Female and male antisocial trajectories: from childhood origins to adult outcomes

Sex Similarities/Differences in Trajectories of Delinquency among urban Chicago Youth: The Role of Delinquent Peers

A growing body of literature has recently emerged examining sex-specific pathways of offending. Yet, despite significant gains, this area of research is still rather underexplored. With a particular focus on the role of delinquent peers, this current study investigates the sex similarities/differences in offending trajectories among a large sample of urban Chicago male and female youth (n=3,038) from 6th through 8th grade (e.g., ages 12-14). The results suggest that the pathways of offending appear to be more similar than different across sex, and that associating with delinquent peers is significantly related to baseline delinquency. Furthermore, delinquent peers significantly distinguished the moderate and high-rate trajectory groups from the non-delinquents for both males and females, yet once estimated in a more fully specified model, the role of delinquent peers appeared to be indirect (operating through its effect on baseline delinquency). Study limitations and implications for theory and policy are also discussed.

A review of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder complicated by symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder

BACKGROUND

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent disorder with significant functional impairment. ADHD is frequently complicated by oppositional symptoms, which are difficult to separate from comorbidity with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and aggressive symptoms. This review addresses the impact of oppositional symptoms on ADHD, disease course, functional impairment, clinical management, and treatment response.

REVIEW OF CLINICAL EVIDENCE

Oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder may be comorbid in more than half of ADHD cases and are more common with the combined than with the inattentive ADHD subtype. Comorbid symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder in patients with ADHD can have a significant impact on the course and prognosis for these patients and may lead to differential treatment response to both behavioral and pharmacologic treatments.

IMPACT ON CLINICAL MANAGEMENT

Assessment of oppositional symptoms is an essential part of ADHD screening and diagnosis and should include parental, as well as educator, input. Although clinical evidence remains limited, some stimulant and nonstimulant medications have shown effectiveness in treating both core ADHD symptoms and oppositional symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Oppositional symptoms are a key consideration in ADHD management, although the optimum approach to treating ADHD complicated by such symptoms remains unclear. Future research should focus on the efficacy and safety of various behavioral and medication regimens, as well as longitudinal studies to further clarify the relationships between ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder.

Five- to six-year outcome and its prediction for children with ODD/CD treated with parent training

BACKGROUND

While short-term effects of parent training (PT) have been extensively evaluated, long-term outcome and present predictors of a diagnosis for children with ODD/CD treated with parent training are very limited.

METHOD

In the present study, diagnostic status as outcome and predictors of treatment response were examined in a 5-6-year follow-up. Out of 99 children who had been treated in a randomised controlled trial evaluating the effects of The Incredible Years parent training (PT) or combined parent training and child treatment (PT+CT) programme, 54.5% participated in the 5-6-year follow-up study. Their diagnostic status was determined with the Kiddie-SADS interview.

RESULTS

While all children qualified for a diagnosis of ODD/CD before treatment, 5-6 years later, two-thirds no longer received such a diagnosis, the same proportion as found at the 1-year follow-up. The most powerful pre-treatment predictors of diagnostic status at the 5-6-year follow-up were living with mother only and being a girl. At post-treatment the most powerful predictor was found to be high levels of child externalising problems.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the study support the maintenance of positive long-term results for young children treated with parent training because of serious conduct problems, and identify characteristics of children and families in need of added support to parent training programmes.

Is adolescence-onset antisocial behavior developmentally normative?

Largely because of the influence of Moffitt's useful distinction between adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior, it has become increasingly common to view problem behavior that makes its first appearance in adolescence as developmentally normative. This study prospectively examined the lives of individuals in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development whose patterns of antisocial behavior varied with respect to age of onset and stability from kindergarten through age 15. Consistent with past research, early-onset, persistently deviant youth experienced more contextual adversity and evinced higher levels of intraindividual disadvantages than their peers from infancy through midadolescence. However, relative to youth who never showed significantly elevated antisocial behavior through age 15, children who showed antisocial behavior primarily in adolescence also were more disadvantaged from infancy forward, as were youth who only demonstrated significant externalizing problems in childhood. Findings generally replicated across sex and did not vary as a function of whether antisocial behavior groups were defined using T-scores normed within sex or identified using an empirically driven grouping method applied to raw data.

Trajectories of positive and negative behaviors from early- to middle-adolescence

Although the positive youth development (PYD) model initially assumed inverse links between indicators of PYD and of risk/problem behaviors, empirical work in adolescence has suggested that more complex associations exist between trajectories of the two domains of functioning. To clarify the PYD model, this study assessed intraindividual change in positive and problematic indicators across Grades 5-10, and the links between these trajectories of development, among 2,516 participants from the 4-H Study of PYD (58.1% females; 64.9% European American, 7.0% African American, 12.3% Latino/a American, 2.6% Asian American or Pacific Islander, 1.8% Native American, 3.0% multiethnic-racial, and 8.4% with inconsistent race/ethnicity across waves). Results from person-centered analyses indicated that most youth clustered in the high trajectories of positive indicators and in the low trajectories of the negative ones. Consistent with past research, overlap between trajectories of positive and negative behaviors was found. These results suggest that theory and application need to accommodate to variation in the links between positive and problematic developmental trajectories.

Developmental origins of disruptive behaviour problems: the 'original sin' hypothesis, epigenetics and their consequences for prevention

This paper reviews publications on developmental trajectories of disruptive behaviour (DB) problems (aggression, opposition-defiance, rule breaking, and stealing-vandalism) over the past decade. Prior to these studies two theoretical models had strongly influenced research on DB: social learning and disease onset. According to these developmental perspectives, children learn DB from their environment and onset of the disease is triggered by accumulated exposition to disruptive models in the environment, including the media. Most of the evidence came from studies of school age children and adolescents. Longitudinal studies tracing developmental trajectories of DB from early childhood onwards suggest an inversed developmental process. DB are universal during early childhood. With age, children learn socially acceptable behaviours from interactions with their environment. A 'disease' status is given to children who fail to learn the socially acceptable behaviours. The mechanisms that lead to deficits in using socially accepted behaviours are strongly intergenerational, based on complex genetic and environmental contributions, including epigenetic mechanisms. Prevention of these deficits requires early, intensive and long-term support to parents and child. Newly discovered epigenetic mechanisms suggest that intensive perinatal interventions will have impacts on numerous aspects of physical and mental health, including DB. This review also concludes that: a) subtypes of disruptive behaviours should not be aggregated because they have different developmental trajectories and require specific corrective interventions; b) the overt-covert and destructive-nondestructive dimensions appear the most useful to create DB subtypes; c) overt DB onset before covert DB because the latter require more brain maturation; d) DB subtype taxonomies are more useful for clinicians than developmental taxonomies because the latter are post mortem diagnoses and clinicians' retrospective information is unreliable; e) we need large-scale collaborative preventive experimental interventions starting during early pregnancy to advance knowledge on causes and prevention of DB problems.

Early predictors of antisocial developmental pathways among boys and girls

OBJECTIVE

We investigated in a high-risk sample the differential impact of biological and psychosocial risk factors on antisocial behaviour pathways.

METHOD

One hundred and thirty-eight boys and 155 girls born at differing degrees of obstetric and psychosocial risk were examined from birth until adolescence. Childhood temperament was assessed by a highly-structured parent-interview and standardized behavioural observations, adolescent temperament was measured by self-report. Neurodevelopmental variables were assessed by age-specific developmental tests. Emotional and behaviour problems were measured at the ages of 8 and 15 by the Achenbach scales.

RESULTS

In both genders, psychosocial adversity and early self-control temperament were strongly associated with early-onset persistent (EOP) antisocial behaviour. Psychosocial adversity and more severe externalizing problems differentiated the EOP from childhood-limited (CL) pathway. In girls, adolescent-onset (AO) antisocial behaviour was strongly associated with novelty seeking at 15 years.

CONCLUSION

Our findings emphasize the need for early support and intervention in psychosocially disadvantaged families.

Understanding Random Effects in Group-Based Trajectory Modeling: An Application of Moffitt's Developmental Taxonomy

The group-based trajectory modeling approach is a systematic way of categorizing subjects into different groups based on their developmental trajectories using formal and objective statistical criteria. With the recent advancement in methods and statistical software, modeling possibilities are almost limitless; however, parallel advances in theory development have not kept pace. This paper examines some of the modeling options that are becoming more widespread and how they impact both empirical and theoretical findings. The key issue that is explored is the impact of adding random effects to the latent growth factors and how this alters the meaning of a group. The paper argues that technical specification should be guided by theory, and Moffitt's developmental taxonomy is used as an illustration of how modeling decisions can be matched to theory.

"Screen and intervene": governing risky brains

This article argues that a new diagram is emerging in the criminal justice system as it encounters developments in the neurosciences. This does not take the form that concerns many "neuroethicists" -- it does not entail a challenge to doctrines of free will and the notion of the autonomous legal subject -- but is developing around the themes of susceptibility, risk, pre-emption and precaution. I term this diagram "screen and intervene" and in this article I attempt to trace out this new configuration and consider some of the consequences.

Predictors and sequelae of trajectories of physical aggression in school-age boys and girls

Teacher-rated trajectories of physical aggression in boys and girls from first through sixth grade were examined using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. In separate analyses, four trajectories were identified in boys and three in girls. Higher levels of aggression in both boys and girls were related to greater sociodemographic risk and higher maternal harshness in the preschool years; lower levels of observed maternal sensitivity during early childhood also predicted higher trajectories of aggression among girls. Trajectory groups also differed on a range of social and academic adjustment outcomes in sixth grade, with the most aggressive children and even moderately aggressive children evidencing some difficulties in adjustment. Patterns and levels of aggression in boys and girls are discussed as are their predictors and consequences.

Mutual partner violence: mental health symptoms among female and male victims in four racial/ethnic groups

This study examines racial/ethnic and sex differences in the prevalence of mutual intimate partner violence (IPV) and mental health symptoms. The authors asked 676 university students in heterosexual relationships if they had experienced IPV, coercive victimization, and/or perpetration as well as symptoms of depression, anxiety, hostility, and somatization. Analyses were conducted separately for female and male respondents in four racial/ethnic groups, totaling eight groups (female and male groups each for African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, and European Americans). Men, as compared to women, reported stronger correlations between IPV perpetration and IPV victimization, with Asian American men reporting the highest associations of any group. Additionally, experiencing higher partner and coercive violence was significantly related to increased mental health symptoms for all groups except Asian American men. Taken together, these findings suggest that the majority of couples experience mutual violence that elicits mental health problems for both members of the couple.

Getting the phenotypes right: an essential ingredient for understanding aetiological mechanisms underlying persistent violence and developing effective treatments

In order to reduce societal levels of violence, it is essential to advance understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms involved in initiating and maintaining individual patterns of physical aggression. New technologies such as Magnetic Resonance Imagining and analyses of DNA provide tools for identifying these mechanisms. The reliability and validity of the results of studies using these tools depend not only on aspects of the technology, but also on the methodological rigour with which the studies are conducted, particularly with respect to characterizing the phenotype. The present article discusses five challenges confronting scientists who aim to advance understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms associated with persistent violence. These challenges are: (1) to develop evidence-based hypotheses and to design studies that test alternate hypotheses; (2) to recruit samples that are homogeneous with respect to variables that may be linked to neurobiological mechanisms underpinning violent behaviour; (3) to use reliable and valid measures in order to fully characterize participants so that the external validity of the results is evident; (4) to restrict the range of age of participants so as not to confuse developmental change with group differences; and (5) to take account of sex. Our goal is to contribute to elevating methodological standards in this new field of research and to thereby improve the validity of results and move closer to finding effective ways to reduce violence.

The protective effects of neighborhood collective efficacy on British children growing up in deprivation: a developmental analysis

This article reports on the influence of neighborhood-level deprivation and collective efficacy on children's antisocial behavior between the ages of 5 and 10 years. Latent growth curve modeling was applied to characterize the developmental course of antisocial behavior among children in the E-Risk Longitudinal Twin Study, an epidemiological cohort of 2,232 children. Children in deprived versus affluent neighborhoods had higher levels of antisocial behavior at school entry (24.1 vs. 20.5, p < .001) and a slower rate of decline from involvement in antisocial behavior between the ages of 5 and 10 (-0.54 vs. -0.78, p < .01). Neighborhood collective efficacy was negatively associated with levels of antisocial behavior at school entry (r = -.10, p < .01) but only in deprived neighborhoods; this relationship held after controlling for neighborhood problems and family-level factors. Collective efficacy did not predict the rate of change in antisocial behavior between the ages of 5 and 10. Findings suggest that neighborhood collective efficacy may have a protective effect on children living in deprived contexts.

Three-year follow-up of syndromal antisocial behavior in adults: results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

OBJECTIVE

To present nationally representative findings on total antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) symptoms, major violations of others' rights (MVOR), and violent symptoms over a 3-year follow-up in Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions among adults diagnosed at Wave 1 with ASPD versus syndromal adult antisocial behavior without conduct disorder before age 15 years (AABS, not a codable DSM-IV disorder).

METHOD

Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 34,653 respondents aged 18 years and older. Antisocial syndromes and comorbid lifetime substance use, mood, and 6 additional personality disorders were diagnosed at Wave 1 using the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-DSM-IV Version (AUDADIS-IV). The Wave 2 AUDADIS-IV assessed antisocial symptoms over follow-up, lifetime attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and posttraumatic stress disorder, and borderline, narcissistic, and schizotypal personality disorders. Wave 1 was conducted in 2001-2002 and Wave 2 in 2004-2005 by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

RESULTS

In unadjusted analyses, respondents with ASPD reported significantly more total, MVOR, and violent symptoms over follow-up than did respondents with AABS. Adjustment for baseline sociodemographics and psychiatric comorbidity attenuated these associations; after further adjustment for parallel antisocial symptom counts from age 15 years to Wave 1, associations with antisocial syndromes disappeared. Independent Wave 1 predictors of persistent antisociality over follow-up included male sex, not being married or cohabiting, low income, high school or less education, lifetime drug use disorders, additional personality disorders, and ADHD.

CONCLUSIONS

The distinction between ASPD and AABS holds limited value in predicting short-term course of antisocial symptomatology among adults. However, the prediction of persistent antisociality by psychiatric comorbidity argues for comprehensive diagnostic assessments, treatment of all identified disorders, and investigation of whether treatment of comorbidity might hasten remission of antisociality.

Girls' Disruptive Behavior and its Relationship to Family Functioning: A Review

Although a number of reviews of gender differences in disruptive behavior and parental socialization exist, we extend this literature by addressing the question of differential development among girls and by placing both disruptive behavior and parenting behavior in a developmental framework. Clarifying the heterogeneity of development in girls is important for developing and optimizing gender-specific prevention and treatment programs. In the current review, we describe the unique aspects of the development of disruptive behavior in girls and explore how the gender-specific development of disruptive behavior can be explained by family linked risk and protective processes. Based on this review, we formulate a gender-specific reciprocal model of the influence of social factors on the development of disruptive behavior in girls in order to steer further research and better inform prevention and treatment programs.

Research review: a critical review of studies on the developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior in females

BACKGROUND

Knowledge on the onset and the development of antisocial behavior in females is limited, because most of the research in this domain is based on males.

METHODS

We critically reviewed 46 empirical studies that examined developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior in females, notably to help determine whether or not an early-onset/life-course-persistent trajectory exists in females.

RESULTS

The review suggested that antisocial behavior in females can follow different developmental trajectories (e.g., early-onset/life-course-persistent, childhood-limited, adolescence-limited, adolescence-delayed-onset, adulthood-onset). However, many of the studies reviewed were limited by factors such as the use of global measures of antisocial behavior, the identification of the trajectories based on threshold criteria, and the small sample sizes.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies should take into account the shortcomings highlighted in this review. Such studies are needed to improve the understanding and prevention of the development of antisocial behavior in females.

Intergenerational transmission of child problem behaviors: a longitudinal, population-based study

OBJECTIVE

From a developmental perspective, it is important to know to what extent childhood problem behaviors are transmitted across generations. In a longitudinal community study, we compared child behavior of parents with the behavior of their offspring. Intergenerational transmission was investigated for a broad range of problem behaviors, including internalizing problems and externalizing behavior. Sex differences were investigated as well.

METHOD

We compared Child Behavior Checklist scores of 4- to 16-year-old children (N = 271) from a community sample assessed in 1983 with Child Behavior Checklist scores of their 6- to 18-year-old offspring (N = 424) who were assessed in 2007. Multilevel modeling was used to test intergenerational associations.

RESULTS

Most forms of problem behavior in children were predicted by the behavior of their parents as children. Parents' Internalizing, Externalizing, and Total Problem scores in childhood all predicted similar problems in their children. Sex differences were found for Delinquent Behavior: continuity was stronger in mothers than it was in fathers, and it was also stronger in sons than in daughters.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding that child behavior continues across generations poses challenges in finding ways to prevent problems from being transmitted across generations.

Der Einfluss emotionaler Stimuli auf die Arbeitsgedächtnisleistung bei weiblichen delinquenten Jugendlichen*

Zusammenfassung: Fragestellung: Die vorliegende Studie widmet sich der Frage, inwiefern bei inhaftierten Mädchen Defizite im Bereich des räumlichen Arbeitsgedächtnisses vorzufinden sind. Darüber hinaus wurde der Einfluss visueller emotionaler Stimuli auf das Arbeitsgedächtnis dissozialer weiblicher Jugendlicher untersucht sowie die Beziehung zwischen der Fehleranzahl in den verschiedenen Arbeitsgedächtnisvarianten und den Ausprägungen der Psychopathy * Wegen der Abgrenzung von dem Psychopathie-Begriff Kurt Schneiders wird durchgängig der Begriff Psychopathy verwendet, der sich auf das Psychopathy-Konzept nach Robert Hare bezieht. . Methodik: Eine Gruppe inhaftierter weiblicher Jugendlicher (n = 33) wurde mit nichtdelinquenten Gesamtschülerinnen der Klassen 10 und 11 (n = 20) verglichen. Drei Varianten des Subject-Ordered Pointing Task (SOPT: neutral, Erotik, Schrecken) und die Psychopathy-Checkliste Youth Version (PCL:YV) wurden mit beiden Gruppen durchgeführt. Ergebnisse: Varianzanalysen erbrachten signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen bezüglich einer neutralen sowie einer Schreckvariante des SOPT, aber nicht bezüglich einer Variante mit erotischen Stimuli. Der Zusammenhang zwischen Psychopathy und der neutralen Variante, nicht hingegen für die Schreckvariante des SOPT, bestätigte sich. Schlussfolgerungen: Die Studie zeigte ähnliche Defizite in der neutralen Arbeitsgedächtnisbedingung bei inhaftierten weiblichen Jugendlichen, wie es aus der Literatur für männliche Dissoziale bekannt ist. Der fehlende Gruppenunterschied in der erotischen Bedingung des SOPT könnte einerseits mit einer verbesserten Leistung der oft sexuell traumatisierten delinquenten weiblichen Jugendlichen, andererseits mit einer erwarteten Verschlechterung in der Kontrollgruppe zusammenhängen. Die Arbeitsgedächtnisleistung auf der Basis von Schreckstimuli verwies darauf, dass Mädchen mit hohen Psychopathy-Werten anders als dissoziale Jungen möglicherweise doch empfänglich auf emotionale Stimuli reagieren.

Is it important to prevent early exposure to drugs and alcohol among adolescents?

Exposure to alcohol and illicit drugs during early adolescence has been associated with poor outcomes in adulthood. However, many adolescents with exposure to these substances also have a history of conduct problems, which raises the question of whether early exposure to alcohol and drugs leads to poor outcomes only for those adolescents who are already at risk. In a 30-year prospective study, we tested whether there was evidence that early substance exposure can be a causal factor for adolescents' future lives. After propensity-score matching, early-exposed adolescents remained at an increased risk for a number of poor outcomes. Approximately 50% of adolescents exposed to alcohol and illicit drugs prior to age 15 had no conduct-problem history, yet were still at an increased risk for adult substance dependence, herpes infection, early pregnancy, and crime. Efforts to reduce or delay early substance exposure may prevent a wide range of adult health problems and should not be restricted to adolescents who are already at risk.

Research review: DSM-V conduct disorder: research needs for an evidence base

This article charts a strategic research course toward an empirical foundation for the diagnosis of conduct disorder in the forthcoming DSM-V. Since the DSM-IV appeared in 1994, an impressive amount of new information about conduct disorder has emerged. As a result of this new knowledge, reasonable rationales have been put forward for adding to the conduct disorder diagnostic protocol: a childhood-limited subtype, family psychiatric history, callous-unemotional traits, female-specific criteria, preschool-specific criteria, early substance use, and biomarkers from genetics, neuroimaging, and physiology research. This article reviews the evidence for these and other potential changes to the conduct disorder diagnosis. We report that although there is a great deal of exciting research into each of the topics, very little of it provides the precise sort of evidence base required to justify any alteration to the DSM-V. We outline specific research questions and study designs needed to build the lacking evidence base for or against proposed changes to DSM-V conduct disorder.