Cytochrome P4501A1 polymorphisms in the Amerindian and Mestizo populations of Mexico

Several polymorphisms in the CYP1A1 locus have been identified and their genotypes appear to exhibit population frequencies that depend on ethnicity. We studied two CYP1A1 polymorphic sites (position 4889 and 6235) in a group of 212 unrelated healthy individuals belonging to three different Mexican populations (106 Mexican Mestizos, 52 Teenek and 54 Mayos). Comparison among Mexican populations showed increased frequency of the *Ile allele (A on position 4889) in Mexican Mestizos when compared to Amerindians (p < 0.05). The analysis of position 6235 showed increased frequencies of *m2 (C in this position) allele in Teenek when compared to Mestizos and Mayos (p < 0.05) and of *m2/*m2 genotype when compared to Mestizos (p < 0.05). Amerindian populations (from Mexico and South America) presented the lowest frequencies of *Ile (position 4889) and *m1 (position 6235) alleles, however these frequencies vary according to the ethnic group studied. Mexican Amerindian groups together with other South Amerindian populations showed the highest frequencies for *Val at position 4889 and the *m2 allele at position 6235. The present study corroborates the high frequencies of*Val and *m2 alleles in the Amerindian populations and detects some differences between Mexican populations that correlate with linguistic differences. Our data could be helpful in understanding the distribution of these polymorphisms and in clarifying their roles as genetic and evolution markers in Amerindian populations.

Evolution of the brainstem orofacial motor system in primates: a comparative study of trigeminal, facial, and hypoglossal nuclei

The trigeminal motor (Vmo), facial (VII), and hypoglossal (XII) nuclei of the brainstem comprise the final common output for neural control of most orofacial muscles. Hence, these cranial motor nuclei are involved in the production of adaptive behaviors such as feeding, facial expression, and vocalization. We measured the volume and Grey Level Index (GLI) of Vmo, VII, and XII in 47 species of primates and examined these nuclei for scaling patterns and phylogenetic specializations. Allometric regression, using medulla volume as an independent variable, did not reveal a significant difference between strepsirrhines and haplorhines in the scaling of Vmo volume. In addition, correlation analysis using independent contrasts did not find a relationship between Vmo size or GLI and the percent of leaves in the diet. The scaling trajectory of VII volume, in contrast, differed significantly between suborders. Great ape and human VII volumes, furthermore, were significantly larger than predicted by the haplorhine regression. Enlargement of VII in these taxa may reflect increased differentiation of the facial muscles of expression and greater utilization of the visual channel in social communication. The independent contrasts of VII volume and GLI, however, were not correlated with social group size. To examine whether the human hypoglossal motor system is specialized to control the tongue for speech, we tested human XII volume and GLI for departures from nonhuman haplorhine prediction lines. Although human XII volumes were observed above the regression line, they did not exceed prediction intervals. Of note, orang-utan XII volumes had greater residuals than humans. Human XII GLI values also did not differ from allometric prediction. In sum, these findings indicate that the cranial orofacial motor nuclei evince a mosaic of phylogenetic specializations for innervation of the facial muscles of expression in the context of a generally conservative scaling relationship with respect to medulla size.

Multivariate apportionment of global human craniometric diversity

Extensive research in human genetics on presumably neutral loci has shown that the overwhelming majority of human diversity is found among individuals within local populations. Previous apportionments of craniometric diversity are similar to these genetic apportionments, implying that interregionally differing selection pressures have played a limited role in producing contemporary human cranial diversity. Here we show that when cranial variation is independently partitioned using principal components analysis of Mosimann shape variables, some estimates of interregional craniometric differentiation are larger than those for most genetic loci. These estimates are similar to estimates for genetic loci where interregionally differing selection pressures are implicated in producing the observed patterns of variation within and among regions. These results suggest that differences among regions in at least some cranial features, particularly in the nasal region, are in part the product of interregionally differing selection pressures. Moreover, these results have implications for assessing the biological affinities of prehistoric samples that are temporally separated from contemporary human reference populations.

Microevolution and history of the plague bacillus, Yersinia pestis

The association of historical plague pandemics with Yersinia pestis remains controversial, partly because the evolutionary history of this largely monomorphic bacterium was unknown. The microevolution of Y. pestis was therefore investigated by three different multilocus molecular methods, targeting genomewide synonymous SNPs, variation in number of tandem repeats, and insertion of IS100 insertion elements. Eight populations were recognized by the three methods, and we propose an evolutionary tree for these populations, rooted on Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. The tree invokes microevolution over millennia, during which enzootic pestoides isolates evolved. This initial phase was followed by a binary split 6,500 years ago, which led to populations that are more frequently associated with human disease. These populations do not correspond directly to classical biovars that are based on phenotypic properties. Thus, we recommend that henceforth groupings should be based on molecular signatures. The age of Y. pestis inferred here is compatible with the dates of historical pandemic plague. However, it is premature to infer an association between any modern molecular grouping and a particular pandemic wave that occurred before the 20th century.

GM haplotype diversity of 82 populations over the world suggests a centrifugal model of human migrations

This study investigates the GM genetic relationships of 82 human populations, among which 10 represent original data, within and among the main broad geographic areas of the world. Different approaches are used: multidimensional scaling analysis and test for isolation by distance, to assess the correlation between genetic variation and spatial distributions; analysis of variance, to investigate the genetic structure at different hierarchical levels of population subdivision; genetic similarity map (geographic map distorted by available genetic information), to identify regions of high and low genetic variation; and minimal spanning network, to point out possible migration routes across continental areas. The results show that the GM polymorphism is characterized by one of the highest amounts of genetic variation observed so far among populations of different continents (Fct=0.3915, P < 0.0001). GM diversity can be explained by a model of isolation by distance (IBD) at most continental levels, with a particularly significant fit to IBD for the Middle East and Europe. Five peripheral regions of the world (Europe, west and south sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and America) exhibit a low level of genetic diversity both within and among populations. By contrast, East and North African, Southwest Asian, and Northeast Asian populations are highly diverse and interconnected genetically by large genetic distances. Therefore, the observed GM variation can be explained by a "centrifugal model" of modern humans peopling history, involving ancient dispersals across a large intercontinental area spanning from East Africa to Northeast Asia, followed by recent migrations in peripheral geographic regions.

Conceptualizing human variation

What is the relationship between the patterns of biological and sociocultural variation in extant humans? Is this relationship accurately described, or best explained, by the term 'race' and the schema of 'racial' classification? What is the relationship between 'race', genetics and the demographic groups of society? Can extant humans be categorized into units that can scientifically be called 'races'? These questions underlie the discussions that address the explanations for the observed differences in many domains between named demographic groups across societies. These domains include disease incidence and prevalence and other variables studied by biologists and social scientists. Here, we offer a perspective on understanding human variation by exploring the meaning and use of the term 'race' and its relationship to a range of data. The quest is for a more useful approach with which to understand human biological variation, one that may provide better research designs and inform public policy.

Association Between Iris Constitution and Apolipoprotein E Gene Polymorphism in Hypertensives

OBJECTIVE

Iridology is a complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) that involves the diagnosis of medical conditions by noting irregularities of the pigmentation in the iris. Iris constitution has a strong familial aggregation and heredity is implicated. Apolipoprotein E (apoE) gene polymorphism is one of the most well-studied genetic markers for vascular diseases, including hypertension. In this study, we investigated the relationship between iris constitution and apoE polymorphism in hypertensives.

DESIGN AND SUBJECTS

We classified 87 hypertensives and 79 controls according to iris constitution and determined the apoE genotype of each individual.

RESULTS

A significantly higher percentage of individuals with neurogenic constitutions was found in the hypertensive group when compared with the control group (chi(2) = 40.244, p < 0.001). In addition, a neurogenic constitution increased the relative risk for hypertension for subjects with an apo epsilon2 or an epsilon4 allele (chi(2) = 4.086, p = 0.049, odds ratio = 2.633, confidence interval = 1.004-6.905).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results imply that a neurogenic iris constitution enhances the relative risk for hypertension in subjects with the apo epsilon2 or epsilon4 allele. Furthermore, we attempted to evaluate the efficacy of iris constitutional medicine and to find an association with hypertension.

Phylogeny of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup N in India, based on complete sequencing: implications for the peopling of South Asia

To resolve the phylogeny of the autochthonous mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups of India and determine the relationship between the Indian and western Eurasian mtDNA pools more precisely, a diverse subset of 75 macrohaplogroup N lineages was chosen for complete sequencing from a collection of >800 control-region sequences sampled across India. We identified five new autochthonous haplogroups (R7, R8, R30, R31, and N5) and fully characterized the autochthonous haplogroups (R5, R6, N1d, U2a, U2b, and U2c) that were previously described only by first hypervariable segment (HVS-I) sequencing and coding-region restriction-fragment-length polymorphism analysis. Our findings demonstrate that the Indian mtDNA pool, even when restricted to macrohaplogroup N, harbors at least as many deepest-branching lineages as the western Eurasian mtDNA pool. Moreover, the distribution of the earliest branches within haplogroups M, N, and R across Eurasia and Oceania provides additional evidence for a three-founder-mtDNA scenario and a single migration route out of Africa.

Culture Change and Ethnic-Minority Health Behavior: An Operant Theory of Acculturation

Data on acculturation and ethnic-minority health indicate that acculturation has opposite effects on the same health behavior among different ethnic groups; opposite effects on different health behaviors within an ethnic group; opposite effects on the same health behavior for the women vs. the men of most ethnic groups; and no effect whatsoever on some health behaviors for some ethnic groups. This evidence is so incoherent that it is unintelligible, and hence it continues to be largely useless to health psychology and behavioral medicine. This paper presents a new theory of acculturation that renders these confusing data coherent by predicting such changes in minority health behavior a priori. By so doing, the operant model of acculturation has the potential to improve health promotion and disease prevention and thereby reduce ethnic health disparities.

Socioeconomic, cultural, and personal influences on health outcomes in low income Mexican-origin individuals in Texas

Several studies have suggested that the health of Mexican-Americans is better than expected given their low socioeconomic status. The healthy migrant hypothesis and the acculturation hypothesis, stating that the foreign-born and the less acculturated enjoy better health, have been proposed as possible complementary explanations. However, it is not clear which are the socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics that favor good health and that differentiate foreign-born from US-born and unacculturated from acculturated Mexicans. In this paper, we compare, by nativity and acculturation level, the socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics in a sample of low income mostly female Mexican-origin individuals living in Texas and investigate their contribution to differences in self-reported physical health, mental health, and self-rated health (SRH) status. Using a multistage probability sample, we completed 1745 interviews with Mexican-origin individuals. The survey instrument included the SF-12, demographic and socioeconomic information, and questions on social support, religiosity, fear of victimization, trust, perceived racism, and perceived opportunity. Nativity and use of the Spanish language were combined into a nativity/acculturation variable. We estimated multivariate regressions and ordered logit regressions to investigate the association of health outcomes to nativity/acculturation and socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics. Overall, the distribution of strengths (more social support, trust, perceived personal opportunities and less perceived victimization) reflected a nativity-based income gradient and an education gradient reflecting language use. Health outcomes varied by nativity/acculturation after controlling for socioeconomic, cultural, and personal characteristics. Physical health differed by nativity, supporting the healthy migrant hypothesis, while nativity-based differences in mental health were explained by socioeconomic and personal characteristics. SRH varied by language use, suggesting a culturally conditioned response. The socioeconomic, cultural, and personal factors affected health outcomes differently. These findings suggest a complicated interaction between nativity, acculturation, and economic factors in determining social and personal strengths and their influences on health.

Genetic structure of Hmong-Mien speaking populations in East Asia as revealed by mtDNA lineages

Hmong-Mien (H-M) is a major language family in East Asia, and its speakers distribute primarily in southern China and Southeast Asia. To date, genetic studies on H-M speaking populations are virtually absent in the literature. In this report, we present the results of an analysis of genetic variations in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) hypervariable segment 1 (HVS1) region and diagnostic variants in the coding regions in 537 individuals sampled from 17 H-M populations across East Asia. The analysis showed that the haplogroups that are predominant in southern East Asia, including B, R9, N9a, and M7, account for 63% (ranging from 45% to 90%) of mtDNAs in H-M populations. Furthermore, analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), phylogenetic tree analysis, and principal component (PC) analysis demonstrate closer relatedness between H-M and other southern East Asians, suggesting a general southern origin of maternal lineages in the H-M populations. The estimated ages of the mtDNA lineages that are specific to H-M coincide with those based on archeological cultures that have been associated with H-M. Analysis of genetic distance and phylogenetic tree indicated some extent of difference between the Hmong and the Mien populations. Together with the higher frequency of north-dominating lineages observed in the Hmong people, our results indicate that the Hmong populations had experienced more contact with the northern East Asians, a finding consistent with historical evidence. Moreover, our data defined some new (sub-)haplogroups (A6, B4e, B4f, C5, F1a1, F1a1a, and R9c), which will direct further efforts to improve the phylogeny of East Asian mtDNAs.

Regulation of phosphoglucomutase 1 phosphorylation and activity by a signaling kinase

We have identified a novel mechanism of cross-talk between cell signaling and metabolic pathways, whereby the signaling kinase p21-activated kinase 1 (Pak1) binds to, phosphorylates and enhances the enzymatic activity of phosphoglucomutase 1 (PGM), an important regulatory enzyme in cellular glucose utilization and energy homeostasis. Pak1 and PGM were colocalized in model cell systems and showed functional interactions in a physiological setting. Strong direct interaction of PGM with Pak1 but not Pak2, Pak3, or Pak4 was observed. PGM binding was within 75-149 amino acids (aa) of Pak1, while Pak1 binding to PGM was in the N-terminal 96 aa. Pak1-mediated phosphorylation of PGM selectively on threonine 466 significantly increased PGM enzymatic activity and could be blocked by transfection with a dominant-negative Pak1 expression vector and by Pak1-specific small inhibitory RNA. Stable transfection of PGM into PGM-deficient K562 leukemia cells further demonstrated the role of Pak1 in regulating PGM activity. The results presented here provide new evidence that the cell signaling kinase Pak1 is a novel regulator of glucose metabolism through its phosphorylation and regulation of PGM activity. These findings suggest a new mechanism whereby growth factor signaling may coordinately integrate metabolic regulation with established signaling functions of cell cycle regulation and cell growth.

Mitochondrial genome variation in eastern Asia and the peopling of Japan

To construct an East Asia mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes of 672 Japanese individuals (http://www.giib.or.jp/mtsnp/index_e.html). This allowed us to perform a phylogenetic analysis with a pool of 942 Asiatic sequences. New clades and subclades emerged from the Japanese data. On the basis of this unequivocal phylogeny, we classified 4713 Asian partial mitochondrial sequences, with <10% ambiguity. Applying population and phylogeographic methods, we used these sequences to shed light on the controversial issue of the peopling of Japan. Population-based comparisons confirmed that present-day Japanese have their closest genetic affinity to northern Asian populations, especially to Koreans, which finding is congruent with the proposed Continental gene flow to Japan after the Yayoi period. This phylogeographic approach unraveled a high degree of differentiation in Paleolithic Japanese. Ancient southern and northern migrations were detected based on the existence of basic M and N lineages in Ryukyuans and Ainu. Direct connections with Tibet, parallel to those found for the Y-chromosome, were also apparent. Furthermore, the highest diversity found in Japan for some derived clades suggests that Japan could be included in an area of migratory expansion to Continental Asia. All the theories that have been proposed up to now to explain the peopling of Japan seem insufficient to accommodate fully this complex picture.

Africans and Asians abroad: genetic diversity in Europe

Besides its obvious intrinsic value, knowledge of population history, and of the demographic and evolutionary changes that accompany it, has proven fundamental to address applied research in human genetics. In this review we place current European genetic diversity in the context of the global human genome diversity and review the evidence supporting a recent African origin of the Europeans. We then discuss the results and the interpretation of genetic studies attempting to quantify the relative importance of various gene flow processes, both within Europe and from Asia into Europe, focusing especially on the initial, Paleolithic colonization of the continent, and on later, Paleolithic postglacial and Neolithic dispersals. Finally, we discuss how knowledge of the patterns of genetic diversity in Europe, and of their inferred generating processes, can be extremely useful in planning health care and in biomedical research.

The association between length of residence and obesity among Hispanic immigrants

BACKGROUND

Newly arrived Hispanic immigrants are generally healthier than the U.S.-born population, but this distinction tends to diminish over time as immigrants adapt to a new and different sociocultural environment.

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to determine whether length of residence in the United States was associated with obesity (body mass index [BMI]>30 kg/m(2)) among Hispanic immigrants.

METHODS

Data for 2420 foreign-born Hispanic adults aged > or =18 years were obtained from the 1998 National Health Interview Survey.

RESULTS

The prevalence of obesity among those with 0 to 4, 5 to 9, 10 to 14, and > or =15 years of residence in the United States was 9.4%, 14.5%, 21.0%, and 24.2%, respectively. A logistic regression model adjusted for smoking, physical inactivity, self-assessed health, chronic conditions, functional limitations, nonspecific psychological distress, several sociodemographic characteristics, and access to health services found that longer-term Hispanic immigrants (> or =15 years) experienced a nearly four-fold greater risk of obesity than did recent immigrants (<5 years).

CONCLUSIONS

The higher risk for obesity associated with length of residence may be due to acculturation processes such as the adoption of the unhealthy dietary practices (i.e., a diet high in fat and low in fruits and vegetables) and sedentary lifestyles of the host country. The results of this study may facilitate the planning of public health interventions that are directed at subgroups of the Hispanic population.

Antral follicle counts are related to age at natural fertility loss and age at menopause

OBJECTIVE

The variability in ultrasound-based antral follicle counts sized 2-10 mm after allowing for age-related decline is considerable. This may represent differences in actual reproductive age among women. This hypothesis was tested by cohort comparison for distribution of age at occurrence of reproductive events.

DESIGN

A model with a nonlinear mean decline with age was fitted to antral follicle counts (AFC) obtained in 163 regularly cycling fertile volunteers. Ages at last child birth and menopause were predicted from the individual AFC by using thresholds to represent these events and the model for decline with age. Distributions of the observed ages at last childbirth (proxy variable for loss of natural fertility) and ages at menopause were obtained from the BALSAC demographic database and the Prospect-EPIC study, respectively. The observed distributions were compared with the predicted distributions by using visual comparison and quantile-quantile plots. Predictions of age at last child and age at menopause were done using percentiles of the modeled AFC distribution for given age, and corresponding percentiles of the predicted distributions of age at these reproductive events, with predictions following from the position of a woman's AFC relative to these percentiles.

RESULTS

The predicted distributions of age at last child and age at menopause showed good agreement with the observed distributions in the BALSAC and EPIC cohort. Compared with age alone, antral follicle counts gave some additional information for individual prediction of age at last child and menopause.

CONCLUSIONS

The link between declining antral follicle counts and reproductively significant events like loss of natural fertility and menopause is strengthened by the high degree of similarity among the predicted and observed age distributions. Predictive usefulness of this relationship in a clinical setting may be more marginal, except in the case of women who have low AFCs for their age.

Country of birth as a risk factor for asthma among Mexican Americans

In the United States, among Hispanics, Mexican Americans have the lowest rate of asthma. However, this population includes Mexican Americans born in the United States and in Mexico, and risk factors that might impact the prevalence of asthma differ between these groups. To determine the prevalence of and risk factors for asthma among U.S.- and Mexican-born Mexican Americans, we analyzed data from two U.S. surveys that included 4,574 persons who self-reported their ethnicity as Mexican American from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) 1998-1994 and 12,980 persons who self-reported their ethnicity as Mexican American from National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) 1997-2001. U.S.-born Mexican Americans were more likely than Mexican-born Mexican Americans to report ever having asthma in both the NHANES III (7% [SE 0.5] vs. 3% [SE 0.3], p < 0.001) and NHIS surveys (8.1% [0.4] vs. 2.5% [0.2], p < 0.001). In a multivariate regression model controlling for multiple demographic variables and health care, the risk for asthma was higher among U.S.-born Mexicans in NHANES III (odds ratio 2.1, 95% confidence interval 1.4-3.3) and NHIS (odds ratio 2.7, 95% confidence interval 1.6-5.5). In conclusion, the prevalence of asthma was higher in U.S.-born than in Mexican-born Mexican Americans. This finding highlights the importance of environmental exposures in developing asthma in a migratory population.

Genetic isolates in Corsica (France): linkage disequilibrium extension analysis on the Xq13 region

Genetic isolates with a history of a small founder population, long-lasting isolation and population bottlenecks represent exceptional resources in the identification of genes involved in the pathogenesis of multifactorial diseases. In these populations, the disease allele reveals linkage disequilibrium (LD) with markers over significant genetic intervals, therefore facilitating disease locus identification. This study has been designed to examine the background LD extension in some subpopulations of Corsica. Our interest in the island of Corsica is due to its geographical and genetic proximity to the other Mediterranean island of Sardinia. Sardinian isolates in which the extension of the background LD is particularly high have been recently identified and are now the object of studies aimed at the mapping of genes involved in complex diseases. Recent evidence has highlighted that the genetic proximity between the populations of Corsica and Sardinia is particularly true for the internal conservative populations. Given these considerations, Sardinia and Corsica may represent a unique system to carry out parallel association studies whose results could be validated by comparison. In the present study, we have analyzed the LD extension on the Xq13 genomic region in three subpopulations of Corsica: Corte, Niolo and Bozio, all located in the mountainous north-center of the island. Our results show a strong degree of LD over long distance for the population of Bozio and to a less extent for the population of Niolo. Their LD extent is comparable to or higher than that reported for other isolates.

Relationship between the prevalence of anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies and duration of type 1 diabetes mellitus in Brazilian patients

The objective of the present study was to determine whether the duration of disease has any influence on the prevalence of glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies (GADA) in Brazilian patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and variable disease duration. We evaluated 83 patients with T1D. All participants were interviewed and blood was obtained for GADA measurement by a commercial radioimmunoassay (RSR Limited, Cardiff, UK). Four groups of patients were established according to disease duration: A) 1-5 years of disease (N = 24), B) 6-10 years of disease (N = 19), C) 11-15 years of disease (N = 25), and D) >15 years of disease (N = 15). GADA prevalence and its titers were determined in each group. GADA was positive in 38 patients (45.8%) and its frequency did not differ between the groups. The prevalence was 11/24 (45.8%), 8/19 (42.1%), 13/25 (52%), and 6/15 (40%) in groups A, B, C, and D, respectively (P = 0.874). Mean GADA titer was 12.54 +/- 11.33 U/ml for the sample as a whole and 11.95 +/- 11.8, 12.85 +/- 12.07, 10.57 +/- 8.35, and 17.45 +/- 16.1 U/ml for groups A, B, C, and D, respectively (P = 0.686). Sex, age at diagnosis or ethnic background had no significant effect on GADA (+) frequency. In conclusion, in this transversal study, duration of disease did not affect significantly the prevalence of GADA or its titers in patients with T1D after one year of diagnosis. This was the first study to report this finding in the Brazilian population.

Childhood predictors of self reported chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis in adults: national birth cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To study childhood risk factors for chronic fatigue syndrome in adult life.

DESIGN

Examination of data from the 1970 British birth cohort.

PARTICIPANTS

16,567 babies born 5-11 April 1970, followed up at 5, 10, 16, and 29-30 years.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) identified by self report at age 30 years. Data from childhood from questionnaires given to parents and teachers. Maternal mental health assessed with the malaise inventory.

RESULTS

93 (0.8%, 95% confidence interval 0.7 to 1.0) of 11 261 participants reported ever having CFS/ME, and 48 (0.4%, 0.3 to 0.6) had the condition currently. Higher risk of CFS/ME was associated with having a limiting longstanding condition in childhood (odds ratio 2.3, 1.4 to 3.9), female sex (2.3, 1.4 to 2.6), and high social class in childhood (2.2, 1.4 to 3.5). Higher levels of exercise in childhood were associated with lower risk (0.5, 0.2 to 0.9). Maternal psychological disorder, psychological problems in childhood, birth weight, birth order, atopy, obesity, school absence, academic ability, and parental illness were not associated with risk of CFS/ME.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified no association between maternal or child psychological distress, academic ability, parental illness, atopy, or birth order and increasing risk of lifetime CFS/ME. Sedentary behaviour increased the risk.

Genetic relationships among Berbers and South Spaniards based on CD4 microsatellite/Alu haplotypes

BACKGROUND

CD4 STR/Alu haplotype diversity, both for its qualitative and quantitative properties, has been widely used in molecular anthropology to clarify the degree of genetic relationships among human populations.

AIM

CD4 STR/Alu variation was studied in two West Mediterranean samples, Andalusians from La Alpujarra region on the north side of the Gibraltar Strait and Berbers from the south, to ascertain the pattern of affinities between them.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Alu and microsatellite alleles were tested in 99 Andalusians from La Alpujarra region (Southeast Spain) and 124 Middle Atlas Berbers (Morocco).

RESULTS

Two new combinations of Alu and STR alleles (75(+) and 80(-)) were found in Berbers. The CD4 STR/Alu haplotype distribution in South Spaniards is similar to that of other Europeans, the only special feature is the slight presence of the 90(+) and 130(+) typical Sub-Saharan haplotypes. The Berber sample is characterized by a high number of different haplotypes (18) with intermediate heterozygosity values (0.846) in comparison with other North African groups, and by a high frequency of the 110(-) combination that has been proposed as representative of an ancient Northwest African population.

CONCLUSION

A geographical gradient of Sub-Saharan gene contribution has been detected in North Africa. The Middle Atlas Berbers showed an intermediate value in comparison with the high and low values found in Mauritanians and Moroccan Berbers, respectively. The analysis of the CD4 STR/Alu haplotype variation failed to indicate any particular relationship between South Spaniards and North Africans.

Exploring northeast African metric craniofacial variation at the individual level: A comparative study using principal components analysis

A principal components analysis was carried out on male crania from the northeast quadrant of Africa and selected European and other African series. Individuals, not predefined groups, were the units of study, while nevertheless keeping group membership in evidence. The first principal component seems to largely capture "size" variation in crania from all of the regions. The same general morphometric trends were found to exist within the African and European crania, although there was some broad separation along a cline. Anatomically, the second principal component captures predominant trends denoting a broader to narrower nasal aperture combined with a similar shape change in the maxilla, an inverse relation between face-base lengths ("projection") and base breadths, and a decrease in anterior base length relative to base breadth. The third principal component broadly describes trends within Africa and Europe: specifically, a change from a combination of a relatively narrower face and longer vault, to one of a wider face and shorter vault; it shows the northeast quadrant Africans along a cline with the other Africans. Stated in relative terms, the northeastern Africans tend to exhibit narrower bases in relationship to more projecting faces, and broader nasal areas than Europeans, although there is range of variation. Relative to the other African groups, they have narrower nasal areas and narrower faces in relationship to vault length. The crania from the northeast quadrant of Africa collectively demonstrate the greatest pattern of overlap with both Europeans and other Africans. Variation was found to be high in all series but greatest in the African material as a whole. Individuals from different geographical regions frequently plotted near each other, revealing aspects of variation at the level of individuals that is obscured by concentrating on the most distinctive facial traits once used to construct "types." The high level of African interindividual variation in craniometric pattern is reminiscent of the great level of molecular diversity found in Africa. These results, coupled with those of Y chromosome studies, may help generate hypotheses concerning the length of time over which recent craniometric variation emerged in Africa.

Evidence for gradients of human genetic diversity within and among continents

Genetic variation in humans is sometimes described as being discontinuous among continents or among groups of individuals, and by some this has been interpreted as genetic support for "races." A recent study in which >350 microsatellites were studied in a global sample of humans showed that they could be grouped according to their continental origin, and this was widely interpreted as evidence for a discrete distribution of human genetic diversity. Here, we investigate how study design can influence such conclusions. Our results show that when individuals are sampled homogeneously from around the globe, the pattern seen is one of gradients of allele frequencies that extend over the entire world, rather than discrete clusters. Therefore, there is no reason to assume that major genetic discontinuities exist between different continents or "races."

Should "acculturation" be a variable in health research? A critical review of research on US Hispanics

Acculturation has become a popular variable in research on health disparities among certain ethnic minorities, in the absence of serious reflection about its central concepts and assumptions. Key constructs such as what constitutes a culture, which traits pertain to the ethnic versus "mainstream" culture, and what cultural adaptation entails have not been carefully defined. Using examples from a systematic review of recent articles, this paper critically reviews the development and application of the concept of acculturation in US health research on Hispanics. Multiple misconceptions and errors in the central assumptions underlying the concept of acculturation are examined, and it is concluded that acculturation as a variable in health research may be based more on ethnic stereotyping than on objective representations of cultural difference.

Traditional versus agricultural lifestyle among Shuar women of the Ecuadorian Amazon: effects on leptin levels

Leptin is a key biological marker related to energy balance and development of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Its levels are increased in populations with a high degree of the metabolic syndrome. Life history of evolution has, however, largely taken place under the ecological context of hunting and gathering. In this study, we explored whether the first steps of transition to sedentary agriculture involve a change of body composition, plasma leptin concentration, and markers of the metabolic syndrome. A total of 59 healthy Shuar Amerindian women living in 5 isolated communities in the Ecuadorian Amazonian rain forest were examined. Women (n = 33) from the largest and oldest community, Yuwientsa, who are more dependent on agriculture had higher fat mass (11.7 +/- 3.3 v 14.5 +/- 4.0 kg; P = .023) but the same body mass index (24.1 +/- 2.7 v 23.1 +/- 2.8 kg/m2; not significant [NS]) and lean body mass (41.0 +/- 5.0 v 40.2 +/- 6.2 kg; NS) than women (n = 26) from the 4 traditional hunter/gather settlements. Furthermore, women from Yuwientsia had higher leptin (5.5 +/- 3.1 v 4.1 +/- 2.7 ng/mL; P = .021) and plasma insulin levels (49.8 +/- 37.4 v 35.5 +/- 12.7 pmol/L; P = .013). Homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) values (8.8 +/- 4.8 v 6.1 +/- 2.2; P = .004) and plasma triglyceride levels (2.3 +/- 1.0 v 1.7 +/- 0.6 mmol/L; P = .025) as markers of the metabolic syndrome were also increased in the Yuwientsa population. Mean plasma glucagon concentrations were not different between the groups. We conclude that body fat and levels of insulin and leptin are higher in the population more dependent on agriculture for living. In fact, the leptin concentrations from the 4 hunter/gather communities are the lowest mean value ever reported from a population of healthy females. As there are no genetic or biologic differences between the Shuar Indians from the 5 communities, we hypothesize that behavioral responses to a changing environment may be the key to the development of the metabolic syndrome and elevated plasma leptin concentrations.

The Longue Durée of genetic ancestry: multiple genetic marker systems and Celtic origins on the Atlantic facade of Europe

Celtic languages are now spoken only on the Atlantic facade of Europe, mainly in Britain and Ireland, but were spoken more widely in western and central Europe until the collapse of the Roman Empire in the first millennium a.d. It has been common to couple archaeological evidence for the expansion of Iron Age elites in central Europe with the dispersal of these languages and of Celtic ethnicity and to posit a central European "homeland" for the Celtic peoples. More recently, however, archaeologists have questioned this "migrationist" view of Celtic ethnogenesis. The proposition of a central European ancestry should be testable by examining the distribution of genetic markers; however, although Y-chromosome patterns in Atlantic Europe show little evidence of central European influence, there has hitherto been insufficient data to confirm this by use of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Here, we present both new mtDNA data from Ireland and a novel analysis of a greatly enlarged European mtDNA database. We show that mtDNA lineages, when analyzed in sufficiently large numbers, display patterns significantly similar to a large fraction of both Y-chromosome and autosomal variation. These multiple genetic marker systems indicate a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone, from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia, that dates back to the end of the last Ice Age.

Genetic analysis of candidate loci in non-syndromic cleft lip families from Antioquia-Colombia and Ohio

Non-syndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL/P) is a genetically complex birth defect, with a prevalence from 1/500 to 1/1,000 live births. Evidence from linkage and linkage disequilibrium studies is contradictory suggesting that heterogeneity between study populations may exist. A recent report of a genome widescan in 92 sib pairs from the United Kingdom revealed suggestive linkage to 10 loci [Prescott et al., 2000]. The purpose of this study is to replicate those results and evaluate additional candidate genes in 49 Colombian and 13 Ohio families. Genotypes were obtained for STRPs at 1p36, 2p13 (TGFA), 4p16 (MSX1), 6p23-25, 6q25-27, 8q23-24, 11p12-q13, 12q13, 14q24 (TGFB3), 16q22-24, 17q12-21 (RARA), and Xcen-q21. Linkage was performed using parametric (dominant and recessive models) and non-parametric (GenehunterNPL and SimIBD) analyses. In addition, heterogeneity was analyzed using GenehunterHLOD, and association determined by the TDT. The Colombian families showed significant SimIBD results for 11p12-q13 (P = 0.034), 12q13 (P = 0.015), 16q22-24 (0.01), and 17q12-21 (0.009), while the Ohio families showed significant SimIBD results for 1p36 (P = 0.02), TGFA (P = 0.005), 6p23 (P = 0.004), 11p12-q13 (P = 0.048) and significant NPL results for TGFA (NPL = 3.01, P = 0.009), 4p16 (MNPL = 2.07, P = 0.03) and 12q13 (SNPL = 3.55, P = 0.007). Significant association results were obtained only for the Colombian families in the regions 1p36 (P = 0.046), 6p23-25 (P = 0.020), and 12q13 (P = 0.046). In addition several families yielded LOD scores ranging from 1.09 to 1.73, for loci at 4p16, 6p23-25, 16q22-24, and 17q13. These results confirm previous reports for these loci. However, the differences between the two populations suggest that population specific locus heterogeneity exists. This article contains supplementary material, which may be viewed at the American Journal of Medical Genetics website at http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0148-7299/suppmat/index.html.

Pattern of mtDNA variation in three populations from São Tomé e Príncipe

We have analysed the matrilineal genetic composition of three self-reported ethnic groups from São Tomé e Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea), an African archipelago whose settlement begun in the late fifteenth century. Sequence data from the hypervariable segments I (HVS-I) and II (HVS-II) were obtained for 30 Angolares, 35 Forros and 38 Tongas. The repertory of mtDNA lineages in São Tomé e Príncipe denoted a fully African maternal pool, primarily arisen from a Central/Southwestern substratum. The absence of any lineages of putative European descent means that the European impact at the mitochondrial pool was virtually nil. Angolares showed a clear reduction of mtDNA diversity and a slight genetic differentiation relative to Tongas or Forros, whereas the latter two groups did not present any signs of genetic boundaries between each other. The data obtained here reinforce the depiction of genetic substructuring in São Tomé e Príncipe previously derived from Y-chromosome STRs. In addition, the crossing of mtDNA and Y-STR information led to the inference that the female mediated gene flow within the archipelago was less restricted than the male, a pattern that could be framed in the cultural traditions and socio-historical interactions among the groups.

Isolation by language and distance in Belgium

The isonymy structure of trilingual Belgium was studied using the surname distributions for 1,118,004 private telephone users. The users were distributed in 77 Flemish, 76 French, and 3 German speaking towns, selected on a geographic basis to form an approximately regular grid over Belgium. Lasker's distance was found to be considerably higher between languages than within languages. For the whole of Belgium, irrespective of language, it was highly correlated with linear geographic distance, with r = 0.721+/-0.014, which is the highest correlation observed in European countries to date. Within Belgium and within languages, the correlation was highest among the Flemish (r = 0.878 +/- 0.007), and lowest among the French (r = 0.631+/-0.020). Isolation by distance in Belgium is the highest we have found in Europe, and as high as in Switzerland where the different languages are separated by geographical barriers. This is not the case in Belgium, so that the considerable isolating power of languages emerges clearly from the present analysis. From the comparison of Lasker's distance between (9.48) and within (8.16) languages, and from its regression over geographic distance (b = 0.01206), it was possible to establish a quantitative relationship between the isolating power of languages and that of geographic distance as (9.48-8.16)/0.01206 = 109 kilometres. This transformation of language distance into an equivalent geographic distance, given here for Belgium, can be applied to any similar geo-linguistic situation.

POPULATION GENETICS, HISTORY, AND HEALTH PATTERNS IN NATIVE AMERICANS

Over the past two decades, detailed studies of mitochondrial DNA and the Y chromosome have increased our understanding of the history and population genetics of Native American populations. Variation in autosomal DNA has also been investigated, but to a more limited extent. A low level of genetic diversity in Native American populations is a robust finding from all lines of evidence. In contrast to the previous multiple migration scenarios for the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas, it now seems that a single migration satisfactorily explains the genetic data. Native Americans show greater genetic similarity to populations in east central Asia than they do to the current easternmost Siberian populations. Recent studies on the Y chromosome indicate a date of entry (about 17,000 years ago) into the Americas roughly consistent with the archaeological record. Native Americans experienced two episodes of reduced population size: one with the peopling of the Americas and the other with European contact. The former is the more important determinant for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes seen in populations. It may also be an important determinant of the genetic variation underlying common complex diseases, and especially diabetes. The tribal structure of contemporary Native American populations is relevant to the distribution of rare Mendelian disorders because most tribes constitute relatively small, semi-independent gene pools. This leads us to expect that the allelic spectrum for Mendelian diseases will be simple within individual tribes but complex for Native Americans as a whole.

Genetic polymorphism and linkage disequilibrium of the HLA-DP region in Basques from Navarre (Spain)

In this work, a sample of 116 individuals from an autochthonous Basque population (northern Navarre, Spain) was typed at the DNA level for HLA-DPA1 and HLA-DPB1 loci, with the aim of analysing the genetic polymorphism and the linkage disequilibrium (LD) of the HLA-DP region. In this Basque subpopulation, the most frequent alleles were *0103 (0.767) and *0201 (0.185) for DPA1 locus, whereas for DPB1 locus the *0401 allele was predominant (0.307). Accordingly, the most frequent haplotype was DPA1*0103-DPB1*0401 (0.300), which showed a significant LD. However, the haplotypes that most differentiated the sample of Navarre from other worldwide populations already analysed were DPA1*0105-DPB1*1901 (0.011) and DPA1*0201-DPB1*7601 (0.021), both of which showed a strong LD. Analysis of the relationships between populations based on data provided by HLA-DPA1 and HLA-DPB1 loci revealed a high genetic affinity between the Basque samples (North Navarre and Guipúzcoa), which, in turn, tend to plot separately from the remaining European populations. Gene frequency clines for DPB1*01, DPB1*04 and DPB1*11 alleles among European populations are reported for the first time. These alleles showed maximum values of F(ST) (0.033, 0.034 and 0.025, respectively). Various evolutionary forces were considered in discussing the origin of the spatial structuring of the gene frequencies: (i) gene flow, argued from the hypotheses of Post-glacial recolonization from southern Europe or the demic diffusion of farmers from the Near East into Europe, and (ii) the existence of selective pressures that could have generated genetic microdifferentiation.

Molecular diversity at the CYP2D6 locus in the Mediterranean region

Despite the importance of cytochrome P450 in the metabolism of many drugs, several aspects of molecular variation at one of the main loci coding for it, CYP2D6, have never been analysed so far. Here we show that it is possible to rapidly and efficiently genotype the main European allelic variants at this locus by a SNaPshot method identifying chromosomal rearrangements and nine single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Haplotypes could be reconstructed from data on 494 chromosomes in six populations of the Mediterranean region. High levels of linkage disequilibrium were found within the chromosome region screened, suggesting that CYP2D6 may be part of a genomic recombination block, and hence that, aside from unequal crossingover that led to large chromosomal rearrangements, its haplotype diversity essentially originated through the accumulation of mutations. With the only, albeit statistically insignificant, exception of Syria, haplotype frequencies do not differ among the populations studied, despite the presence among them of three well-known genetic outliers, which could be the result of common selective pressures playing a role in shaping CYP2D6 variation over the area of Europe that we surveyed.

Molecular spectrum of β-thalassemia in the Mexican population

Beta-thalassemia (beta-thal) is present in 59% and 75% of patients with abnormal hemoglobin disorders in northwestern and central Mexico, respectively. In our Research Center, up until 1997, we reported the presence of 13 beta-thal alleles in 26 unrelated chromosomes (-28A>C; -87C>T; MET1VAL; IVS1, G>A, +1; IVS1, G>A, +5; IVS1, G>C, +5; IVS1, G>A, +110; IVS2, C>G, +745; GLU6FS; VAL11FS; GLN39TER; HBD/HBB 104 kb del; and HBD87/HBB116 fusion). Since then, 57 more beta-thal chromosomes have been identified by the amplification-refractory mutation system (ARMS) and DNA sequencing from 54 individuals with beta-thalassemia (seven compound heterozygotes, three with two beta-thal alleles, three with beta-thal and HbS, and one with beta-thal and HbD; and 47 beta-thal heterozygotes). Nine of the previously observed alleles were found, together with three new alleles: IVS2, G>A, +1; LYS17TER; and 4-bp del, 41/42CTTT. Moreover, a novel mutation was observed, HIS77FS, bringing to a total of 17 beta-thal alleles identified in our population. Six alleles constitute 78.3% of the observed alleles: five Mediterranean alleles (GLN39TER; IVS1, G>A, +1; IVS1, G>A, +110; HBD/HBB 104 kb del; and IVS1, G>A, +5) and one common in the Kurdish population (-28A>C). We note especially the presence in these families of -28A>C and VAL11FS, both of which have previously been considered private alleles. The observed spectrum of mutations is characteristic of populations with low frequencies of thalassemias. Because thalassemia is not a rare disease in Mexico, we emphasize its necessary consideration in the differential diagnosis of microcytic hypochromic anemia.

Biological and behavioral determinants of fertility in Tierra del Fuego

The reproductive history of 182 women in postreproductive life or near menopause from the Chilean part of Tierra del Fuego was traced back by means of familial interviews. These postmenopausal women represent the population since almost the beginning of the settlement, and their reproductive years were spent on the island. Path analysis was applied to analyze fertility determinants of these women and to propose a complex model of interconnections among factors. The reproductive history of these women is characterized by a long fertile span, a short childbearing period, and low fertility. Age at menarche is relatively late, and the age of the women at first birth is mainly determined by their late age at marriage. The use of contraception is related to both spacing and stopping behaviors. The late age of women at marriage, the rhythm of conception, and practices of contraception are proposed as the main determinants of fertility in Tierra del Fuego.

Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans

Background

Recent advances in the understanding of the maternal and paternal heritage of south and southwest Asian populations have highlighted their role in the colonization of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans. Further understanding requires a deeper insight into the topology of the branches of the Indian mtDNA phylogenetic tree, which should be contextualized within the phylogeography of the neighboring regional mtDNA variation. Accordingly, we have analyzed mtDNA control and coding region variation in 796 Indian (including both tribal and caste populations from different parts of India) and 436 Iranian mtDNAs. The results were integrated and analyzed together with published data from South, Southeast Asia and West Eurasia.

Results

Four new Indian-specific haplogroup M sub-clades were defined. These, in combination with two previously described haplogroups, encompass approximately one third of the haplogroup M mtDNAs in India. Their phylogeography and spread among different linguistic phyla and social strata was investigated in detail. Furthermore, the analysis of the Iranian mtDNA pool revealed patterns of limited reciprocal gene flow between Iran and the Indian sub-continent and allowed the identification of different assemblies of shared mtDNA sub-clades.

Conclusions

Since the initial peopling of South and West Asia by anatomically modern humans, when this region may well have provided the initial settlers who colonized much of the rest of Eurasia, the gene flow in and out of India of the maternally transmitted mtDNA has been surprisingly limited. Specifically, our analysis of the mtDNA haplogroups, which are shared between Indian and Iranian populations and exhibit coalescence ages corresponding to around the early Upper Paleolithic, indicates that they are present in India largely as Indian-specific sub-lineages. In contrast, other ancient Indian-specific variants of M and R are very rare outside the sub-continent.

Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe

In order to attain a finer reconstruction of the peopling of southern and central-eastern Europe from the Levant, we determined the frequencies of eight lineages internal to the Y chromosomal haplogroup J, defined by biallelic markers, in 22 population samples obtained with a fine-grained sampling scheme. Our results partially resolve a major multifurcation of lineages within the haplogroup. Analyses of molecular variance show that the area covered by haplogroup J dispersal is characterized by a significant degree of molecular radiation for unique event polymorphisms within the haplogroup, with a higher incidence of the most derived sub-haplogroups on the northern Mediterranean coast, from Turkey westward; here, J diversity is not simply a subset of that present in the area in which this haplogroup first originated. Dating estimates, based on simple tandem repeat loci (STR) diversity within each lineage, confirmed the presence of a major population structuring at the time of spread of haplogroup J in Europe and a punctuation in the peopling of this continent in the post-Neolithic, compatible with the expansion of the Greek world. We also present here, for the first time, a novel method for comparative dating of lineages, free of assumptions of STR mutation rates.

Genetic structure of four socio-culturally diversified caste populations of southwest India and their affinity with related Indian and global groups

Background

A large number of microsatellites have been extensively used to comprehend the genetic diversity of different global groups. This paper entails polymorphism at 15 STR in four predominant and endogamous populations representing Karnataka, located on the southwest coast of India. The populations residing in this region are believed to have received gene flow from south Indian populations and world migrants, hence, we carried out a detailed study on populations inhabiting this region to understand their genetic structure, diversity related to geography and linguistic affiliation and relatedness to other Indian and global migrant populations.

Results

Various statistical analyses were performed on the microsatellite data to accomplish the objectives of the paper. The heretozygosity was moderately high and similar across the loci, with low average G_ST value. Iyengar and Lyngayat were placed above the regression line in the R-matrix analysis as opposed to the Gowda and Muslim. AMOVA indicated that majority of variation was confined to individuals within a population, with geographic grouping demonstrating lesser genetic differentiation as compared to linguistic clustering. D_A distances show the genetic affinity among the southern populations, with Iyengar, Lyngayat and Vanniyar displaying some affinity with northern Brahmins and global migrant groups from East Asia and Europe.

Conclusion

The microsatellite study divulges a common ancestry for the four diverse populations of Karnataka, with the overall genetic differentiation among them being largely confined to intra-population variation. The practice of consanguineous marriages might have attributed to the relatively lower gene flow displayed by Gowda and Muslim as compared to Iyengar and Lyngayat. The various statistical analyses strongly suggest that the studied populations could not be differentiated on the basis of caste or spatial location, although, linguistic affinity was reflected among the southern populations, distinguishing them from the northern groups. Our study also indicates a heterogeneous origin for Lyngayat and Iyengar owing to their genetic proximity with southern populations and northern Brahmins. The high-ranking communities, in particular, Iyengar, Lyngayat, Vanniyar and northern Brahmins might have experienced genetic admixture from East Asian and European ethnic groups.

Identification of Native American founder mtDNAs through the analysis of complete mtDNA sequences: some caveats

In this study, a detailed analysis of both previously published and new data was performed to determine whether complete, or almost complete, mtDNA sequences can resolve the long-debated issue of which Asian mtDNAs were founder sequences for the Native American mtDNA pool. Unfortunately, we now know that coding region data and their analysis are not without problems. To obtain and report reasonably correct sequences does not seem to be a trivial task, and to discriminate between Asian and Native American mtDNA ancestries may be more complex than previously believed. It is essential to take into account the effects of mutational hot spots in both the control and coding regions, so that the number of apparent Native American mtDNA founder sequences is not erroneously inflated. As we report here, a careful analysis of all available data indicates that there is very little evidence that more than five founder mtDNA sequences entered Beringia before the Last Glacial Maximum and left their traces in the current Native American mtDNA pool.

Genetic heterogeneity in northeastern India: reflection of Tribe-Caste continuum in the genetic structure

We critically examined the gene frequency data for 11 genetic markers commonly available in the literature for 22 populations of northeastern India in the light of their geographic, linguistic, and ethnic affiliations. The markers investigated were three blood groups (A1A2BO, MNS, and Rh), four serum proteins (KM, Gc, Hp, and Tf), and four enzyme systems (AP, AK, EsD, and Hb). The neighbor-joining tree and multidimensional scaling of the distance matrix suggest relatively high genetic differentiation among the Mongoloid groups, with probably diverse origins when compared to the Caucasoid Indo-European populations, which had probably come from relatively more homogeneous backgrounds. Broadly speaking, the pattern of population affinities conforms to the ethno-historic, linguistic, and geographic backgrounds. An interesting and important feature that emerges from this analysis is the reflection of the effect of the sociological process of a Tribe-Caste continuum on genetic structure. While on one end we have the cluster of Caucasoid caste populations, the other end consists of Mongoloid tribal groups. In between are the populations which were originally tribes but now have become semi-Hinduized caste groups, viz., Rajbanshi, Chutiya, and Ahom. These groups have currently assumed caste status and speak Indo-European languages. Therefore, one may infer that what appears to be a purely sociological phenomenon of a Tribe-Caste continuum may well reflect in their genetic structure.

Developmental plasticity and human health

Many plants and animals are capable of developing in a variety of ways, forming characteristics that are well adapted to the environments in which they are likely to live. In adverse circumstances, for example, small size and slow metabolism can facilitate survival, whereas larger size and more rapid metabolism have advantages for reproductive success when resources are more abundant. Often these characteristics are induced in early life or are even set by cues to which their parents or grandparents were exposed. Individuals developmentally adapted to one environment may, however, be at risk when exposed to another when they are older. The biological evidence may be relevant to the understanding of human development and susceptibility to disease. As the nutritional state of many human mothers has improved around the world, the characteristics of their offspring--such as body size and metabolism--have also changed. Responsiveness to their mothers' condition before birth may generally prepare individuals so that they are best suited to the environment forecast by cues available in early life. Paradoxically, however, rapid improvements in nutrition and other environmental conditions may have damaging effects on the health of those people whose parents and grandparents lived in impoverished conditions. A fuller understanding of patterns of human plasticity in response to early nutrition and other environmental factors will have implications for the administration of public health.

A predominantly neolithic origin for Y-chromosomal DNA variation in North Africa

We have typed 275 men from five populations in Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt with a set of 119 binary markers and 15 microsatellites from the Y chromosome, and we have analyzed the results together with published data from Moroccan populations. North African Y-chromosomal diversity is geographically structured and fits the pattern expected under an isolation-by-distance model. Autocorrelation analyses reveal an east-west cline of genetic variation that extends into the Middle East and is compatible with a hypothesis of demic expansion. This expansion must have involved relatively small numbers of Y chromosomes to account for the reduction in gene diversity towards the West that accompanied the frequency increase of Y haplogroup E3b2, but gene flow must have been maintained to explain the observed pattern of isolation-by-distance. Since the estimates of the times to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCAs) of the most common haplogroups are quite recent, we suggest that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation is largely of Neolithic origin. Thus, we propose that the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic-speaking pastoralists from the Middle East.

Use of ApoB3′ hyper variable region in studying mixed chimerism and maternal contamination in North Indian populations

ApoB3' hyper variable region is one of the highly polymorphic genetic marker and reveals a high degree of allelic variation in different populations therefore; it can be a useful marker for different clinical tests in which individual differences at DNA level form the basis of detection. In the present study we compared Apo B3 HVR with other 28 STR markers at allele frequency level, heterozygosity, polymorphism information content (PIC) and power of exclusion. Our results indicated a high degree of heterozygosity, PIC and power of exclusion for Apo B3 HVR. These criteria lead us to investigate this marker for different purposes like detection of maternal contamination in chorionic villus samples and chimerism studies after the engraftment of bone marrow in bone marrow transplantation patients. The utility of this marker has been discussed in comparison of other markers.