Trimethylamine N-Oxide: A Link among Diet, Gut Microbiota, Gene Regulation of Liver and Intestine Cholesterol Homeostasis and HDL Function

Molecular mechanisms in liver repair and regeneration: from physiology to therapeutics

Liver repair and regeneration are crucial physiological responses to hepatic injury and are orchestrated through intricate cellular and molecular networks. This review systematically delineates advancements in the field, emphasizing the essential roles played by diverse liver cell types. Their coordinated actions, supported by complex crosstalk within the liver microenvironment, are pivotal to enhancing regenerative outcomes. Recent molecular investigations have elucidated key signaling pathways involved in liver injury and regeneration. Viewed through the lens of metabolic reprogramming, these pathways highlight how shifts in glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism support the cellular functions essential for liver repair and regeneration. An analysis of regenerative variability across pathological states reveals how disease conditions influence these dynamics, guiding the development of novel therapeutic strategies and advanced techniques to enhance liver repair and regeneration. Bridging laboratory findings with practical applications, recent clinical trials highlight the potential of optimizing liver regeneration strategies. These trials offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of novel therapies and underscore significant progress in translational research. In conclusion, this review intricately links molecular insights to therapeutic frontiers, systematically charting the trajectory from fundamental physiological mechanisms to innovative clinical applications in liver repair and regeneration.

Protein-bound uremic toxins as therapeutic targets for cardiovascular, kidney, and metabolic disorders

Cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic (CKM) syndrome is a systemic clinical condition characterized by pathological and physiological interactions among metabolic abnormalities, chronic kidney disease, and cardiovascular diseases, leading to multi-organ dysfunction and a higher incidence of cardiovascular endpoints. Traditional approaches to managing CKM syndrome risk are inadequate in these patients, necessitating strategies targeting specific CKM syndrome risk factors. Increasing evidence suggests that addressing uremic toxins and/or pathways induced by uremic toxins may reduce CKM syndrome risk and treat the disease. This review explores the interactions among heart, kidney, and metabolic pathways in the context of uremic toxins and underscores the significant role of uremic toxins as potential therapeutic targets in the pathophysiology of these diseases. Strategies aimed at regulating these uremic toxins offer potential avenues for reversing and managing CKM syndrome, providing new insights for its clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Association of maternal gut microbial metabolites with gestational diabetes mellitus: evidence from an original case-control study, meta-analysis, and Mendelian randomization

BACKGROUND

The associations of gut microbial metabolites, such as trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), its precursors, and phenylacetylglutamine (PAGln), with the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) remain unclear.

METHODS

Serum samples of 201 women with GDM and 201 matched controls were collected and then targeted metabolomics was performed to examine the metabolites of interest. Multivariable conditional logistic regression was applied to investigate the relationship between metabolites and GDM. Meta-analysis was performed to combine our results and four similar articles searched from online databases, and Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was eventually conducted to explore the causalities.

RESULTS

In the case-control study, after dichotomization and comparing the higher versus the lower group, the adjusted odds ratio and 95% confidence interval of choline and L-carnitine with GDM were 2.124 (1.186-3.803) and 0.293 (0.134-0.638), respectively; but neutral relationships between TMAO, betaine, and PAGln with GDM were observed. The following meta-analysis consistently revealed that L-carnitine was negatively associated with GDM. However, MR analyses showed no evidence of causalities.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal levels of L-carnitine were related to the risk of GDM in both the original case-control study and meta-analysis. However, we did not observe any genetic evidence to establish a causal relationship between this metabolite and GDM.

Emerging Biomarkers and Determinants of Lipoprotein Profiles to Predict CVD Risk: Implications for Precision Nutrition

Biomarkers constitute a valuable tool to diagnose both the incidence and the prevalence of chronic diseases and may help to inform the design and effectiveness of precision nutrition interventions. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be the foremost cause of death all over the world. While the reasons that lead to increased risk for CVD are multifactorial, dyslipidemias, plasma concentrations of specific lipoproteins, and dynamic measures of lipoprotein function are strong biomarkers to predict and document coronary heart disease incidence. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the biomarkers and emerging approaches that can be utilized to characterize lipoprotein profiles as predictive tools for assessing CVD risk, including the assessment of traditional clinical lipid panels, measures of lipoprotein efflux capacity and inflammatory and antioxidant activity, and omics-based characterization of lipoprotein composition and regulators of lipoprotein metabolism. In addition, we discuss demographic, genetic, metagenomic, and lifestyle determinants of lipoprotein profiles-such as age, sex, gene variants and single-nucleotide polymorphisms, gut microbiome profiles, dietary patterns, physical inactivity, obesity status, smoking and alcohol intake, and stress-which are likely to be essential factors to explain interindividual responses to precision nutrition recommendations to mitigate CVD risk.

Integrated multi-omics analyses combined with western blotting discovered that cis-TSG alleviated liver injury via modulating lipid metabolism

Background: Polygonum multiflorum shows dual hepatoprotective and hepatotoxic effects. The bioactive components responsible for these effects are unknown. This study investigates whether cis-2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-glucoside (cis-TSG), a stilbene glycoside, has hepatoprotective and/or hepatotoxic effects in a liver injury model. Methods: C57BL/6J mice were administered α-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT) to induce cholestasis, followed by treatment with cis-TSG. Hepatoprotective and hepatotoxic effects were assessed using serum biomarkers, liver histology, and metabolomic and lipidomic profiling. Transcriptomic analysis were conducted to explore gene expression changes associated with lipid and bile acid metabolism, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Results and Discussion: ANIT administration caused significant liver injury, evident from elevated alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels and dysregulated lipid metabolism. cis-TSG treatment markedly reduced ALT and AST levels, normalized lipid profiles, and ameliorated liver damage, as seen histologically. Metabolomic and lipidomic analyses revealed that cis-TSG influenced key pathways, notably glycerophospholipid metabolism, sphingolipid metabolism, and bile acid biosynthesis. The treatment with cis-TSG increased monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs and PUFAs), enhancing peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) activity. Transcriptomic data confirmed these findings, showing the downregulation of genes linked to lipid metabolism, inflammation, and oxidative stress in the cis-TSG-treated group. The findings suggest that cis-TSG has a hepatoprotective effect through modulation of lipid metabolism and PPARα activation.

Gut microbiota: Implications in pathogenesis and therapy to cardiovascular disease (Review)

The gut microbiota refers to the diverse bacterial community residing in the gastrointestinal tract. Recent data indicate a strong correlation between alterations in the gut microbiota composition and the onset of various diseases, notably cardiovascular disorders. Evidence suggests the gut-cardiovascular axis signaling molecules released by the gut microbiota play a pivotal role in regulation. This review systematically delineates the association between dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and prevalent cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, myocardial infarction and heart failure. Furthermore, it provides an overview of the putative pathogenic mechanisms by which dysbiosis in the gut microbiota contributes to the progression of cardiovascular ailments. The potential modulation of gut microbiota as a preventive strategy against cardiovascular diseases through dietary interventions, antibiotic therapies and probiotic supplementation is also explored and discussed within the present study.

Metabolite, Biochemical, and Dietary Intake Alterations Associated with Lifestyle Interventions in Obese and Overweight Malaysian Women

Differences in metabolic regulation among obesity phenotypes, specifically metabolically healthy obese (MHO) and metabolically unhealthy obese (MUO) women, may lead to varied responses to interventions, which could be elucidated through metabolomics. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the differences in metabolite profiles between MHO and MUO women and the changes following a lifestyle intervention. Serum samples from 36 MHO and 34 MUO women who participated in a lifestyle intervention for weight loss were analysed using untargeted proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) at baseline and 6 months post-intervention. Anthropometric, clinical, and dietary intake parameters were assessed at both time points. Both groups showed differential metabolite profiles at baseline and after six months. Seven metabolites, including trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), arginine, ribose, aspartate, carnitine, choline, and tyrosine, significantly changed between groups post-intervention, which all showed a decreasing pattern in MHO. Significant reductions in body weight and body mass index (BMI) in the MUO correlated with changes in the carnitine and tyrosine levels. In conclusion, metabolite profiles differed significantly between MHO and MUO women before and after a lifestyle intervention. The changes in carnitine and tyrosine levels in MUO were correlated with weight loss, suggesting potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Microbial metabolite trimethylamine-N-oxide induces intestinal carcinogenesis through inhibiting farnesoid X receptor signaling

PURPOSE

Microbial dysbiosis is considered as a hallmark of colorectal cancer (CRC). Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) as a gut microbiota-dependent metabolite has recently been implicated in CRC development. Nevertheless, evidence relating TMAO to intestinal carcinogenesis remains largely unexplored. Herein, we aimed to examine the crucial role of TMAO in CRC progression.

METHODS

Apcmin/+ mice were treated with TMAO or sterile PBS for 14 weeks. Intestinal tissues were isolated to evaluate the effects of TMAO on the malignant transformation of intestinal adenoma. The gut microbiota of mouse feces was detected by 16S rRNA sequencing analysis. HCT-116 cells were used to provide further evidence of TMAO on the progression of CRC.

RESULTS

TMAO administration increased tumor cell and stem cell proliferation, and decreased apoptosis, accompanied by DNA damage and gut barrier impairment. Gut microbiota analysis revealed that TMAO induced changes in the intestinal microbial community structure, manifested as reduced beneficial bacteria. Mechanistically, TMAO bound to farnesoid X receptor (FXR), thereby inhibiting the FXR-fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15) axis and activating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, whereas the FXR agonist GW4064 could blunt TMAO-induced Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation.

CONCLUSION

The microbial metabolite TMAO can enhance intestinal carcinogenesis by inhibiting the FXR-FGF15 pathway.

Loss of flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 modulates dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl 126-induced oxidative stress and hepatotoxicity

Dioxin-like pollutants (DLPs), such as polychlorinated biphenyl 126 (PCB 126), are synthetic chemicals classified as persistent organic pollutants. They accumulate in adipose tissue and have been linked to cardiometabolic disorders, including fatty liver disease. The toxicity of these compounds is associated with activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), leading to the induction of phase I metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P4501a1 (Cyp1a1) and the subsequent production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Recent research has shown that DLPs can also induce the xenobiotic detoxification enzyme flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3), which plays a role in metabolic homeostasis. We hypothesized whether genetic deletion of Fmo3 could protect mice, particularly in the liver, where Fmo3 is most inducible, against PCB 126 toxicity. To test this hypothesis, male C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) mice and Fmo3 knockout (Fmo3 KO) mice were exposed to PCB 126 or vehicle (safflower oil) during a 12-week study, at weeks 2 and 4. Various analyses were performed, including hepatic histology, RNA-sequencing, and quantitation of PCB 126 and F2-isoprostane concentrations. The results showed that PCB 126 exposure caused macro and microvesicular fat deposition in WT mice, but this macrovesicular fatty change was absent in Fmo3 KO mice. Moreover, at the pathway level, the hepatic oxidative stress response was significantly different between the two genotypes, with the induction of specific genes observed only in WT mice. Notably, the most abundant F2-isoprostane, 8-iso-15-keto PGE2, increased in WT mice in response to PCB 126 exposure. The study's findings also demonstrated that hepatic tissue concentrations of PCB 126 were higher in WT mice compared to Fmo3 KO mice. In summary, the absence of FMO3 in mice led to a distinctive response to dioxin-like pollutant exposure in the liver, likely due to alterations in lipid metabolism and storage, underscoring the complex interplay of genetic factors in the response to environmental toxins.

The Interplay Between Dietary Choline and Cardiometabolic Disorders: A Review of Current Evidence

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Choline is an essential nutrient for human health and cellular homeostasis as it is necessary for the synthesis of lipid cell membranes, lipoproteins, and the synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The aim of this review is to analyze the beneficial effects of choline and its significance in cellular metabolism and various inflammatory pathways, such as the inflammasome. We will discuss the significance of dietary choline in cardiometabolic disorders, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and chronic kidney disease (CKD) as well as in cognitive function and associated neuropsychiatric disorders.

RECENT FINDINGS

Choline deficiency has been related to the development of NAFLD and cognitive disability in the offspring as well as in adulthood. In sharp contrast, excess dietary intake of choline mediated via the increased production of trimethylamine by the gut microbiota and increased trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) levels has been related to atherosclerosis in most studies. In this context, CVD and CKD through the accumulation of TMAO, p-Cresyl-sulfate (pCS), and indoxyl-sulfate (IS) in serum may be the result of the interplay between excess dietary choline, the increased production of TMAO by the gut microbiota, and the resulting activation of inflammatory responses and fibrosis. A balanced diet, with no excess nor any deficiency in dietary choline, is of outmost importance regarding the prevention of cardiometabolic disorders as well as cognitive function. Large-scale studies with the use of next-generation probiotics, especially Akkermansia muciniphila and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, should further examine their therapeutic potential in this context.

Discovery of a Novel Bioactive Compound in Orange Peel Polar Fraction on the Inhibition of Trimethylamine and Trimethylamine N-Oxide through Metabolomics Approaches and In Vitro and In Vivo Assays: Feruloylputrescine Inhibits Trimethylamine via Suppressing cntA/B Enzyme

This study compares the inhibitory effects of orange peel polar fraction (OPP) and orange peel nonpolar fraction (OPNP) on trimethylamine (TMA) and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) production in response to l-carnitine treatment in vivo and in vitro. Metabolomics is used to identify bioactive compounds. The research demonstrates that the OPP effectively regulates atherosclerosis-related markers, TMA and TMAO in plasma and urine, compared to the OPNP. Our investigation reveals that these inhibitory effects are independent of changes in gut microbiota composition. The effects are attributed to the modulation of cntA/B enzyme activity and FMO3 mRNA expression in vitro. Moreover, OPP exhibits stronger inhibitory effects on TMA production than OPNP, potentially due to its higher content of feruloylputrescine, which displays the highest inhibitory activity on the cntA/B enzyme and TMA production. These findings suggest that the OPP containing feruloylputrescine has the potential to alleviate cardiovascular diseases by modulating cntA/B and FMO3 enzymes without directly influencing gut microbiota composition.

Research progress in the relationship between gut microbiota metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide and ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a severe cerebrovascular disease that seriously endangers human health. Gut microbiota plays a key role as an intermediate mediator in bidirectional regulation between the brain and the intestine. In recent years, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) as a gut microbiota metabolite has received widespread attention in cardiovascular diseases. Elevated levels of TMAO may increase the risk of IS by affecting IS risk factors such as atherosclerosis, atrial fibrillation, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. TMAO exacerbates neurological damage in IS patients, increases the risk of IS recurrence, and is an independent predictor of post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) in patients. Current research suggests that the mechanisms of TMAO action include endothelial dysfunction, promoting of foam cell formation, influence on cholesterol metabolism, and enhancement of platelet reactivity. Lowering plasma TMAO levels through the rational use of traditional Chinese medicine, dietary management, vitamins, and probiotics can prevent and treat IS.

Trends in gut-heart axis and heart failure research (1993-2023): A bibliometric and visual analysis

Background

The incidence of heart failure, the terminal stage of several cardiovascular diseases, is increasing owing to population growth and aging. Bidirectional crosstalk between the gut and heart plays a significant role in heart failure. This study aimed to analyze the gut-heart axis and heart failure from a bibliometric perspective.

Methods

We extracted literature regarding the gut-heart axis and heart failure from the Web of Science Core Collection database (January 1, 1993, to June 30, 2023) and conducted bibliometric and visualization analyses using Microsoft Excel, CiteSpace, VOSviewer, and the R package "bibliometrix."

Results

The final analysis included 1646 articles with an average of 35.38 citations per article. Despite some fluctuations, the number of articles published per year has steadily increased over the past 31 years, particularly since 2018. A total of 9412 authors from 2287 institutions in 86 countries have contributed to this field. The USA and China have been the most productive countries, with the Cleveland Clinic in the USA and Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin in Germany being the most active institutions. The cooperation between countries/regions and institutions was relatively close. Professor Tang WHW was the most productive author in the field and the journal Shocks published the highest number of articles. "Heart failure," "gut microbiota," "trimethylamine N-oxide," and "inflammation" were the most common keywords, representing the current research hotspots. The keyword burst analysis indicated that "gut microbiota" and "short-chain fatty acids" are the current frontier research topics in this field.

Conclusion

Research on the gut-heart axis and heart failure is increasing. This bibliometric analysis indicated that the mechanisms associated with the gut-heart axis and heart failure, particularly the gut microbiota, trimethylamine N-oxide, inflammation, and short-chain fatty acids, will become hotspots and emerging trends in research in this field. These findings provide valuable insights into current research and future directions.

The impact of chronic Trimethylamine N-oxide administration on liver oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis

TMAO, a gut microbiota derived byproduct, has been associated with various cardiometabolic diseases by promoting oxidative stress and inflammation. The liver is the main organ for TMAO production and chronic exposure to high doses of TMAO could alter its function. In this study, we evaluated the effect of chronic exposure of high TMAO doses on liver oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis. TMAO was administered daily via gastric gavage to laboratory rats for 3 months. Blood was drawn for the quantification of TMAO, and liver tissues were harvested for the assessment of oxidative stress (MDA, GSH, GSSG, GPx, CAT, and 8-oxo-dG) and inflammation by quantification of IL-1α, TNF-α, IL-10, TGF-β, NOS and COX-2 expression. The evaluation of fibrosis was made by Western blot analysis of α-SMA and Collagen-3 protein expression. Histological investigation and immunohistochemical staining of iNOS were performed in order to assess the liver damage. After 3 months of TMAO exposure, TMAO serum levels enhanced in parallel with increases in MDA and GSSG levels in liver tissue and lower values of GSH and GSH/GSSG ratio as well as a decrease in GPx and CAT activities. Inflammation was also highlighted, with enhanced iNOS, COX-2, and IL-10 expression, without structural changes and without induction of liver fibrosis.

The Use of Microbial Modifying Therapies to Prevent Psoriasis Exacerbation and Associated Cardiovascular Comorbidity

Psoriasis has emerged as a systemic disease characterized by skin and joint manifestations as well as systemic inflammation and cardiovascular comorbidities. Many progresses have been made in the comprehension of the immunological mechanisms involved in the exacerbation of psoriatic plaques, and initial studies have investigated the mechanisms that lead to extracutaneous disease manifestations, including endothelial disfunction and cardiovascular disease. In the past decade, the involvement of gut dysbiosis in the development of pathologies with inflammatory and autoimmune basis has clearly emerged. More recently, a major role for the skin microbiota in establishing the immunological tolerance in early life and as a source of antigens leading to cross-reactive responses towards self-antigens in adult life has also been evidenced. Gut microbiota can indeed be involved in shaping the immune and inflammatory response at systemic level and in fueling inflammation in the cutaneous and vascular compartments. Here, we summarized the microbiota-mediated mechanisms that, in the skin and gut, may promote and modulate local or systemic inflammation involved in psoriatic disease and endothelial dysfunction. We also analyze the emerging strategies for correcting dysbiosis or modulating skin and gut microbiota composition to integrate systemically existing pharmacological therapies for psoriatic disease. The possibility of merging systemic treatment and tailored microbial modifying therapies could increase the efficacy of the current treatments and potentially lower the effect on patient's life quality.

The Kidney-Gut Axis as a Novel Target for Nutritional Intervention to Counteract Chronic Kidney Disease Progression

A well-balanced diet is integral for overall health, aiding in managing key risk factors for kidney damage like hypertension while supplying necessary precursors for metabolite production. Dietary choices directly influence the composition and metabolic patterns of the gut microbiota, showing promise as therapeutic tools for addressing various health conditions, including chronic kidney diseases (CKD). CKD pathogenesis involves a decline in the glomerular filtration rate and the retention of nitrogen waste, fostering gut dysbiosis and the excessive production of bacterial metabolites. These metabolites act as uremic toxins, contributing to inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue remodeling in the kidneys. Dietary interventions hold significance in reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, potentially slowing CKD progression. Functional ingredients, nutrients, and nephroprotective phytoconstituents could modulate inflammatory pathways or impact the gut mucosa. The "gut-kidney axis" underscores the impact of gut microbes and their metabolites on health and disease, with dysbiosis serving as a triggering event in several diseases, including CKD. This review provides a comprehensive overview, focusing on the gut-liver axis, and explores well-established bioactive substances as well as specific, less-known nutraceuticals showing promise in supporting kidney health and positively influencing CKD progression.

Mechanistic Review on the Role of Gut Microbiota in the Pathology of Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), which stand as the primary contributors to illness and death on a global scale, include vital risk factors like hyperlipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, and smoking, to name a few. However, conventional cardiovascular risk factors offer only partial insight into the complexity of CVDs. Lately, a growing body of research has illuminated that the gut microbiome and its by-products are also of paramount importance in the initiation and progression of CVDs. The gastrointestinal tract houses trillions of microorganisms, commonly known as gut microbiota, that metabolize nutrients, yielding substances like trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), bile acids (BAs), short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), indoxyl sulfate (IS), and so on. Strategies aimed at addressing these microbes and their correlated biological pathways have shown promise in the management and diagnosis of CVDs. This review offers a comprehensive examination of how the gut microbiota contributes to the pathogenesis of CVDs, particularly atherosclerosis, hypertension, heart failure (HF), and atrial fibrillation (AF), explores potential underlying mechanisms, and highlights emerging therapeutic prospects in this dynamic domain.

Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) are possibly involved in corticosteroid resistance in adult patients with immune thrombocytopenia

PURPOSE

Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is an autoimmune disease characterized by accelerated platelet clearance. Gut dysbiosis was associated with its pathogenesis, but the underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Patients with ITP exhibit varying degrees of responsiveness to corticosteroid treatment. Therefore, prognostic indexes for corticosteroid responsiveness in ITP could offer valuable guidance for clinical practices.

METHODS

The present study examined the signature of six types of gut-microbiota metabolites and forty-eight types of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors and their clinical significance in patients with ITP.

RESULTS

Both patients with good and poor corticosteroid responsiveness exhibited significantly elevated/suppressed secretion of twenty-two cyto(chemo)kins/growth factors in comparison to healthy controls. Additionally, patients with ITP demonstrated a significant decrease in plasma levels of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), which was found to be negatively correlated to circulating platelet counts, and positively correlated with Interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Notably, patients who exhibited poor response to corticosteroid treatment displayed elevated levels of TMAO and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in comparison to responders. Additionally, we found that the amalgamation of TMAO, bFGF and interleukin (IL)-13 could serve as a valuable prognostic tool for predicting CS responsiveness.

CONCLUSION

Patients with ITP were characterized overall by an imbalanced secretion of cyto(cheo)kins/growth factors and inadequate levels of TMAO. The varying degrees of responsiveness to corticosteroid treatment can be attributed to different profiles of basic FGF and TMAO that might be related to overburdened oxidative stress and inflammasome overactivation, and ultimately mediate corticosteroid resistance.

Stroke and Vascular Cognitive Impairment: The Role of Intestinal Microbiota Metabolite TMAO

The gut microbiome interacts with the brain bidirectionally through the microbiome-gutbrain axis, which plays a key role in regulating various nervous system pathophysiological processes. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is produced by choline metabolism through intestinal microorganisms, which can cross the blood-brain barrier to act on the central nervous system. Previous studies have shown that elevated plasma TMAO concentrations increase the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events, but there are few studies on TMAO in cerebrovascular disease and vascular cognitive impairment. This review summarized a decade of research on the impact of TMAO on stroke and related cognitive impairment, with particular attention to the effects on vascular cognitive disorders. We demonstrated that TMAO has a marked impact on the occurrence, development, and prognosis of stroke by regulating cholesterol metabolism, foam cell formation, platelet hyperresponsiveness and thrombosis, and promoting inflammation and oxidative stress. TMAO can also influence the cognitive impairment caused by Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease via inducing abnormal aggregation of key proteins, affecting inflammation and thrombosis. However, although clinical studies have confirmed the association between the microbiome-gut-brain axis and vascular cognitive impairment (cerebral small vessel disease and post-stroke cognitive impairment), the molecular mechanism of TMAO has not been clarified, and TMAO precursors seem to play the opposite role in the process of poststroke cognitive impairment. In addition, several studies have also reported the possible neuroprotective effects of TMAO. Existing therapies for these diseases targeted to regulate intestinal flora and its metabolites have shown good efficacy. TMAO is probably a new target for early prediction and treatment of stroke and vascular cognitive impairment.

Investigating the biochemical signatures and physiological roles of the FMO family using molecular phylogeny

Group B flavin-dependent monooxygenases are employed in swathes of different physiological functions. Despite their collectively large substrate profile, they all harness a flavin-based C4a-(hydro)peroxy intermediate for function. Within this class are the flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs), representing an integral component within the secondary metabolism of all living things - xenobiotic detoxification. Their broad substrate profile makes them ideal candidates for detoxifying procedures as they can tackle a range of compounds. Recent studies have illustrated that several FMOs, however, have unique substrate profiles and differing physiological functions that implicate new roles within secondary and primary metabolism. Herein this article, by employing phylogenetic approaches, and inspecting structures of AlphaFold generated models, we have constructed a biochemical blueprint of the FMO family. FMOs are clustered in four distinct groups, with two being predominantly dedicated to xenobiotic detoxification. Furthermore, we observe that differing enzymatic activities are not constricted to a 'golden' set of residues but instead an intricate constellation of primary and secondary sphere residues. We believe that this work delineates the core phylogeny of the Group B monooxygenases and will prove useful for classifying newly sequenced genes and provide directions to future biochemical investigations.

Identification of Polymethoxyflavones (PMFs) from Orange Peel and Their Inhibitory Effects on the Formation of Trimethylamine (TMA) and Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) Using cntA/B and cutC/D Enzymes and Molecular Docking

This study investigates the inhibitory effects of polymethoxyflavones (PMFs) on enzymes involved in the production of trimethylamine (TMA) and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO). PMFs were isolated from Valencia orange peel and identified using column separation and NMR techniques. The findings reveal that nobiletin and 3,6,7,8,2',5'-hexamethoxyflavone significantly suppress cntA/B and cutC/D, respectively. Furthermore, 3,6,7,8,2',5'-hexamethoxyflavone decreases the level of TMAO formation by suppressing the FMO3 mRNA level. This study elucidates that specific structural features of PMFs can contribute to their interactions with enzymes. Our study represents the first demonstration of the ability of PMFs to mitigate the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) by inhibiting enzymes responsible for TMA production, which are generated by gut microbiomes. Furthermore, we introduce a novel model system utilizing TMA-induced HepG2 cells to assess and compare the inhibitory effects of PMFs on TMAO production. These findings could pave the way for the development of novel therapeutic approaches to manage CVD.

Common mechanisms underlying diabetic vascular complications: focus on the interaction of metabolic disorders, immuno-inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction

Diabetic vascular complications (DVCs), including macro- and micro- angiopathy, account for a high percentage of mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). Endothelial dysfunction is the initial and role step for the pathogenesis of DVCs. Hyperglycemia and lipid metabolism disorders contribute to endothelial dysfunction via direct injury of metabolism products, crosstalk between immunity and inflammation, as well as related interaction network. Although physiological and phenotypic differences support their specified changes in different targeted organs, there are still several common mechanisms underlying DVCs. Also, inhibitors of these common mechanisms may decrease the incidence of DVCs effectively. Thus, this review may provide new insights into the possible measures for the secondary prevention of DM. And we discussed the current limitations of those present preventive measures in DVCs research. Video Abstract.

Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells Therapy for Metabolic Syndrome: Potential Clinical Application?

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), a class of cells with proliferative, immunomodulatory, and reparative functions, have shown therapeutic potential in a variety of systemic diseases, including metabolic syndrome (MetS). The cluster of morbidities that constitute MetS might be particularly amenable for the application of MSCs, which employ an arsenal of reparative actions to target multiple pathogenic pathways simultaneously. Preclinical studies have shown that MSCs can reverse pathological changes in MetS mainly by inhibiting inflammation, improving insulin resistance, regulating glycolipid metabolism, and protecting organ function. However, several challenges remain to overcome before MSCs can be applied for treating MetS. For example, the merits of autologous versus allogeneic MSCs sources remain unclear, particularly with autologous MSCs obtained from the noxious MetS milieu. The distinct characteristics and relative efficacy of MSCs harvested from different tissue sources also require clarification. Moreover, to improve the therapeutic efficacy of MSCs, investigators have explored several approaches that improved therapeutic efficacy but may involve potential safety concerns. This review summarized the potentially useful MSCs strategy for treating MetS, as well as some hurdles that remain to be overcome. In particular, larger-scale studies are needed to determine the therapeutic efficacy and safety of MSCs for clinical application.

Gut macrobiotic and its metabolic pathways modulate cardiovascular disease

Thousands of microorganisms reside in the human gut, and extensive research has demonstrated the crucial role of the gut microbiota in overall health and maintaining homeostasis. The disruption of microbial populations, known as dysbiosis, can impair the host's metabolism and contribute to the development of various diseases, including cardiovascular disease (CVD). Furthermore, a growing body of evidence indicates that metabolites produced by the gut microbiota play a significant role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. These bioactive metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), trimethylamine (TMA), trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), bile acids (BAs), and lipopolysaccharides (LPS), are implicated in conditions such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. These metabolites impact cardiovascular function through various pathways, such as altering the composition of the gut microbiota and activating specific signaling pathways. Targeting the gut microbiota and their metabolic pathways represents a promising approach for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Intervention strategies, such as probiotic drug delivery and fecal transplantation, can selectively modify the composition of the gut microbiota and enhance its beneficial metabolic functions, ultimately leading to improved cardiovascular outcomes. These interventions hold the potential to reshape the gut microbial community and restore its balance, thereby promoting cardiovascular health. Harnessing the potential of these microbial metabolites through targeted interventions offers a novel avenue for tackling cardiovascular health issues. This manuscript provides an in-depth review of the recent advances in gut microbiota research and its impact on cardiovascular health and offers a promising avenue for tackling cardiovascular health issues through gut microbiome-targeted therapies.

High-fat diet-induced gut microbiota alteration promotes lipogenesis by butyric acid/miR-204/ACSS2 axis in chickens

The gut microbiota is known to have significant involvement in the regulation of lipogenesis and adipogenesis, yet the mechanisms responsible for this relationship remain poorly understood. The current study aims to provide insight into the potential mechanisms by which the gut microbiota modulates lipogenesis in chickens. Using chickens fed with a normal-fat diet (NFD, n = 5) and high-fat diet (HFD, n = 5), we analyzed the correlation between gut microbiota, cecal metabolomics, and lipogenesis by 16s rRNA sequencing, miRNA and mRNA sequencing as well as targeted metabolomics analysis. The potential metabolite/miRNA/mRNA axis regulated by gut microbiota was identified using chickens treated with antibiotics (ABX, n = 5). The possible mechanism of gut microbiota regulating chicken lipogenesis was confirmed by fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) from chickens fed with NFD to chickens fed with HFD (n = 5). The results showed that HFD significantly altered gut microbiota composition and enhanced chicken lipogenesis, with a significant correlation between 3. Furthermore, HFD significantly altered the hepatic miRNA expression profiles and reduced the abundance of hepatic butyric acid. Procrustes analysis indicated that the HFD-induced dysbiosis of the gut microbiota might affect the expression profiles of hepatic miRNA. Specifically, HFD-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis may reduce the abundance of butyric acid and downregulate the expression of miR-204 in the liver. Multiomics analysis identified ACSS2 as a target gene of miR-204. Gut microbiota depletion by an antibiotic cocktail (ABX) showed a gut microbiota-dependent manner in the abundance of butyric acid and the expression of miR-204/ACSS2, which have been observed to be significantly correlated. Fecal microbiota transplantation from NFD chickens into HFD chickens effectively attenuated the HFD-induced excessive lipogenesis, elevated the abundance of butyric acid and the relative expression of miR-204, and reduced the expression of ACSS2 in the liver. Mechanistically, our results showed that the gut microbiota plays an antiobesity role by regulating the butyric acid/miR-204/ACSS2 axis in chickens. This work contributed to a better understanding of the functions of gut microbiota in regulating chicken lipogenesis.

Targeting gut microbiota and immune crosstalk: potential mechanisms of natural products in the treatment of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory reaction that primarily affects large and medium-sized arteries. It is a major cause of cardiovascular disease and peripheral arterial occlusive disease. The pathogenesis of AS involves specific structural and functional alterations in various populations of vascular cells at different stages of the disease. The immune response is involved throughout the entire developmental stage of AS, and targeting immune cells presents a promising avenue for its treatment. Over the past 2 decades, studies have shown that gut microbiota (GM) and its metabolites, such as trimethylamine-N-oxide, have a significant impact on the progression of AS. Interestingly, it has also been reported that there are complex mechanisms of action between GM and their metabolites, immune responses, and natural products that can have an impact on AS. GM and its metabolites regulate the functional expression of immune cells and have potential impacts on AS. Natural products have a wide range of health properties, and researchers are increasingly focusing on their role in AS. Now, there is compelling evidence that natural products provide an alternative approach to improving immune function in the AS microenvironment by modulating the GM. Natural product metabolites such as resveratrol, berberine, curcumin, and quercetin may improve the intestinal microenvironment by modulating the relative abundance of GM, which in turn influences the accumulation of GM metabolites. Natural products can delay the progression of AS by regulating the metabolism of GM, inhibiting the migration of monocytes and macrophages, promoting the polarization of the M2 phenotype of macrophages, down-regulating the level of inflammatory factors, regulating the balance of Treg/Th17, and inhibiting the formation of foam cells. Based on the above, we describe recent advances in the use of natural products that target GM and immune cells crosstalk to treat AS, which may bring some insights to guide the treatment of AS.

Gut microbiota dependant trimethylamine N-oxide and hypertension

The human gut microbiota environment is constantly changing and some specific changes influence the host's metabolic, immune, and neuroendocrine functions. Emerging evidence of the gut microbiota's role in the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD) including hypertension is remarkable. There is evidence showing that alterations in the gut microbiota and especially the gut-dependant metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide is associated with hypertension. However, there is a scarcity of literature addressing the role of trimethylamine N-oxide in hypertension pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the impact of the gut microbiota and gut microbiota dependant trimethylamine N-oxide in the pathogenesis of hypertension. We present evidence from both human and animal studies and further discuss new insights relating to potential therapies for managing hypertension by altering the gut microbiota.

The Association of Circulating L-Carnitine, γ-Butyrobetaine and Trimethylamine N-Oxide Levels with Gastric Cancer

Our study aimed to evaluate the association between gastric cancer (GC) and higher concentrations of the metabolites L-carnitine, γ-butyrobetaine (GBB) and gut microbiota-mediated trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) in the circulation. There is evidence suggesting that higher levels of TMAO and its precursors in blood can be indicative of either a higher risk of malignancy or indeed its presence; however, GC has not been studied in this regard until now. Our study included 83 controls without high-risk stomach lesions and 105 GC cases. Blood serum L-carnitine, GBB and TMAO levels were measured by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (UPLC/MS/MS). Although there were no significant differences between female control and GC groups, we found a significant difference in circulating levels of metabolites between the male control group and the male GC group, with median levels of L-carnitine reaching 30.22 (25.78–37.57) nmol/mL vs. 37.38 (32.73–42.61) nmol/mL (p < 0.001), GBB–0.79 (0.73–0.97) nmol/mL vs. 0.97 (0.78–1.16) nmol/mL (p < 0.05) and TMAO–2.49 (2.00–2.97) nmol/mL vs. 3.12 (2.08–5.83) nmol/mL (p < 0.05). Thus, our study demonstrated the association between higher blood levels of L-carnitine, GBB, TMAO and GC in males, but not in females. Furthermore, correlations of any two investigated metabolites were stronger in the GC groups of both genders in comparison to the control groups. Our findings reveal the potential role of L-carnitine, GBB and TMAO in GC and suggest metabolic differences between genders. In addition, the logistic regression analysis revealed that the only significant factor in terms of predicting whether the patient belonged to the control or to the GC group was the blood level of L-carnitine in males only. Hence, carnitine might be important as a biomarker or a risk factor for GC, especially in males.

Nutrition Genomics

This Special Issue is devoted to nutrition genomics, which is the characterization of the whole genome response to nutrients, in an effort to gather all the available pertinent information and to establish the foundation for a future encyclopedia of genomic responses driven by diets or nutrients [...]

The neuroprotective and antidiabetic effects of trigonelline: A review of signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms

The global epidemic of diabetes has brought heavy pressure on public health. New effective anti-diabetes strategies are urgently needed. Trigonelline is the main component of fenugreek, which has been proved to have a good therapeutic effect on diabetes and diabetic complications. Trigonelline achieves amelioration of diabetes, the mechanisms of which include the modulation of insulin secretion, a reduction in oxidative stress, and the improvement of glucose tolerance and insulin resistance. Besides, trigonelline has been reported to be a neuroprotective agent against many neurologic diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and depression. Concerning the potential therapeutic effects of trigonelline, comprehensive clinical trials are warranted to evaluate this valuable molecule.

Microbiome and Diet in Colon Cancer Development and Treatment

ABSTRACT

Diet plays critical roles in defining our immune responses, microbiome, and progression of human diseases. With recent progress in sequencing and bioinformatic techniques, increasing evidence indicates the importance of diet-microbial interactions in cancer development and therapeutic outcome. Here, we focus on the epidemiological studies on diet-bacterial interactions in the colon cancer. We also review the progress of mechanistic studies using the experimental models. Finally, we discuss the limits and future directions in the research of microbiome and diet in cancer development and therapeutic outcome. Now, it is clear that microbes can influence the efficacy of cancer therapies. These research results open new possibilities for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. However, there are still big gaps to apply these new findings to the clinical practice.

Gut Molecules in Cardiometabolic Diseases: The Mechanisms behind the Story

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Diabetes mellitus increases cardiovascular risk. Heart failure and atrial fibrillation are associated comorbidities that share the main cardiovascular risk factors. The use of incretin-based therapies promoted the idea that activation of alternative signaling pathways is effective in reducing the risk of atherosclerosis and heart failure. Gut-derived molecules, gut hormones, and gut microbiota metabolites showed both positive and detrimental effects in cardiometabolic disorders. Although inflammation plays a key role in cardiometabolic disorders, additional intracellular signaling pathways are involved and could explain the observed effects. Revealing the involved molecular mechanisms could provide novel therapeutic strategies and a better understanding of the relationship between the gut, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases.

In Vitro Fermentation of Pleurotus eryngii Mushrooms by Human Fecal Microbiota: Metataxonomic Analysis and Metabolomic Profiling of Fermentation Products

Edible mushrooms contain biologically active compounds with antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory and anticancer properties. The link between their anticancer and immunomodulatory properties with their possible prebiotic activity on gut micro-organisms has been the subject of intense research over the last decade. Lyophilized Pleurotus eryngii (PE) mushrooms, selected due to their strong lactogenic effect and anti-genotoxic, immunomodulatory properties, underwent in vitro static batch fermentation for 24 h by fecal microbiota from eight elderly apparently healthy volunteers (>65 years old). The fermentation-induced changes in fecal microbiota communities were examined using Next Generation Sequencing of the hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene. Primary processing and analysis were conducted using the Ion Reporter Suite. Changes in the global metabolic profile were assessed by 1H NMR spectroscopy, and metabolites were assigned by 2D NMR spectroscopy and the MetaboMiner platform. PLS-DA analysis of both metataxonomic and metabolomic data showed a significant cluster separation of PE fermented samples relative to controls. DEseq2 analysis showed that the abundance of families such as Lactobacillaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae were increased in PE samples. Accordingly, in metabolomics, more than twenty metabolites including SCFAs, essential amino acids, and neurotransmitters discriminate PE samples from the respective controls, further validating the metataxonomic findings.

The gut microbial metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide and cardiovascular diseases

Morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are exceedingly high worldwide. Researchers have found that the occurrence and development of CVDs are closely related to intestinal microecology. Imbalances in intestinal microecology caused by changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota will eventually alter intestinal metabolites, thus transforming the host physiological state from healthy mode to pathological mode. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is produced from the metabolism of dietary choline and L-carnitine by intestinal microbiota, and many studies have shown that this important product inhibits cholesterol metabolism, induces platelet aggregation and thrombosis, and promotes atherosclerosis. TMAO is directly or indirectly involved in the pathogenesis of CVDs and is an important risk factor affecting the occurrence and even prognosis of CVDs. This review presents the biological and chemical characteristics of TMAO, and the process of TMAO produced by gut microbiota. In particular, the review focuses on summarizing how the increase of gut microbial metabolite TMAO affects CVDs including atherosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension, arrhythmia, coronary artery disease, and other CVD-related diseases. Understanding the mechanism of how increases in TMAO promotes CVDs will potentially facilitate the identification and development of targeted therapy for CVDs.

Intestinal flora: A new target for traditional Chinese medicine to improve lipid metabolism disorders

Lipid metabolism disorders (LMD) can cause a series of metabolic diseases, including hyperlipidemia, obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and atherosclerosis (AS). Its development is caused by more pathogenic factors, among which intestinal flora dysbiosis is considered to be an important pathogenic mechanism of LMD. In recent years, the research on intestinal flora has made great progress, opening up new perspectives on the occurrence and therapeutic effects of diseases. With its complex composition and wide range of targets, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is widely used to prevent and treat LMD. This review takes intestinal flora as a target, elaborates on the scientific connotation of TCM in the treatment of LMD, updates the therapeutic thinking of LMD, and provides a reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

A water-soluble tomato extract rich in secondary plant metabolites lowers trimethylamine-n-oxide and modulates gut microbiota: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in overweight and obese adults

BACKGROUND

Natural products rich in polyphenols have been shown to lower plasma trimethylamine-n-oxide (TMAO) known for its proatherogenic effects by modulating the intestinal microbiota.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the impact of Fruitflow, a water-soluble tomato extract, on TMAO, fecal microbiota, and plasma and fecal metabolites.

METHODS

Overweight and obese adults (n = 22, BMI 28-35 kg/m²) were included in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study receiving 2×150 mg Fruitflow per day or placebo (maltodextrin) for 4 wk with a 6-week wash-out between interventions. Stool, blood, and urine samples were collected to assess changes in plasma TMAO (primary outcome) as well as fecal microbiota, fecal and plasma metabolites, and urine TMAO (secondary outcomes). In a subgroup (n = 9), postprandial TMAO was evaluated following a choline-rich breakfast (∼450 mg). Statistical methods included paired t-tests or Wilcoxon signed rank tests and permutational multivariate analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Fruitflow, but not placebo, reduced fasting levels of plasma (-1.5 μM, P ≤ 0.05) and urine (-19.1 μM, P ≤ 0.01) TMAO as well as plasma lipopolysaccharides (-5.3 ng/mL, P ≤ 0.05) from baseline to the end of intervention. However, these changes were significant only for urine TMAO levels when comparing between the groups (P ≤ 0.05). Changes in microbial beta, but not alpha, diversity paralleled this with a significant difference in Jaccard distance-based Principal Component (P ≤ 0.05) as well as decreases in Bacteroides, Ruminococccus, and Hungatella and increases in Alistipes when comparing between and within groups (P ≤ 0.05, respectively). There were no between-group differences in SCFAs and bile acids (BAs) in both faces and plasma but several changes within groups such as an increase in fecal cholic acid or plasma pyruvate with Fruitflow (P ≤ 0.05, respectively). An untargeted metabolomic analysis revealed TMAO as the most discriminant plasma metabolite between groups (P ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support earlier findings that polyphenol-rich extracts can lower plasma TMAO in overweight and obese adults related to gut microbiota modulation. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04160481 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04160481?term= Fruitflow&draw= 2&rank= 2).

Associations of plasma TMAO and its precursors with stroke risk in the general population: A nested case-control study

BACKGROUND

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a gut-derived atherogenic metabolite. However, the role of TMAO and its precursors in the development of stroke remains unclear. We aimed to examine the associations between metabolites in TMAO biosynthesis and stroke risk.

METHODS

A nested case-control study was performed in a community-based cohort (2013-2018, n = 16,113). We included 412 identified stroke cases and 412 controls matched by age and sex. Plasma carnitine, choline, betaine, trimethyl lysine (TML), and TMAO were measured by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Conditional logistic regression analyses were used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) between these biomarkers and stroke risk.

RESULTS

After adjustment for body mass index, smoking, hypertension, educational attainment, and estimated glomerular filtration rate, the corresponding OR for the highest versus lowest quartile was 1.74 (95% CI: 1.16-2.61, P trend = 0.006) for total stroke and 1.81 (95% CI: 1.14-2.86, P trend = 0.020) for ischemic stroke in an essentially linear dose-response fashion. A significant association between TMAO and nonischemic stroke was shown as a J-shape with OR for the highest versus second quartile of 5.75 (95% CI: 1.73-19.1). No meaningful significant risk association was found among plasma carnitine, choline, betaine, and TML with stroke risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased TMAO was associated with higher stroke risk in the community-based population, whereas the TMAO precursors carnitine, choline, betaine, and TML were not associated. Further studies are warranted to confirm these findings and to further elucidate the role of TMAO in the development of stroke.

Plasma Cholesterol- and Body Fat-Lowering Effects of Chicken Protein Hydrolysate and Oil in High-Fat Fed Male Wistar Rats

Rest raw materials provide a new source of bioactive dietary ingredients, and this study aimed to determine the health effects of diets with chicken protein hydrolysate (CPH) and chicken oil (CO) generated from deboned chicken meat. Male Wistar rats (n = 56) were divided into seven groups in three predefined sub-experiments to study the effects of protein source (casein, chicken fillet, pork fillet, and CPH), the dose-effect of CPH (50% and 100% CPH), and the effects of combining CPH and CO. Rats were fed high-fat diets for 12 weeks, and casein and chicken fillet were used as controls in all sub-experiments. While casein, chicken-, or pork fillet diets resulted in similar weight gain and plasma lipid levels, the CPH diet reduced plasma total cholesterol. This effect was dose dependent and accompanied with the reduced hepatic activities of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase. Further, rats fed combined CPH and CO showed lower weight gain, and higher hepatic mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, plasma L-carnitine, short-chain acylcarnitines, TMAO, and acetylcarnitine/palmitoylcarnitine. Thus, in male Wistar rats, CPH and CO lowered plasma cholesterol and increased hepatic fatty acid oxidation compared to whole protein diets, pointing to potential health-beneficial bioactive properties of these processed chicken rest raw materials.

Divergent Effects of Glycemic Control and Bariatric Surgery on Circulating Concentrations of TMAO in Newly Diagnosed T2D Patients and Morbidly Obese

High circulating concentrations of the gut microbiota-derived metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) are significantly associated with the risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). We aimed at evaluating the impact of glycemic control and bariatric surgery on circulating concentrations of TMAO and its microbiota-dependent intermediate, γ-butyrobetaine (γBB), in newly diagnosed T2D patients and morbidly obese subjects following a within-subject design. Based on HbA1c concentrations, T2D patients achieved glycemic control. However, the plasma TMAO and γBB concentrations were significantly increased, without changes in estimated glomerular filtration rate. Bariatric surgery was very effective in reducing weight in obese subjects. Nevertheless, the surgery reduced plasma γBB concentrations without affecting TMAO concentrations and the estimated glomerular filtration rate. Considering these results, an additional experiment was carried out in male C57BL/6J mice fed a Western-type diet for twelve weeks. Neither diet-induced obesity nor insulin resistance were associated with circulating TMAO and γBB concentrations in these genetically defined mice strains. Our findings do not support that glycemic control or bariatric surgery improve the circulating concentrations of TMAO in newly diagnosed T2D and morbidly obese patients.

Association between the Changes in Trimethylamine N-Oxide-Related Metabolites and Prognosis of Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Prospective Study

This study aimed to investigate the association between changes in levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) and its precursors and the prognosis of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Patients diagnosed with AMI were prospectively enrolled at Fuwai Hospital between March 2017 and January 2020. TMAO, betaine, choline, and L-carnitine were measured in 1203 patients at their initial admission and 509 patients at their follow-up of one month. Major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), a composite of all-cause death, recurrence of MI, rehospitalization caused by HF, ischemic stroke, and any revascularization, were followed up. A decision tree by TMAO levels implicated that compared to those with low levels at admission, patients with high TMAO levels at both time points showed an increased risk of MACE (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 1.59, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03–2.46; p = 0.034), while patients with high TMAO levels at admission and low levels at follow-up exhibited a similar MACE risk (adjusted HR 1.20, 95% CI: 0.69–2.06; p = 0.520). Patients with high choline levels at admission and follow-up showed an elevated MACE risk compared to those with low levels at both time points (HR 1.55, 95% CI: 1.03–2.34; p = 0.034). Repeated assessment of TMAO and choline levels helps to identify the dynamic risk of cardiovascular events.

Host-microbiome interactions: Gut-Liver axis and its connection with other organs

An understanding of connections between gut microbiome and liver has provided important insights into the pathophysiology of liver diseases. Since gut microbial dysbiosis increases gut permeability, the metabolites biosynthesized by them can reach the liver through portal circulation and affect hepatic immunity and inflammation. The immune cells activated by these metabolites can also reach liver through lymphatic circulation. Liver influences immunity and metabolism in multiple organs in the body, including gut. It releases bile acids and other metabolites into biliary tract from where they enter the systemic circulation. In this review, the bidirectional communication between the gut and the liver and the molecular cross talk between the host and the microbiome has been discussed. This review also provides details into the intricate level of communication and the role of microbiome in Gut-Liver-Brain, Gut-Liver-Kidney, Gut-Liver-Lung, and Gut-Liver-Heart axes. These observations indicate a complex network of interactions between host organs influenced by gut microbiome.

Resistant Starch Type-2 Supplementation Does Not Decrease Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) Plasma Level in Hemodialysis Patients

Dysbiosis is recognized as a new cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor in hemodialysis (HD) patients because it is linked to increased generation in the gut of uremic toxins such as trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) from dietary precursors (choline, betaine, or L-carnitine). Nutritional strategies have been proposed to modulate the gut microbiota and reduce the production of these toxins. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of amylose-resistant starch (RS) supplementation on TMAO plasma levels in HD patients. We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (NCT02706808) with patients undergoing HD enrolled in a previous pilot study. The participants were allocated to RS or placebo groups to receive 16 g/d of RS or placebo for 4 weeks. Plasma TMAO, choline, and betaine levels were measured with LC-MS/MS. Fecal microbiome composition was evaluated by 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing, followed by a search for TMA-associated taxa. Anthropometric, routine biochemical parameters, and food intake were evaluated. Twenty-five participants finished the study, 13 in the RS group, and 12 in the placebo group. RS supplementation did not reduce TMAO plasma levels. Moreover, no significant alterations were observed in choline, betaine, anthropometric, biochemical parameters, or food intake in both groups. Likewise, RS was not found to exert any influence on the proportion of potential TMA-producing bacterial taxa in fecal matter. RS supplementation did not influence plasma TMAO, choline, betaine, or fecal taxa potentially linked to TMAO. Thus, RS does not seem to modify the TMA-associated bacterial taxa, precursors of TMAO. Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2021.1967814 .

Morphological and molecular evolution of hadal amphipod’s eggs provides insights into embryogenesis under high hydrostatic pressure

Hadal zones are unique habitats characterized by high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and scarce food supplies. The ability of eggs of species dwelling in hadal zones to develop into normal embryo under high hydrostatic pressure is an important evolutionary and developmental trait. However, the mechanisms underlying the development of eggs of hadal-dwelling species remain unknown due to the difficulty of sampling ovigerous females. Here, morphological and transcriptome analyses of eggs of the “supergiant” amphipod Alicella gigantea collected from the New Britain Trench were conducted. The morphology of A. gigantea eggs, including size, was assessed and the ultrastructure of the eggshell was investigated by scanning electron microscopy. Transcriptome sequencing and molecular adaptive evolution analysis of A. gigantea eggs showed that, as compared with shallow-water Gammarus species, genes exhibiting accelerated evolution and the positively selected genes were mostly related to pathways associated with “mitosis” and “chitin-based embryonic cuticle biosynthetic process”, suggesting that “normal mitosis maintenance” and “cuticle development and protection” are the two main adaptation strategies for survival of eggs in hadal environments. In addition, the concentration of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), an important osmotic regulator, was significantly higher in the eggs of hadal amphipods as compared to those of shallow-water species, which might promote the eggs’ adaptation abilities. Morphological identification, evolutionary analysis, and the trimethylamine oxide concentration of A. gigantea eggs will facilitate a comprehensive overview of the piezophilic adaptation of embryos in hadal environments and provide a strategy to analyze embryogenesis under high hydrostatic pressure.

Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium as anti-atherosclerotic agents

Atherosclerosis is the thickening or hardening of the arteries which is caused by a buildup of atheromatous plaque in the inner lining of an artery. Hypercholesterolemia, inflammation, oxidative stress, and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) are important risk factors for atherosclerosis. Therefore, this study aimed to review the anti-atherosclerotic effects of Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium via improving lipid profile and reducing the effects of oxidative stress, inflammation, and TMAO. To prepare the present review, several databases such as Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar were searched, and relevant articles from 1990 until 2022 were selected and reviewed. The present review showed that Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium reduce the risk of atherosclerosis in both in vitro and in vivo studies by breaking down or altering cholesterol metabolism with the help of their by-products and by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress and TMAO. Consumption of Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium can be useful in prevention of atherosclerosis.

Serum Trimethylamine N-Oxide Levels Correlate with Metabolic Syndrome in Coronary Artery Disease Patients

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a gut microbial metabolite that affects atherogenesis and glucose dysregulation. The purpose of this study was to look at the link between blood TMAO levels and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in individuals with coronary artery disease (CAD). Blood samples were obtained in fasting status, and serum TMAO level was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. MetS and its components were defined according to the International Diabetes Federation diagnostic criteria. Of 92 enrolled patients, 51 (55.4%) had MetS. Patients with MetS had a greater proportion of hypertension and diabetes mellitus, higher body weight, waist circumference, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, triglycerides, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, C-reactive protein (CRP), insulin level, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, and TMAO level. Multivariable logistic regression models revealed that TMAO level (odds ratio: 1.036, 95% confidence interval: 1.005–1.067, p = 0.023) could be an effective predictor of MetS among the CAD population. In these patients, the log-TMAO level was positively associated with log-CRP (β = 0.274, p = 0.001) and negatively associated with eGFR (β = −0.235, p = 0.022). In conclusion, our study revealed a positive association between serum TMAO level and MetS among patients with CAD.

Vascular Calcification and the Gut and Blood Microbiome in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients on Peritoneal Dialysis: A Pilot Study

Vascular calcification (VC) is a frequent condition in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and a well-established risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Gut dysbiosis may contribute to CVD and inflammation in CKD patients. Nonetheless, the role of gut and blood microbiomes in CKD-associated VC remains unknown. Therefore, this pilot study aimed to explore the link between gut and blood microbiomes and VC in CKD patients on peritoneal dialysis (CKD-PD). Our results showed relative changes in specific taxa between CKD-PD patients with and without VC, namely Coprobacter, Coprococcus 3, Lactobacillus, and Eubacterium eligens group in the gut, and Cutibacterium, Pajaroellobacter, Devosia, Hyphomicrobium, and Pelomonas in the blood. An association between VC and all-cause mortality risk in CKD-PD patients was also observed, and patients with higher mortality risk corroborate the changes of Eubacterium eligens in the gut and Devosia genus in the blood. Although we did not find differences in uremic toxins, intestinal translocation markers, and inflammatory parameters among CKD-PD patients with and without VC, soluble CD14 (sCD14), a nonspecific marker of monocyte activation, positively correlated with VC severity. Therefore, gut Eubacterium eligens group, blood Devosia, and circulating sCD14 should be further explored as biomarkers for VC, CVD, and mortality risk in CKD.

Direct and Indirect Methods for Studying Human Gut Microbiota

Aim: To review the main methods of intestinal microbiota studying.

Key points. Currently, molecular genetic methods are used mainly for basic research and do not have a unified protocol for data analysis, which makes it difficult to implement them in clinical practice. Measurement of short chain fatty acids (SCFA) concentrations in plasma provides the data, which can serve as an indirect biomarker of the colonic microbiota composition. However, currently available evidence is insufficient to relate the obtained values (SCFA levels and ratio) to a particular disease with a high degree of certainty. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) levels in the blood plasma and urine can also reflect the presence of specific bacterial clusters containing genes Cut, CntA/CntB and YeaW/YeaX. Therefore, further studies are required to reveal possible correlations between certain disorders and such parameters as the composition of gut microbiota, dietary patterns and TMAO concentration. Gas biomarkers, i.e. hydrogen, methane and hydrogen sulphide, have been studied in more detail and are better understood as compared to other biomarkers of the gut microbiome composition and functionality. The main advantage of gas biomarkers is that they can be measured multiple times using non-invasive techniques. These measurements provide information on the relative proportion of hydrogenic (i.e. hydrogen producing) and hydrogenotrophic (i.e. methanogenic and sulfate-reducing) microorganisms. In its turn, this opens up the possibility of developing new approaches to correction of individual microbiota components.

Conclusions. Integration of the data obtained by gut microbiota studies at the genome, transcriptome and metabolome levels would allow a comprehensive analysis of microbial community function and its interaction with the human organism. This approach may increase our understanding of the pathogenesis of various diseases as well open up new opportunities for prevention and treatment.