham G, Williams W, Nelson R. Application of reflectance spectroscopy to identify maize genotypes and aflatoxin levels in single kernels. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2021.2750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Spectroscopy is a rapid, non-destructive, and low-cost analytical technique that has the potential to complement more resource-intensive analytical methods. We explored the use of spectral methods to differentiate maize genotypes and assess aflatoxin (AF) contamination in maize kernels. We compared the performance of two instruments: a research-grade ultraviolet-visible-near infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectrometer that measures reflectance from 304 -1,085 nm, and a miniaturised NIR spectrometer that measures reflectance from 740-1,070 nm. Both systems were used to predict AF levels in maize kernels from a single genotype and across 10 genotypes, and to predict genotype for the latter. A partial least square discriminant analysis model was trained on 70% of the kernels and tested on the remaining 30%. The classification accuracy for 10 maize genotypes was 71-72% using the UV-Vis-NIR instrument on 1,170 kernels, and 65-66% using the NIR device on 740 kernels. The classification accuracy for 247 AF-contaminated kernels of a single genotype using the UV-Vis-NIR instrument was 71, 82, and 92% for AF thresholds of 20, 100, and 1000 μg/kg, respectively. Using the same spectrometer on 872 kernels from 10 genotypes, AF classification accuracy was 67, 90, and 95% in validation sets for AF thresholds of 20, 100, and 1000 μg/kg, respectively. The UV-Vis-NIR instrument and the NIR device had similar classification accuracies for AF thresholds of 100 and 1000 μg/kg, whereas the NIR device had higher accuracy for the AF threshold of 20 μg/kg. Reflectance spectroscopy outperformed visual sorting and the bright greenish yellow fluorescence test in identifying AF levels. Applying spectral analysis to estimate mycotoxin levels and to identify maize genotypes could contribute to regional toxin surveillance and action efforts. Further, using AF-associated spectral features for grain sorting can reduce AF exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Aoun
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - C. Siegel
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - G.L. Windham
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Corn Host Plant Resistance Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
| | - W.P. Williams
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Corn Host Plant Resistance Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
| | - R.J. Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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11
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Nji QN, Babalola OO, Ekwomadu TI, Nleya N, Mwanza M. Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:318. [PMID: 35622564 PMCID: PMC9146326 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. The other factors are partly man-made and can be manipulated to become a more profitable or less climate-sensitive response. Awareness of the existence of these mycotoxins and their economic as well as health consequences remains paramount. The degree of management of these factors regarding mycotoxins varies from one region of the world to another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Queenta Ngum Nji
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (Q.N.N.); (T.I.E.); (N.N.); (M.M.)
| | - Olubukola Oluranti Babalola
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (Q.N.N.); (T.I.E.); (N.N.); (M.M.)
| | - Theodora Ijeoma Ekwomadu
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (Q.N.N.); (T.I.E.); (N.N.); (M.M.)
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Nancy Nleya
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (Q.N.N.); (T.I.E.); (N.N.); (M.M.)
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Mulunda Mwanza
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (Q.N.N.); (T.I.E.); (N.N.); (M.M.)
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
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12
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Lactic Acid Bacteria from African Fermented Cereal-Based Products: Potential Biological Control Agents for Mycotoxins in Kenya. J Toxicol 2022; 2022:2397767. [PMID: 35242183 PMCID: PMC8888082 DOI: 10.1155/2022/2397767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cereals play an important role in global food security. Data from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization projects increased consumption of cereals from 2.6 billion tonnes in 2017 to approximately 2.9 billion tonnes by 2027. However, cereals are prone to contamination by toxigenic fungi, which lead to mycotoxicosis. The current methods for mycotoxin control involve the use of chemical preservatives. However, there are concerns about the use of chemicals in food preservation due to their effects on the health, nutritional quality, and organoleptic properties of food. Therefore, alternative methods are needed that are affordable and simple to use. The fermentation technique is based on the use of microorganisms mainly to impart desirable sensory properties and shelf-life extension. The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are generally regarded as safe (GRAS) due to their long history of application in food fermentation systems and ability to produce antimicrobial compounds (hydroxyl fatty acids, organic acids, phenyllactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, bacteriocins, and carbon dioxide) with a broad range of antifungal activity. Hence, LAB can inhibit the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi, thereby preventing the production of mycotoxins. Fermentation is also an efficient technique for improving nutrient bioavailability and other functional properties of cereal-based products. This review seeks to provide evidence of the potential of LAB from African fermented cereal-based products as potential biological agents against mycotoxin-producing fungi.
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13
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Nguenha RJ, Damyeh MS, Hong HT, Chaliha M, Sultanbawa Y. Effect of solvents on curcumin as a photosensitizer and its ability to inactivate
Aspergillus flavus
and reduce aflatoxin B1 in maize kernels and flour. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.16169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael José Nguenha
- School of Agriculture and Food Science The University of Queensland St. Lucia Queensland Australia
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Engenharia Florestal Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Maputo Mozambique
| | - Maral Seidi Damyeh
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Uniquely Australian Foods Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St. Lucia Queensland Australia
- Centre for Food Science and Nutrition Sciences Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St Lucia Queensland Australia
| | - Hung Trieu Hong
- Centre for Food Science and Nutrition Sciences Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St Lucia Queensland Australia
| | - Mridusmita Chaliha
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Uniquely Australian Foods Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St. Lucia Queensland Australia
- Centre for Food Science and Nutrition Sciences Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St Lucia Queensland Australia
| | - Yasmina Sultanbawa
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Uniquely Australian Foods Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St. Lucia Queensland Australia
- Centre for Food Science and Nutrition Sciences Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation The University of Queensland St Lucia Queensland Australia
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14
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Xu F, Baker R, Whitaker T, Luo H, Zhao Y, Stevenson A, Boesch C, Zhang G. Review of good agricultural practices for smallholder maize farmers to minimise aflatoxin contamination. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2021.2685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Maize is consumed world-wide as staple food, livestock feed, and industrial raw material. However, it is susceptible to fungal attack and at risk of aflatoxin contamination under certain conditions. Such contamination is a serious threat to human and animal health. Ensuring that the maize used by food industry meets standards for aflatoxin levels requires significant investment across the supply chain. Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) form a critical part of a broader, integrated strategy for reduction of aflatoxin contamination. We reviewed and summarised the GAP of maize that would be effective and practicable for aflatoxin control within high-risk regions for smallholder farmers. The suggested practicable GAP for smallholder farmers were: use of drought-tolerant varieties; timely harvesting before physiological maturity; sorting to remove damaged ears and those having poor husk covering; drying properly to 13% moisture content; storage in suitable conditions to keep the crop clean and under condition with minimally proper aeration, or ideally under hermetic conditions. This information is intended to provide guidance for maize growers that will help reduce aflatoxin in high-risk regions, with a specific focus on smallholder farmers. Following the proposed guidelines would contribute to the reduction of aflatoxin contamination during pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest stages of the maize value chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Xu
- Mars Global Food Safety Center, 2 Yanqi North Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou, 101407 Beijing, China P.R
| | - R.C. Baker
- Mars Global Food Safety Center, 2 Yanqi North Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou, 101407 Beijing, China P.R
| | - T.B. Whitaker
- North Carolina State University, P.O. Box 7625, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
| | - H. Luo
- Mars Global Food Safety Center, 2 Yanqi North Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou, 101407 Beijing, China P.R
| | - Y. Zhao
- Mars Global Food Safety Center, 2 Yanqi North Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou, 101407 Beijing, China P.R
| | - A. Stevenson
- Mars Global Food Safety Center, 2 Yanqi North Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou, 101407 Beijing, China P.R
| | - C.J. Boesch
- Food Systems and Food Safety Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
| | - G. Zhang
- Mars Global Food Safety Center, 2 Yanqi North Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou, 101407 Beijing, China P.R
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15
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Validation and Application of a Low-Cost Sorting Device for Fumonisin Reduction in Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090652. [PMID: 34564655 PMCID: PMC8473030 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin mycotoxins are a persistent challenge to human and livestock health in tropical and sub-tropical maize cropping systems, and more efficient methods are needed to reduce their presence in food systems. We constructed a novel, low-cost device for sorting grain, the “DropSort”, and tested its effectiveness on both plastic kernel models and fumonisin-contaminated maize. Sorting plastic kernels of known size and shape enabled us to optimize the sorting performance of the DropSort. The device sorted maize into three distinct fractions as measured by bulk density and 100-kernel weight. The level of fumonisin was lower in the heaviest fractions of maize compared to the unsorted samples. Based on correlations among fumonisin and bulk characteristics of each fraction, we found that light fraction 100-kernel weight could be an inexpensive proxy for unsorted fumonisin concentration. Single kernel analysis revealed significant relationships among kernel fumonisin content and physical characteristics that could prove useful for future sorting efforts. The availability of a low-cost device (materials~USD 300) that can be used to reduce fumonisin in maize could improve food safety in resource-limited contexts in which fumonisin contamination remains a pressing challenge.
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16
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Keller B, Russo T, Rembold F, Chauhan Y, Battilani P, Wenndt A, Connett M. The potential for aflatoxin predictive risk modelling in sub-Saharan Africa: a review. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2021.2683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
This review presents the current state of aflatoxin risk prediction models and their potential for value actors throughout the food chain in sub-Saharan Africa, with a specific focus on improving smallholder farmer management practices. Several empirical and mechanistic models have been developed either in academic research or by private sector aggregators and processors in high-income countries including Australia, the USA, and Southern Europe, but these models have been only minimally applied in sub-Saharan Africa, where there is significant potential and increasing need due to climate variability. Predictions can be made based on historic occurrence data using either a mechanistic microbiological framework for aflatoxin accumulation or an empirical model based on statistical correlations with climate conditions and local agronomic factors. Model results can then be distributed to smallholders through private, public, or mobile extension services, used by policymakers for strategy or policy, or utilised by private sector institutions for management decisions. Specific agricultural advice can be given during the three most critical points in the phenological cycle: preseason insight including sowing timing and crop varieties, preharvest advice about management and harvest timing, and postharvest optimal practices including storage, drying, and market information. Model development for sub-Saharan Africa is limited by a dearth of georeferenced aflatoxin occurrence data and real-time high resolution climate data; the wide diversity of farm typologies each with significant information and technology gaps; a prevalence of informal market structures and lack of economic incentives systems; and general lack of awareness around aflatoxins and best management practices to mitigate risk. Given advancements towards solving these challenges, predictive aflatoxin models can be integrated into decision support platforms to focus on optimisation of value for smallholders by minimising yield and nutritional losses, which can propagate value throughout the production and postharvest phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Keller
- Global Good, 3150 139th Ave SE, Bellevue, WA 98005, USA
| | - T. Russo
- Global Good, 3150 139th Ave SE, Bellevue, WA 98005, USA
| | - F. Rembold
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy
| | - Y. Chauhan
- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, 214 Kingaroy Cooyar Road, Kingaroy, QLD 4610, Australia
| | - P. Battilani
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VE.S.): Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - A. Wenndt
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, 334 Plant Science Building, Ithaca, NY 14853-4203, USA
| | - M. Connett
- Global Good, 3150 139th Ave SE, Bellevue, WA 98005, USA
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17
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Habschied K, Krstanović V, Zdunić Z, Babić J, Mastanjević K, Šarić GK. Mycotoxins Biocontrol Methods for Healthier Crops and Stored Products. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:348. [PMID: 33946920 PMCID: PMC8145935 DOI: 10.3390/jof7050348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Contamination of crops with phytopathogenic genera such as Fusarium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Penicillium usually results in mycotoxins in the stored crops or the final products (bread, beer, etc.). To reduce the damage and suppress the fungal growth, it is common to add antifungal substances during growth in the field or storage. Many of these antifungal substances are also harmful to human health and the reduction of their concentration would be of immense importance to food safety. Many eminent researchers are seeking a way to reduce the use of synthetic antifungal compounds and to implement more eco-friendly and healthier bioweapons against fungal proliferation and mycotoxin synthesis. This paper aims to address the recent advances in the effectiveness of biological antifungal compounds application against the aforementioned fungal genera and their species to enhance the protection of ecological and environmental systems involved in crop growing (water, soil, air) and to reduce fungicide contamination of food derived from these commodities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Habschied
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (J.B.)
| | - Vinko Krstanović
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (J.B.)
| | - Zvonimir Zdunić
- Agricultural Institute Osijek, Južno predgrađe 17, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Jurislav Babić
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (J.B.)
| | - Krešimir Mastanjević
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (J.B.)
| | - Gabriella Kanižai Šarić
- Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
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18
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Joutsjoki VV, Korhonen HJ. Management strategies for aflatoxin risk mitigation in maize, dairy feeds and milk value chains—case study Kenya. FOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/fqsafe/fyab005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Widespread aflatoxin contamination of a great number of food and feed crops has important implications on global trade and health. Frequent occurrence of aflatoxin in maize and milk poses serious health risks to consumers because these commodities are staple foods in many African countries. This situation calls for development and implementation of rigorous aflatoxin control measures that encompass all value chains, focusing on farms where food and feed-based commodities prone to aflatoxin contamination are cultivated. Good agricultural practices (GAP) have proven to be an effective technology in mitigation and management of the aflatoxin risk under farm conditions. The prevailing global climate change is shown to increase aflatoxin risk in tropical and subtropical regions. Thus, there is an urgent need to devise and apply novel methods to complement GAP and mitigate aflatoxin contamination in the feed, maize and milk value chains. Also, creation of awareness on aflatoxin management through training of farmers and other stakeholders and enforcement of regular surveillance of aflatoxin in food and feed chains are recommended strategies. This literature review addresses the current situation of aflatoxin occurrence in maize, dairy feeds and milk produced and traded in Kenya and current technologies applied to aflatoxin management at the farm level. Finally, a case study in Kenya on successful application of GAP for mitigation of aflatoxin risk at small-scale farms will be reviewed.
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19
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Ngure F, Ngure C, Achieng G, Munga F, Moran Z, Stafstrom W, Nelson R. Mycotoxins contamination of market maize and the potential of density sorting in reducing exposure in unregulated food systems in Kenya. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2020.2631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins and fumonisins commonly contaminate key food staples in tropical countries, causing recurring acute and chronic public health problems. The present study was conducted to assess the potential of a simple device designed for density-based sorting of maize for its potential to reduce aflatoxins and fumonisins in diverse samples of naturally contaminated maize. A cross sectional survey was conducted, analysing market maize samples (n=204) from eight counties in Western Kenya. A quarter (25%) of the maize samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B1 above the legal limit of 5 μg/kg and nearly half (48%) were contaminated with fumonisins at levels above the legal limit of 2 μg/g. Analysis of additional samples (n=24) from Meru County showed that contamination of maize with the two toxins was also common in Eastern Kenya. A simple density sorter was used to separate grain samples into heavy and light fractions. With an out-sort rate of 31%, density sorting was effective in separating maize by bulk density and 100-kernel weight (P<0.001). Bulk density was negatively correlated with aflatoxins in unsorted (r=-0.20, P<0.01) and heavy fractions (r=-0.32, P<0.01). Density sorting was effective at reducing fumonisins; for maize samples with >1 μg/g, the heavy (accepted) fraction had 66% lower fumonisins than the unsorted maize. After density sorting, the light and heavy fractions fumonisin levels differed by an average of 8.38 μg/g (P<0.001). However, sorting was not effective at significantly reducing aflatoxin levels in maize that was highly contaminated. A simple density sorting equipment that could be adopted by local small-scale millers has potential to reduce fumonisins in maize. Additional and complementary sorting technologies, such as size screening and spectral sorting might improve the effectiveness of reducing aflatoxins in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- F.M. Ngure
- Independent Research Consultant, Mycotoxins Mitigation and Child Stunting Research Trial, Arusha Tanzania & Nairobi, P.O. Box 1292, Limuru 00217, Kenya
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Savage Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - C. Ngure
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nairobi, 3099-00200 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - G. Achieng
- Department of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, University of Nairobi, 3099-00200 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - F. Munga
- Biosciences East and Central Africa Hub at the International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Z. Moran
- Department of Emergency Medicine, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - W. Stafstrom
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, USA
| | - R.J. Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, USA
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20
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21
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Abstract
Aflatoxins are endemic in Kenya. The 2004 outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in the country was one of the unprecedented epidemics of human aflatoxin poisoning recorded in mycotoxin history. In this study, an elaborate review was performed to synthesize Kenya’s major findings in relation to aflatoxins, their prevalence, detection, quantification, exposure assessment, prevention, and management in various matrices. Data retrieved indicate that the toxins are primarily biosynthesized by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, with the eastern part of the country reportedly more aflatoxin-prone. Aflatoxins have been reported in maize and maize products (Busaa, chan’gaa, githeri, irio, muthokoi, uji, and ugali), peanuts and its products, rice, cassava, sorghum, millet, yams, beers, dried fish, animal feeds, dairy and herbal products, and sometimes in tandem with other mycotoxins. The highest total aflatoxin concentration of 58,000 μg/kg has been reported in maize. At least 500 acute human illnesses and 200 deaths due to aflatoxins have been reported. The causes and prevalence of aflatoxins have been grossly ascribed to poor agronomic practices, low education levels, and inadequate statutory regulation and sensitization. Low diet diversity has aggravated exposure to aflatoxins in Kenya because maize as a dietetic staple is aflatoxin-prone. Detection and surveillance are only barely adequate, though some exposure assessments have been conducted. There is a need to widen diet diversity as a measure of reducing exposure due to consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods.
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22
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Temba BA, Darnell RE, Gichangi A, Lwezaura D, Pardey PG, Harvey JJ, Karanja J, Massomo SMS, Ota N, Wainaina JM, Fletcher MT, Kriticos DJ. The Influence of Weather on the Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 in Harvested Maize from Kenya and Tanzania. Foods 2021; 10:foods10020216. [PMID: 33494323 PMCID: PMC7911846 DOI: 10.3390/foods10020216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A study was conducted using maize samples collected from different agroecological zones of Kenya (n = 471) and Tanzania (n = 100) during the 2013 maize harvest season to estimate a relationship between aflatoxin B1 concentration and occurrence with weather conditions during the growing season. The toxins were analysed by the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Aflatoxin B1 incidence ranged between 0-100% of samples in different regions with an average value of 29.4% and aflatoxin concentrations of up to 6075 µg/kg recorded in one sample. Several regression techniques were explored. Random forests achieved the highest overall accuracy of 80%, while the accuracy of a logistic regression model was 65%. Low rainfall occurring during the early stage of the maize plant maturing combined with high temperatures leading up to full maturity provide warning signs of aflatoxin contamination. Risk maps for the two countries for the 2013 season were generated using both random forests and logistic regression models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benigni A. Temba
- College of Veterinary and Medical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania;
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia;
| | - Ross E. Darnell
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, GPO Box 2583, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Anne Gichangi
- Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 57811, Nairobi 00200, Kenya; (A.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Deogratias Lwezaura
- Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute, Arusha Road, P.O. Box 1571, Dodoma, Tanzania;
| | - Philip G. Pardey
- Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, 1994 Buford Ave, 248 Ruttan Hall, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA;
| | - Jagger J. Harvey
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - James Karanja
- Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 57811, Nairobi 00200, Kenya; (A.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Said M. S. Massomo
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies, The Open University of Tanzania, P.O. Box 23409, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania;
| | - Noboru Ota
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, GPO Box 100, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (N.O.); (D.J.K.)
| | - James M. Wainaina
- Department of Microbiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43201, USA;
| | - Mary T. Fletcher
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia;
| | - Darren J. Kriticos
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, GPO Box 100, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (N.O.); (D.J.K.)
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Preventive Measures and Control of Mycotoxins. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-60659-6_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Aoun M, Stafstrom W, Priest P, Fuchs J, Windham GL, Williams WP, Nelson RJ. Low-cost grain sorting technologies to reduce mycotoxin contamination in maize and groundnut. Food Control 2020; 118:107363. [PMID: 33273755 PMCID: PMC7439795 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The widespread contamination of foods by mycotoxins continues to be a public health hazard in sub-Saharan Africa, with maize and groundnut being major sources of contamination. This study was undertaken to assess the hypothesis that grain sorting can be used to reduce mycotoxin contamination in grain lots by removing toxic kernels. We tested a set of sorting principles and methods for reducing mycotoxin levels in maize and groundnut from a variety of genotypes and environments. We found that kernel bulk density (KBD) and 100-kernel weight (HKW) were associated with the levels of aflatoxins (AF) and fumonisins (FUM) in maize grain. A low-cost sorter prototype (the 'DropSort' device) that separated maize grain based on KBD and HKW was more effective in reducing FUM than AF. We then evaluated the effectiveness of DropSorting when combined with either size or visual sorting. Size sorting followed by DropSorting was the fastest method for reducing FUM to under 2 ppm, but was not effective in reducing AF levels in maize grain to under 20 ppb, especially for heavily AF-contaminated grain. Analysis of individual kernels showed that high -AF maize kernels had lower weight, volume, density, length, and width and higher sphericity than those with low AF. Single kernel weight was the most significant predictor of AF concentration. The DropSort excluded kernels with lower single kernel weight, volume, width, depth, and sphericity. We also found that visual sorting and bright greenish-yellow fluorescence sorting of maize single kernels were successful in separating kernels based on AF levels. For groundnut, the DropSort grouped grain based on HKW and did not significantly reduce AF concentrations, whereas size sorting and visual sorting were much more effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meriem Aoun
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - William Stafstrom
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Paige Priest
- Masters of Public Health Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - John Fuchs
- The Widget Factory, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Gary L. Windham
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Corn Host Plant Resistance Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA
| | - W. Paul Williams
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Corn Host Plant Resistance Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA
| | - Rebecca J. Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Massomo SM. Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination in the maize value chain and what needs to be done in Tanzania. SCIENTIFIC AFRICAN 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Wenndt A, Sudini HK, Pingali P, Nelson R. Exploring aflatoxin contamination and household-level exposure risk in diverse Indian food systems. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0240565. [PMID: 33104713 PMCID: PMC7588076 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study sought to identify household risk factors associated with aflatoxin contamination within and across diverse Indian food systems and to evaluate their utility in risk modeling. Samples (n = 595) of cereals, pulses, and oil seeds were collected from 160 households across four diverse districts of India and analyzed for aflatoxin B1 using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Demographic information, food and cropping systems, food management behaviors, and storage environments were profiled for each household. An aflatoxin detection risk index was developed based on household-level features and validated using a repeated 5-fold cross-validation approach. Across districts, between 30–80% of households yielded at least one contaminated sample. Aflatoxin B1 detection rates and mean contamination levels were highest in groundnut and maize, respectively, and lower in other crops. Landholding had a positive univariate effect on household aflatoxin detection, while storage conditions, product source, and the number of protective behaviors used by households did not show significant effects. Presence of groundnut, post-harvest grain washing, use of sack-based storage systems, and cultivation status (farming or non-farming) were identified as the most contributive variables in stepwise logistic regression and were used to generate a household-level risk index. The index had moderate classification accuracy (68% sensitivity and 62% specificity) and significantly correlated with village-wise aflatoxin detection rates. Spatial analysis revealed utility of the index for identifying at-risk localities and households. This study identified several key features associated with aflatoxin contamination in Indian food systems and demonstrated that household characteristics are substantially predictive of aflatoxin risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Wenndt
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Tata Cornell Institute for Agriculture and Nutrition, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Hari Kishan Sudini
- International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Telangana, India
| | - Prabhu Pingali
- Tata Cornell Institute for Agriculture and Nutrition, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics & Management, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Nelson
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
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When to use one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and Shifted Transversal Design pooling in mycotoxin screening. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236668. [PMID: 32756571 PMCID: PMC7406063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While complex sample pooling strategies have been developed for large-scale experiments with robotic liquid handling, many medium-scale experiments like mycotoxin screening by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) are still conducted manually in 48- and 96-well plates. At this scale, the opportunity to save on reagent costs is offset by the increased costs of labor, materials, and risk-of-error caused by increasingly complex pooling strategies. This paper compares one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and Shifted Transversal Design (STD) pooling to study whether pooling affects assay accuracy and experimental cost and to provide guidance for when a human experimentalist might benefit from pooling. We approximated mycotoxin contamination in single corn kernels by fitting statistical distributions to experimental data (432 kernels for aflatoxin and 528 kernels for fumonisin) and used experimentally-validated Monte-Carlo simulation (10,000 iterations) to evaluate assay sensitivity, specificity, reagent cost, and pipetting cost. Based on the validated simulation results, assay sensitivity remains 100% for all four pooling strategies while specificity decreases as prevalence level rises. Reagent cost could be reduced by 70% and 80% in 48- and 96-well plates, with 1D and STD pooling being most reagent-saving respectively. Such a reagent-saving effect is only valid when prevalence level is < 21% for 48-well plates and < 13%-21% for 96-well plates. Pipetting cost will rise by 1.3-3.3 fold for 48-well plates and 1.2-4.3 fold for 96-well plates, with 1D pooling by row requiring the least pipetting. Thus, it is advisable to employ pooling when the expected prevalence level is below 21% and when the likely savings of up to 80% on reagent cost outweighs the increased materials and labor costs of up to 4 fold increases in pipetting.
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Namulawa VT, Mutiga S, Musimbi F, Akello S, Ngángá F, Kago L, Kyallo M, Harvey J, Ghimire S. Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040233. [PMID: 32272644 PMCID: PMC7232351 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of commercial fish farming has stimulated the establishment of fish feed factories in Uganda. However, no information is available on the safety of the feed, mainly due to lack of mycotoxin testing facilities and weak regulatory systems. A study was carried out to examine fungal colonization and mycotoxin contamination in fish feed samples (n = 147) of different types collected from nine fish farms (n = 81) and seven fish feed factories (n = 66) in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB). Fungi were isolated in potato dextrose agar, grouped into morphotypes and representative isolates from each morphotype were identified based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA sequences. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total fumonisin (combinations of B1, B2 and B3; hereinafter named fumonisin) levels in feed samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A wide range of fungi, including toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides, were isolated from the fish feed samples. AFB1 was detected in 48% of the factory samples and in 63% of the farm samples, with toxin levels <40 and >400 µg/kg, respectively. Similarly, 31% of the factory samples and 29% of the farm samples had fumonisin contamination ranging between 0.1 and 4.06 mg/kg. Pellets and powder had higher mycotoxin contamination compared to other commercially available fish feed types. This study shows AFB1 as a potential fish feed safety issue in the LVB and suggests a need for more research on mycotoxin residues in fish fillets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Tibenda Namulawa
- National Agricultural Research Organization, Aquaculture Research & Development Center, P.O. Box 530, Kampala 00256, Uganda;
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Samuel Mutiga
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, NC 72701, USA
| | - Fred Musimbi
- National Agricultural Research Organization, Aquaculture Research & Development Center, P.O. Box 530, Kampala 00256, Uganda;
| | - Sundy Akello
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Fredrick Ngángá
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Leah Kago
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Martina Kyallo
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Jagger Harvey
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
- Feed the Future Innovation Lab for the Reduction of Post-Harvest Loss, and Department of Plant Pathology; Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Sita Ghimire
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
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Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of microscopic fungi, which commonly contaminate cereal grains. Contamination of small-grain cereals and maize with toxic metabolites of fungi, both pathogenic and saprotrophic, is one of the particularly important problems in global agriculture. Fusarium species are among the dangerous cereal pathogens with a high toxicity potential. Secondary metabolites of these fungi, such as deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisin B1 are among five most important mycotoxins on a European and world scale. The use of various methods to limit the development of Fusarium cereal head diseases and grain contamination with mycotoxins, before and after harvest, is an important element of sustainable agriculture and production of safe food. The applied strategies utilize chemical and non-chemical methods, including agronomic, physical and biological treatments. Biological methods now occupy a special place in plant protection as an element of biocontrol of fungal pathogens by inhibiting their development and reducing mycotoxins in grain. According to the literature, Good Agricultural Practices are the best line of defense for controlling Fusarium toxin contamination of cereal and maize grains. However, fluctuations in weather conditions can significantly reduce the effectiveness of plants protection methods against infection with Fusarium spp. and grain accumulation of mycotoxins.
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Nelson R. International Plant Pathology: Past and Future Contributions to Global Food Security. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2020; 110:245-253. [PMID: 31680649 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-08-19-0300-ia] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The challenge of feeding the current and future world population is widely recognized, and the management of plant diseases has an important role in overcoming this. This paper explores the ways in which international plant pathology has contributed and continues to support efforts to secure adequate, safe and culturally appropriate nourishment and livelihoods for present and future generations. For the purposes of this paper, "international plant pathology" refers to the work that plant pathologists do when they work across international borders, with a focus on enhancing food security in tropical regions. Significant efforts involve public and philanthropic resources from the global North for addressing plant disease concerns in the global South, where food security is a legitimate and pressing concern. International disease management efforts are also aimed at protecting domestic food security, for example when pathogens of major staples migrate across national borders. In addition, some important crops are largely produced in tropical countries and consumed globally, including in industrialized countries; the diseases of these crops are of international interest, and they are largely managed by the private sector. Finally, host-microbe interactions are fascinating biological systems, and basic research on plant diseases of international relevance has often yielded insights and technologies with both scientific and practical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University
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Dooso Oloo R, Okoth S, Wachira P, Mutiga S, Ochieng P, Kago L, Nganga F, Domelevo Entfellner JB, Ghimire S. Genetic Profiling of Aspergillus Isolates with Varying Aflatoxin Production Potential from Different Maize-Growing Regions of Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11080467. [PMID: 31404960 PMCID: PMC6723045 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus have been reported to frequently contaminate maize, causing fatal aflatoxin poisoning in Kenya. To gain insights into the environmental and genetic factors that influence toxigenicity, fungi (n = 218) that were culturally identified as A. flavus were isolated from maize grains samples (n = 120) from three regions of Kenya. The fungi were further characterized to confirm their identities using a PCR-sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA which also revealed all of them to be A. flavus. A subset of 72 isolates representing ITS sequence-based phylogeny cluster and the agroecological origin of maize samples was constituted for subsequent analysis. The analysis of partial calmodulin gene sequences showed that the subset consisted of A. flavus (87%) and Aspergillus minisclerotigenes (13%). No obvious association was detected between the presence of seven aflatoxin biosynthesis genes and fungal species or region. However, the presence of the aflD and aflS genes showed some association with aflatoxin production. The assessment of toxigenicity showed higher aflatoxin production potential in A. minisclerotigenes isolates. Given that A. minisclerotigenes were mainly observed in maize samples from Eastern Kenya, a known aflatoxin hotspot, we speculate that production of copious aflatoxin is an adaptative trait of this recently discovered species in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Dooso Oloo
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sheila Okoth
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Peter Wachira
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Samuel Mutiga
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Phillis Ochieng
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Leah Kago
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Fredrick Nganga
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jean-Baka Domelevo Entfellner
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sita Ghimire
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya.
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Njeru NK, Midega CAO, Muthomi JW, Wagacha JM, Khan ZR. Influence of socio-economic and agronomic factors on aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of maize in western Kenya. Food Sci Nutr 2019; 7:2291-2301. [PMID: 31367357 PMCID: PMC6657745 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.1070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Consumption of maize contaminated with mycotoxins has been associated with detrimental health effects. A farm survey covering 116 push-pull and 139 non-push-pull cropping systems was conducted to determine the socio-economic and agronomic factors that influence farmers' knowledge on incidence and contamination of maize by ear rots and associated mycotoxins in western Kenya. All the respondents were smallholder farmers between the ages of 23 and 80 years, with 50% of them being female. Maize samples were collected from the standing crop in the field of each interviewed farmer and analyzed for aflatoxin and fumonisin. Only a small proportion of farmers had knowledge of aflatoxin and ear rots in maize. Overall, less than 20% of maize samples were contaminated with both aflatoxin and fumonisin, and more maize samples were contaminated with fumonisin as compared to aflatoxin. Proportions of maize samples containing higher than the acceptable Kenyan regulatory threshold (10 µg/kg) for aflatoxin and European Commission regulatory threshold (1,000) µg/kg for fumonisin were lower in maize samples from push-pull cropping system. Age of farmer and county of residence were significantly and positively associated with knowledge of aflatoxin, while cropping system, county of residence, and level of education were positively associated with knowledge of maize ear rots. There was strong correlation between knowledge of maize ear rots and knowledge of aflatoxin. Levels of both aflatoxin and fumonisin were significantly and positively associated with the use of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer at planting. Aflatoxin levels were also positively associated with stemborer damage. Agronomic practices were not significantly different between push-pull and non-push-pull farmers. However, use of DAP fertilizer was the most important agronomic factor since it was associated with both aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of maize. These results imply that creating awareness is key to mitigation of ear rots and mycotoxin contamination of maize. The results also suggest that the levels of aflatoxin and fumonisin in maize in western Kenya were influenced both by pre-harvest agronomic practices and by the cropping system adopted, push-pull or not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Karimi Njeru
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe)NairobiKenya
- Department of Plant Science and Crop ProtectionUniversity of NairobiNairobiKenya
| | | | | | | | - Zeyaur Rahman Khan
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe)NairobiKenya
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Enhancing Food Safety through Adoption of Long-Term Technical Advisory, Financial, and Storage Support Services in Maize Growing Areas of East Africa. SUSTAINABILITY 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/su11102827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Grain production and storage are major components in food security. In the ancient times, food security was achieved through gathering of fruits, grains, herbs, tubers, and roots from the forests by individual households. Advancements in human civilization led to domestication of crops and a need to save food for not only a household, but the nation. This extended need for food security led to establishment of national reservoirs for major produces and this practice varies greatly in different states. Each of the applied food production, handling, and storage approaches has its benefits and challenges. In sub-Saharan Africa, several countries have a public funded budget to subsidize production costs, to buy grains from farmers, and to store the produce for a specific period and/or until the next harvests. During the times of famine, the stored grains are later sold at subsidized prices or are given for free to the starving citizens. If there is no famine, the grain is sold to retailers and/or processors (e.g., millers) who later sell it to the consumers. This approach works well if the produce (mainly grain) is stored under conditions that do not favor growth of molds, as some of these microbes could contaminate the grain with toxic and carcinogenic metabolites called mycotoxins. Conditions that alleviate contamination of grains are required during production, handling, and storage. Most of the grain is produced by smallholder farmers under sub-optimal conditions, making it vulnerable to colonization and contamination by toxigenic fungi. Further, the grain is stored in silos at large masses, where it is hard to monitor the conditions at different points of these facilities, and hence, it becomes vulnerable to additional contamination. Production and storage of grain under conditions that favor mycotoxins poses major food health and safety risks to humans and livestock who consume it. This concept paper focuses on how establishment of a local grain production and banking system (LGPBS) could enhance food security and safety in East Africa. The concept of LGPBS provides an extension of advisory and finance support within warehouse receipt system to enhance grain production under optimal conditions. The major practices at the LGPBS and how each could contribute to food security and safety are discussed. While the concept paper gives more strength on maize production and safety, similar practices could be applied to enhance safety of other grains in the same LGPBS.
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34
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Pitt J. The pros and cons of using biocontrol by competitive exclusion as a means for reducing aflatoxin in maize in Africa. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2018.2410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxin in maize remains a major problem in Africa. Biocontrol by competitive exclusion is one approach for reducing preharvest aflatoxin. This paper describes the methods used for preparing and disseminating biocontrol substrate in maize fields, followed by a discussion of the merits of, and problems associated with, the practical use of biocontrol for reducing aflatoxin in maize in Africa. The weight of evidence indicates that biocontrol is an effective process for reducing aflatoxin, but proof of claimed efficacy for smallholder farms in Africa is lacking. Indeed, an examination of sampling methodology in use in Africa indicates that proof of efficacy may be difficult or indeed impossible to obtain.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.I. Pitt
- CSIRO Food and Agriculture, North Ryde, P.O. Box 52, NSW 2113, Australia
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35
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Morales L, Zila CT, Moreta Mejía DE, Montoya Arbelaez M, Balint-Kurti PJ, Holland JB, Nelson RJ. Diverse Components of Resistance to Fusarium verticillioides Infection and Fumonisin Contamination in Four Maize Recombinant Inbred Families. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E86. [PMID: 30717228 PMCID: PMC6410224 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungus Fusarium verticillioides can infect maize ears, causing Fusarium ear rot (FER) and contaminating the grain with fumonisins (FUM), which are harmful to humans and animals. Breeding for resistance to FER and FUM and post-harvest sorting of grain are two strategies for reducing FUM in the food system. Kernel and cob tissues have been previously associated with differential FER and FUM. Four recombinant inbred line families from the maize nested associated mapping population were grown and inoculated with F. verticillioides across four environments, and we evaluated the kernels for external and internal infection severity as well as FUM contamination. We also employed publicly available phenotypes on innate ear morphology to explore genetic relationships between ear architecture and resistance to FER and FUM. The four families revealed wide variation in external symptomatology at the phenotypic level. Kernel bulk density under inoculation was an accurate indicator of FUM levels. Genotypes with lower kernel density-under both inoculated and uninoculated conditions-and larger cobs were more susceptible to infection and FUM contamination. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) intervals could be classified as putatively resistance-specific and putatively shared for ear and resistance traits. Both types of QTL mapped in this study had substantial overlap with previously reported loci for resistance to FER and FUM. Ear morphology may be a component of resistance to F. verticillioides infection and FUM accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Morales
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Charles T Zila
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA.
| | | | | | - Peter J Balint-Kurti
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
- Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture⁻Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - James B Holland
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA.
- Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture⁻Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Rebecca J Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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A Systems Approach to Food Loss and Solutions: Understanding Practices, Causes, and Indicators. SUSTAINABILITY 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/su11030579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Reasons behind food loss can be very specific for each product and supply chain stage but it is also affected by factors independent of the product and stage. This work focuses on such generic factors and develops a framework to analyze food loss as a systemic outcome. The framework highlights the interconnected nature of problem across supply chain stages and therefore emphasizes the need to look at the whole system instead of specific stages, when proposing solutions. Practices and underlying causes contributing to food loss are identified for each stage of the supply chain using a literature search. Deductive logic is used to fill the gaps where literature was found to be scarce, and to derive socio-economic indicators that signal the presence of identified causes. Using this framework, we propose a non-exhaustive list of 30 socio-economic indicators, which can signal the presence of the 22 practices and 60 causes associated with food loss in supply chains. This list can serve as a starting list for practitioners and policymakers to build on when analyzing food losses in supply chains in their region. We evaluate the framework using a field-study of a tomato supply chain in Nigeria, and conclude that it can be a useful tool to identify practices, causes, and indicators of food loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey K. Maiyoh
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
- Johannesburg Institute for Advanced Study, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Vivian C. Tuei
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Science, University of Eldoret, Eldoret, Kenya
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Mwihia EW, Mbuthia PG, Eriksen GS, Gathumbi JK, Maina JG, Mutoloki S, Waruiru RM, Mulei IR, Lyche JL. Occurrence and Levels of Aflatoxins in Fish Feeds and Their Potential Effects on Fish in Nyeri, Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10120543. [PMID: 30562952 PMCID: PMC6315670 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10120543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins are fungal metabolites that contaminate foods and feeds, causing adverse health effects in humans and animals. This study determined the occurrence of aflatoxins in fish feeds and their potential effects on fish. Eighty-one fish feeds were sampled from 70 farms and 8 feed manufacturing plants in Nyeri, Kenya for aflatoxin analysis using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Fish were sampled from 12 farms for gross and microscopic pathological examination. Eighty-four percent of feeds sampled tested positive for aflatoxins, ranging from 1.8 to 39.7 µg/kg with a mean of 7.0 ± 8.3 µg/kg and the median of 3.6 µg/kg. Fifteen feeds (18.5%) had aflatoxins above the maximum allowable level in Kenya of 10 µg/kg. Homemade and tilapia feeds had significantly higher aflatoxin levels than commercial and trout feeds. Feeds containing maize bran and fish meal had significantly higher aflatoxin levels than those without these ingredients. Five trout farms (41.7%) had fish with swollen abdomens, and enlarged livers with white or yellow nodules, which microscopically had large dark basophilic hepatic cells with hyperchromatic nuclei in irregular cords. In conclusion, aflatoxin contamination of fish feeds is prevalent in Nyeri, and may be the cause of adverse health effects in fish in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evalyn Wanjiru Mwihia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Egerton 20115, Kenya.
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, Oslo 0454, Norway.
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya.
| | - Paul Gichohi Mbuthia
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya.
| | - Gunnar Sundstøl Eriksen
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, Oslo 0106, Norway.
| | - James K Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya.
| | - Joyce G Maina
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya.
| | - Stephen Mutoloki
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, Oslo 0454, Norway.
| | - Robert Maina Waruiru
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya.
| | - Isaac Rumpel Mulei
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, Oslo 0454, Norway.
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya.
| | - Jan Ludvig Lyche
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, Oslo 0454, Norway.
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Morales L, Marino TP, Wenndt AJ, Fouts JQ, Holland JB, Nelson RJ. Dissecting Symptomatology and Fumonisin Contamination Produced by Fusarium verticillioides in Maize Ears. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2018; 108:1475-1485. [PMID: 29989846 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-05-18-0167-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The fungus Fusarium verticillioides can infect maize ears, contaminating the grain with mycotoxins, including fumonisins. This global public health threat can be managed by breeding maize varieties that are resistant to colonization by F. verticillioides and by sorting grain after harvest to reduce fumonisin levels in food systems. Here, we employed two F. verticillioides inoculation techniques representing distinct infection pathways to dissect ear symptomatology and morphological resistance mechanisms in a diverse panel of maize inbred lines. The "point" method involved penetrating the ear with a spore-coated toothpick and the "inundative" method introduced a liquid spore suspension under the husk of the ear. We evaluated quantitative and qualitative indicators of external and internal symptom severity as low-cost proxies for fumonisin contamination, and found that kernel bulk density was predictive of fumonisin levels (78 to 84% sensitivity; 97 to 99% specificity). Inundative inoculation resulted in greater disease severity and fumonisin contamination than point inoculation. We also found that the two inoculation methods implicated different ear tissues in defense, with cob morphology being a more important component of resistance under point inoculation. Across both inoculation methods, traits related to cob size were positively associated with disease severity and fumonisin content. Our work demonstrates that (i) the use of diverse modes of inoculation is necessary for combining complementary mechanisms of genetic resistance, (ii) kernel bulk density can be used effectively as a proxy for fumonisin levels, and (iii) trade-offs may exist between yield potential and resistance to fumonisin contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Morales
- First, third, fourth, and sixth authors: School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; second and fifth authors: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; and fifth author: Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC
| | - Thiago P Marino
- First, third, fourth, and sixth authors: School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; second and fifth authors: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; and fifth author: Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC
| | - Anthony J Wenndt
- First, third, fourth, and sixth authors: School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; second and fifth authors: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; and fifth author: Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC
| | - Julia Q Fouts
- First, third, fourth, and sixth authors: School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; second and fifth authors: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; and fifth author: Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC
| | - James B Holland
- First, third, fourth, and sixth authors: School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; second and fifth authors: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; and fifth author: Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC
| | - Rebecca J Nelson
- First, third, fourth, and sixth authors: School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; second and fifth authors: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; and fifth author: Plant Science Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, NC
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Edoh Ognakossan K, Mutungi CM, Otieno TO, Affognon HD, Sila DN, Owino WO. Quantitative and quality losses caused by rodents in on-farm stored maize: a case study in the low land tropical zone of Kenya. Food Secur 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12571-018-0861-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Mutegi CK, Cotty PJ, Bandyopadhyay R. Prevalence and mitigation of aflatoxins in Kenya (1960-to date). WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018; 11:341-357. [PMID: 33552311 PMCID: PMC7797628 DOI: 10.3920/wmj2018.2362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are highly toxic metabolites of several Aspergillus species widely distributed throughout the environment. These toxins have adverse effects on humans and livestock at a few micrograms per kilogram (μg/kg) concentrations. Strict regulations on the concentrations of aflatoxins allowed in food and feed exist in many nations in the developing world. Loopholes in implementing regulations result in the consumption of dangerous concentrations of aflatoxins. In Kenya, where 'farm-to-mouth' crops become severely contaminated, solutions to the aflatoxins problem are needed. Across the decades, aflatoxins have repeatedly caused loss of human and animal life. A prerequisite to developing viable solutions for managing aflatoxins is understanding the geographical distribution and severity of food and feed contamination, and the impact on lives. This review discusses the scope of the aflatoxins problem and management efforts by various players in Kenya. Economic drivers likely to influence the choice of aflatoxins management options include historical adverse health effects on humans and animals, cost of intervention for mitigation of aflatoxins, knowledge about aflatoxins and their impact, incentives for aflatoxins safe food and intended scope of use of interventions. It also highlights knowledge gaps that can direct future management efforts. These include: sparse documented information on human exposure; few robust tools to accurately measure economic impact in widely unstructured value chains; lack of long-term impact studies on benefits of aflatoxins mitigation; inadequate sampling mechanisms in smallholder farms and grain holding stores/containers; overlooking social learning networks in technology uptake and lack of in-depth studies on an array of aflatoxins control measures followed in households. The review proposes improved linkages between agriculture, nutrition and health sectors to address aflatoxins contamination better. Sustained public awareness at all levels, capacity building and aflatoxins related policies are necessary to support management initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Mutegi
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA, c/o ILRI, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - P J Cotty
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 416 West Congress Street, Tucson, AZ 85701, USA
| | - R Bandyopadhyay
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA, PMB 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria
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Niyibituronsa M, Onyango AN, Gaidashova S, Imathiu SM, Uwizerwa M, Wanjuki I, Nganga F, Muhutu JC, Birungi J, Ghimire S, Raes K, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Harvey J. Evaluation Of Mycotoxin Content In Soybean (Glycine max L.) Grown In Rwanda. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF FOOD, AGRICULTURE, NUTRITION, AND DEVELOPMENT : AJFAND 2018; 18:AJFAND-18-03-13808. [PMID: 33281893 PMCID: PMC7714182 DOI: 10.18697/ajfand.83.17710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Soybean is a critical food and nutritional security crop in Rwanda. Promoted by the Rwandan National Agricultural Research System for both adults and as an infant weaning food, soybean is grown by approximately 40% of households. Soybean may be susceptible to the growth of mycotoxin-producing moulds; however, data has been contradictory. Mycotoxin contamination is a food and feed safety issue for grains and other field crops. This study aimed to determine the extent of mycotoxin contamination in soybean, and to assess people's awareness on mycotoxins. A farm-level survey was conducted in 2015 within three agro-ecological zones of Rwanda suitable for soybean production. Soybean samples were collected from farmers (n=300) who also completed questionnaires about pre-and post-harvest farm practices, and aflatoxin awareness. The concentration of total aflatoxin in individual soybean samples was tested by enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a commercially-available kit. Other mycotoxins were analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) on 10 selected sub samples. Only 7.3% of the respondents were aware of aflatoxin contamination in foods, but farmers observed good postharvest practices including harvesting the crop when the pods were dry. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), only one sample had a concentration (11 µg/kg) above the most stringent EU maximum permitted limit of 4 µg/kg. Multi-mycotoxins liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) results confirmed that soybeans had low or undetectable contamination; only one sample contained 13µg/kg of sterigmatocystine. The soybean samples from Rwanda obtained acceptably low mycotoxin levels. Taken together with other studies that showed that soybean is less contaminated by mycotoxins, these results demonstrate that soybean can be promoted as a nutritious and safe food. However, there is a general need for educating farmers on mycotoxin contamination in food and feed to ensure better standards are adhered to safeguard the health of the consumers regarding these fungal secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Niyibituronsa
- Rwanda Agriculture Board, Rwanda, P.O. BOX 5016 Kigali, Rwanda
- Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya, P.O. BOX 62000 (00200) Nairobi Kenya
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Kenya, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
- Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Belgium, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - AN Onyango
- Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya, P.O. BOX 62000 (00200) Nairobi Kenya
| | - S Gaidashova
- Rwanda Agriculture Board, Rwanda, P.O. BOX 5016 Kigali, Rwanda
| | - SM Imathiu
- Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya, P.O. BOX 62000 (00200) Nairobi Kenya
| | - M Uwizerwa
- Rwanda Agriculture Board, Rwanda, P.O. BOX 5016 Kigali, Rwanda
| | - I Wanjuki
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Kenya, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - F Nganga
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Kenya, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - JC Muhutu
- Rwanda Agriculture Board, Rwanda, P.O. BOX 5016 Kigali, Rwanda
| | - J Birungi
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Kenya, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - S Ghimire
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Kenya, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - K Raes
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Ghent University – Campus Kortrijk, Belgium, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - M De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Belgium, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - S De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Belgium, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - J Harvey
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Kenya, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
- Feed the Future Innovation Lab for the Reduction of Post-Harvest Loss, and Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS66506, USA
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Kigen G, Busakhala N, Kamuren Z, Rono H, Kimalat W, Njiru E. Factors associated with the high prevalence of oesophageal cancer in Western Kenya: a review. Infect Agent Cancer 2017; 12:59. [PMID: 29142587 PMCID: PMC5670732 DOI: 10.1186/s13027-017-0169-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oesophageal carcinoma (OC) is highly prevalent in Western Kenya especially among the members of the Kalenjin community who reside in the Northern and Southern areas of the Rift Valley. Previous authors have suggested potential association of environmental and genetic risk factors with this high prevalence. The environmental factors that have been suggested include contamination of food by mycotoxins and/or pesticides, consumption of traditional alcohol (locally referred to “Busaa” and “Chan’gaa”), use of fermented milk (“Mursik”), poor diet, tobacco use and genetic predisposition. The aim of this paper is to critically examine the potential contribution of each of the factors that have been postulated to be associated with the high prevalence of the disease in order to establish the most likely cause. We have done this by analyzing the trends, characteristics and behaviours that are specifically unique in the region, and corroborated this with the available literature. From our findings, the most plausible cause of the high incidence of OC among the Kalenjin community is mycotoxins, particularly fumonisins from the food chain resulting from poor handling of cereals; particularly maize combined with traditional alcohol laced with the toxins interacting synergistically with other high-risk factors such as dietary deficiencies associated alcoholism and viral infections, especially HPV. Urgent mitigating strategies should be developed in order to minimize the levels of mycotoxins in the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Kigen
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology; Department of Hematology & Oncology, Moi University School of Medicine, P.O. Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Naftali Busakhala
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology; Department of Hematology & Oncology, Moi University School of Medicine, P. O. Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Zipporah Kamuren
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Moi University School of Medicine, P.O. Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Hillary Rono
- Kitale County Hospital; London School of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, P.O. Box 98-30200, Kitale, Kenya
| | - Wilfred Kimalat
- Retired Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, Science & Technology, Provisional Administration & Internal Security, Office of the President, P. O. Box 28467-00200, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Evangeline Njiru
- Department of Internal Medicine; Department of Hematology and Oncology, Moi University School of Medicine, P.O. Box 4606, Eldoret, 30100 Kenya
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Smith LE, Prendergast AJ, Turner PC, Humphrey JH, Stoltzfus RJ. Aflatoxin Exposure During Pregnancy, Maternal Anemia, and Adverse Birth Outcomes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 96:770-776. [PMID: 28500823 PMCID: PMC5392618 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pregnant women and their developing fetuses are vulnerable to multiple environmental insults, including exposure to aflatoxin, a mycotoxin that may contaminate as much as 25% of the world food supply. We reviewed and integrated findings from studies of aflatoxin exposure during pregnancy and evaluated potential links to adverse pregnancy outcomes. We identified 27 studies (10 human cross-sectional studies and 17 animal studies) assessing the relationship between aflatoxin exposure and adverse birth outcomes or anemia. Findings suggest that aflatoxin exposure during pregnancy may impair fetal growth. Only one human study investigated aflatoxin exposure and prematurity, and no studies investigated its relationship with pregnancy loss, but animal studies suggest aflatoxin exposure may increase risk for prematurity and pregnancy loss. The fetus could be affected by maternal aflatoxin exposure through direct toxicity as well as indirect toxicity, via maternal systemic inflammation, impaired placental growth, or elevation of placental cytokines. The cytotoxic and systemic effects of aflatoxin could plausibly mediate maternal anemia, intrauterine growth restriction, fetal loss, and preterm birth. Given the widespread exposure to this toxin in developing countries, longitudinal studies in pregnant women are needed to provide stronger evidence for the role of aflatoxin in adverse pregnancy outcomes, and to explore biological mechanisms. Potential pathways for intervention to reduce aflatoxin exposure are urgently needed, and this might reduce the global burden of stillbirth, preterm birth, and low birthweight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Smith
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.,Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Andrew J Prendergast
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland.,Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom.,Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Paul C Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Jean H Humphrey
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland.,Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Smith LE, Mbuya MNN, Prendergast AJ, Turner PC, Ruboko S, Humphrey JH, Nelson RJ, Chigumira A, Kembo G, Stoltzfus RJ. Determinants of recent aflatoxin exposure among pregnant women in rural Zimbabwe. Mol Nutr Food Res 2017; 61. [PMID: 28544789 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201601049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites of Aspergillus species that contaminate staple foods such as maize and groundnuts. AF exposure during pregnancy has been associated with adverse birth outcomes in limited-scale surveys in sub-Saharan Africa. The objective of this study was to describe the determinants of AF exposure, using urinary aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) biomarkers and data generated by the Sanitation Hygiene Infant Nutrition Efficacy (SHINE) trial for rural Zimbabwean women in early pregnancy. Sanitation Hygiene Infant Nutrition Efficacy is a large, cluster-randomized community-based trial in Zimbabwe designed to investigate the independent and combined effects of nutrition and hygiene interventions on early child growth. METHODS AND RESULTS Urine samples collected from 1580 pregnant women in rural Zimbabwe at median gestational age of 13.9 wk were measured for AFM1. AFM1 was detected in 30% of samples (median of exposed, 162 pg AFM1/mg creatinine; range 30-6046 pg AFM1/mg). In multivariable ordinal logistic models, geographical location (p<0.001), seasonality (p < 0.001) and dietary practices (p = 0.011) were significant predictors of urinary AFM1. CONCLUSION This is the largest AF biomarker survey conducted in Zimbabwe, and demonstrated frequent exposure in pregnant women with clear temporal and spatial variability in AF biomarker levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Smith
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,Research Department, Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Mduduzi N N Mbuya
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,Research Department, Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe.,Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Andrew J Prendergast
- Research Department, Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe.,Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Paul C Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Sandra Ruboko
- Research Department, Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Jean H Humphrey
- Research Department, Zvitambo Institute for Maternal and Child Health Research, Harare, Zimbabwe.,Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Rebecca J Nelson
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Nishimwe K, Wanjuki I, Karangwa C, Darnell R, Harvey J. An initial characterization of aflatoxin B1 contamination of maize sold in the principal retail markets of Kigali, Rwanda. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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48
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Temba BA, Sultanbawa Y, Kriticos DJ, Fox GP, Harvey JJW, Fletcher MT. Tools for Defusing a Major Global Food and Feed Safety Risk: Nonbiological Postharvest Procedures To Decontaminate Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:8959-8972. [PMID: 27933870 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b03777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of foods and animal feeds is a worldwide problem for human and animal health. Controlling mycotoxin contamination has drawn the attention of scientists and other food and feed stakeholders all over the world. Despite best efforts targeting field and storage preventive measures, environmental conditions can still lead to mycotoxin contamination. This raises a need for developing decontamination methods to inactivate or remove the toxins from contaminated products. At present, decontamination methods applied include an array of both biological and nonbiological methods. The targeted use of nonbiological methods spans from the latter half of last century, when ammoniation and ozonation were first used to inactivate mycotoxins in animal feeds, to the novel techniques being developed today such as photosensitization. Effectiveness and drawbacks of different nonbiological methods have been reported in the literature, and this review examines the utility of these methods in addressing food safety. Particular consideration is given to the application of such methods in the developing world, where mycotoxin contamination is a serious food safety issue in staple crops such as maize and rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benigni A Temba
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland , Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
- Sokoine University of Agriculture , P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Yasmina Sultanbawa
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland , Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Darren J Kriticos
- CSIRO , GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland , St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Glen P Fox
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland , Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Jagger J W Harvey
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland , Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub , Nairobi 00100, Kenya
- Feed the Future Innovation Lab for the Reduction of Post-Harvest Loss, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - Mary T Fletcher
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland , Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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Wambui J, Karuri E, Ojiambo J, Njage P. Adaptation and mitigation options to manage aflatoxin contamination in food with a climate change perspective. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2016.2109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the impact of climate change remains vital for food safety and public health. Of particular importance is the influence of climatic conditions on the growth of Aspergillus flavus and production of their toxins. Nevertheless, little is known about the actual impact of climate change on the issue. Setting up of relevant measures to manage the impact has therefore become a daunting task especially in developing nations. Therefore, this study aimed at providing adaptation and mitigation options to manage this risk with a special focus on Kenya where cases of aflatoxicosis have been recurrent. We used a systematic literature review of review and research articles, with limited searching but systematic screening to explore available qualitative and quantitative data. Projections from the data, showed that on average, a 58.9% increase of aflatoxin contamination in the Central and Western parts and a decrease of 44.6% in the Eastern and Southern parts is expected but with several possible scenarios. This makes the impact of climate change on aflatoxin contamination in Kenya complex. To protect the public and environment from the negative impact, a regulatory framework that allows for an integrated management of aflatoxins in a changing climate was proposed. The management practices in the framework are divided into agronomic, post-harvest and institutional levels. Given the multiple points of application, coordination amongst stakeholders along the chain is fundamental. We therefore proposed a complimentary framework that allows the food safety issues to be addressed in an integrated manner while allowing for transparent synergies and trade-offs (in implementing the measures). A policy-oriented foresight should be carried out to provide policy based evidence for the applicability of the proposed adaptation and mitigation measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.M. Wambui
- Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya
- Kenya Nutritionists and Dieticians Institute, P.O. Box 20436, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - E.G. Karuri
- Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - J.A. Ojiambo
- Kenya Nutritionists and Dieticians Institute, P.O. Box 20436, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - P.M.K. Njage
- Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya
- Division for Epidemiology and Microbial Genomics, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Karlovsky P, Suman M, Berthiller F, De Meester J, Eisenbrand G, Perrin I, Oswald IP, Speijers G, Chiodini A, Recker T, Dussort P. Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxin Res 2016; 32:179-205. [PMID: 27554261 PMCID: PMC5063913 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-016-0257-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites commonly occurring in food, which pose a health risk to the consumer. Maximum levels for major mycotoxins allowed in food have been established worldwide. Good agricultural practices, plant disease management, and adequate storage conditions limit mycotoxin levels in the food chain yet do not eliminate mycotoxins completely. Food processing can further reduce mycotoxin levels by physical removal and decontamination by chemical or enzymatic transformation of mycotoxins into less toxic products. Physical removal of mycotoxins is very efficient: manual sorting of grains, nuts, and fruits by farmers as well as automatic sorting by the industry significantly lowers the mean mycotoxin content. Further processing such as milling, steeping, and extrusion can also reduce mycotoxin content. Mycotoxins can be detoxified chemically by reacting with food components and technical aids; these reactions are facilitated by high temperature and alkaline or acidic conditions. Detoxification of mycotoxins can also be achieved enzymatically. Some enzymes able to transform mycotoxins naturally occur in food commodities or are produced during fermentation but more efficient detoxification can be achieved by deliberate introduction of purified enzymes. We recommend integrating evaluation of processing technologies for their impact on mycotoxins into risk management. Processing steps proven to mitigate mycotoxin contamination should be used whenever necessary. Development of detoxification technologies for high-risk commodities should be a priority for research. While physical techniques currently offer the most efficient post-harvest reduction of mycotoxin content in food, biotechnology possesses the largest potential for future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Karlovsky
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Grisebachstrasse6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michele Suman
- Barilla G. R. F.lli SpA, Advanced Laboratory Research, via Mantova 166, 43122, Parma, Italy
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - Johan De Meester
- Cargill R&D Center Europe, Havenstraat 84, B-1800, Vilvoorde, Belgium
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Germany (retired), University of Kaiserslautern, P.O.Box 3049, 67653, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Irène Perrin
- Nestlé Research Center, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, PO Box 44, 1000, Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- INRA, UMR 1331 ToxAlim, Research Center in Food Toxicology, 180 chemin de Tournefeuille, BP93173, 31027, Toulouse, France
- Université de Toulouse, INP, UMR1331, Toxalim, Toulouse, France
| | - Gerrit Speijers
- General Health Effects Toxicology Safety Food (GETS), Winterkoning 7, 34353 RN, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Alessandro Chiodini
- International Life Sciences Institute-ILSI Europe, Avenue E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Tobias Recker
- International Life Sciences Institute-ILSI Europe, Avenue E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pierre Dussort
- International Life Sciences Institute-ILSI Europe, Avenue E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
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