Random Alloyed versus Intermetallic Nanoparticles: A Comparison of Electrocatalytic Performance

Identification of Nanoscale Processes Associated with the Disorder-to-Order Transformation of Carbon-Supported Alloy Nanoparticles

Due to their ordered crystal structures and high structural stabilities, intermetallic nanoparticles often display enhanced catalytic, magnetic, and optical properties compared to their random alloy counterparts. Intermetallic nanoparticles can be achieved by thermal annealing of their disordered (random alloy) counterparts. However, high temperatures and long annealing times needed to achieve the disorder-to-order transition often lead to a loss of sample monodispersity and an increase in the average size of nanoparticles. Here, we performed ex situ powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and in situ annealing transmission electron microscopy (TEM) experiments to elucidate nanoscale processes that contribute to the ordering of carbon-supported PdCu nanoparticles as a model system. Random alloy PdCu nanoparticles supported on carbon were thermally annealed for various lengths of time at the disorder-to-order phase transition temperature, where changes in nanoparticle size and the crystal phase were monitored. The nanoparticles were only completely transformed to the intermetallic phase by undertaking measures to deliberately increase their size by increasing the number of nanoparticles on the carbon support. In situ annealing TEM experiments reveal nanoscale processes that account for the disorder-to-order phase transformation. Five different processes were observed at 400 °C. Isolated nanoparticles remained in the random alloy phase or underwent a phase transformation to the intermetallic phase. Nanoparticles fused with neighboring nanoparticles resulting in no change in phase or conversion to the intermetallic phase. Evidence of vapor transport was also observed, as some isolated nanoparticles were found to diminish in size upon heating. These variable processes account for the heterogeneity often observed for intermetallic nanoparticle samples achieved through annealing and motivate the development of synthetic routes that suppress particle-particle coalescence, as well as investigating metal-support interactions to facilitate the disorder-to-order phase transformation under mild conditions. Overall, this work furthers our knowledge of the formation of intermetallic nanoparticles by thermal annealing approaches, which could accelerate the development of electrocatalysts and the application of intermetallic nanoparticles in magnetic storage devices.

Phase-Controlled Synthesis of Pd-Sn Nanocrystal Catalysts of Defined Size and Shape

Bimetallic Pd-based nanoparticles (NPs) are of interest as electrocatalysts for formic acid electrooxidation (FAEO) because of their higher initial catalytic activity and CO tolerance when compared to Pt. Intermetallic NPs (i-NPs) with specific geometric and electronic structures generally exhibit superior catalytic activity, selectivity, and durability when compared to their disordered (random alloy) counterparts; however, the colloidal synthesis of i-NPs remains a challenge. Here, a one-pot method was demonstrated as a facile route to obtain monodisperse Pd-Sn NPs with phase control, including intermetallic hexagonal Pd3Sn2 (P63/mmc), intermetallic orthorhombic Pd2Sn (Pnma), and alloy cubic Pd3Sn (FCC, Fm3m) as size-controlled NPs with quasi-spherical shapes. Initial metal precursor ratios and reaction temperature were critical parameters to achieving phase control. Also, slight modifications of synthetic conditions resulted in either Pd2Sn nanorhombohedra or nanorods with tunable aspect ratios. A systematic evaluation of the Pd-Sn NPs for FAEO showed that most presented higher specific activities when compared to commercial Pd/C, in which Pd2Sn quasi-spheres and nanorhombohedra showed the highest catalytic activity for FAEO. These results highlight the benefits of phase-controlled Pd-based nanocatalysts with defined nanocrystal size and shape, with use of trioctylphospine (TOP) and oleic acid (OA) central to shape and size control.

Sulfur-anchoring synthesis of platinum intermetallic nanoparticle catalysts for fuel cells

[Figure: see text].

Sub-Monolayer YOx /MoOx on Ultrathin Pt Nanowires Boosts Alcohol Oxidation Electrocatalysis

A crucial issue restricting the application of direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs) is the low activity of Pt-based electrocatalysts for alcohol oxidation reaction caused by the reaction intermediate (CO*) poisoning. Herein, a new strategy is demonstrated for making a class of sub-monolayer YO_x /MoO_x -surface co-decorated ultrathin platinum nanowires (YO_x /MoO_x -Pt NWs) to effectively eliminate the CO poisoning for enhancing methanol oxidation electrocatalysis. By adjusting the amounts of YO_x and MoO_x decorated on the surface of ultrathin Pt NWs, the optimized 22% YO_x /MoO_x -Pt NWs achieve a high specific activity of 3.35 mA cm^-2 and a mass activity of 2.10 A mg_Pt ^-1 , as well as the enhanced stability. In situ Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and CO stripping studies confirm the contribution of YO_x and MoO_x to anti-CO poisoning ability of the NWs. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations further reveal that the surface Y and Mo atoms with oxidation states allow COOH* to bind the surface through both the carbon and oxygen atoms, which can lower the free energy barriers for the oxidation of CO* into COOH*. The optimal NWs also show the superior activities toward the electro-oxidation of ethanol, ethylene glycol, and glycerol.

Pt-Based Intermetallic Nanocrystals in Cathode Catalysts for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: From Precise Synthesis to Oxygen Reduction Reaction Strategy

Although oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysts have been extensively investigated and developed, there is a lack of clarity on catalysts that can balance high performance and low cost. Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals are of special interest in the commercialization of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) due to their excellent ORR activity and stability. This review summarizes the wide range of applications of Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals in cathode catalysts for PEMFCs and their unique advantages in the field of ORR. Firstly, we introduce the fundamental understanding of Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals, and highlight the difficulties and countermeasures in their synthesis. Then, the progress of theoretical and experimental studies related to the ORR activity and stability of Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals in recent years are reviewed, especially the integrated strategies for enhancing the stability of ORR. Finally, the challenges faced by Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals are summarized and future research directions are proposed. In addition, numerous design ideas of Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals as ORR catalysts are summarized, aiming to promote further development of commercialization of PEMFC catalysts while fully understanding Pt-based intermetallic nanocrystals.

Intermetallic Compounds: Liquid-Phase Synthesis and Electrocatalytic Applications

Characterized by long-range atomic ordering, well-defined stoichiometry, and controlled crystal structure, intermetallics have attracted increasing attention in the area of chemical synthesis and catalytic applications. Liquid-phase synthesis of intermetallics has arisen as the promising methodology due to its precise control over size, shape, and resistance toward sintering compared with the traditional metallurgy. This short review tends to provide perspectives on the liquid-phase synthesis of intermetallics in terms of both thermodynamics and methodology, as well as its applications in various catalytic reactions. Specifically, basic thermodynamics and kinetics in the synthesis of intermetallics will be first discussed, followed by discussing the main factors that will affect the formation of intermetallics during synthesis. The application of intermetallics in electrocatalysis will be demonstrated case by case at last. We conclude the review with perspectives on the future developments with respect to both synthesis and catalytic applications.

Phase-Dependent Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction on Pd3 Bi Nanocrystals

Alloying is a general strategy for modulating the electronic structures of catalyst materials. Compared to more common solid-solution alloys, intermetallic alloys feature well-defined atomic arrangements and provide the unique platform for studying the structure-performance correlations. It is, unfortunately, synthetically challenging to prepare the nanostructures of intermetallic alloys for catalysis research. In this contribution, we prepare intermetallic Pd₃ Bi nanocrystals of a uniform size via a facile solvothermal method. These nanocrystals can phase-transform into solid solution alloy via thermal annealing while retaining a similar composition and size. In 0.1 M KHCO₃ aqueous solution, the intermetallic Pd₃ Bi can selectively reduce CO₂ to formate with high selectivity (≈100 %) and stability even at <-0.35 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode, whereas the solid solution alloy has limited formate selectivity of <60 %. Such unique phase-dependence is understood via theoretical simulations showing that the crystallographic ordering of Pd and Bi atoms within intermetallic alloys can suppress CO poisoning and enhance the *OCHO adsorption during electrochemical CO₂ reduction to formate.

Bimetallic Nanocrystals: Structure, Controllable Synthesis and Applications in Catalysis, Energy and Sensing

In recent years, bimetallic nanocrystals have attracted great interest from many researchers. Bimetallic nanocrystals are expected to exhibit improved physical and chemical properties due to the synergistic effect between the two metals, not just a combination of two monometallic properties. More importantly, the properties of bimetallic nanocrystals are significantly affected by their morphology, structure, and atomic arrangement. Reasonable regulation of these parameters of nanocrystals can effectively control their properties and enhance their practicality in a given application. This review summarizes some recent research progress in the controlled synthesis of shape, composition and structure, as well as some important applications of bimetallic nanocrystals. We first give a brief introduction to the development of bimetals, followed by the architectural diversity of bimetallic nanocrystals. The most commonly used and typical synthesis methods are also summarized, and the possible morphologies under different conditions are also discussed. Finally, we discuss the composition-dependent and shape-dependent properties of bimetals in terms of highlighting applications such as catalysis, energy conversion, gas sensing and bio-detection applications.

An Investigation into the Bulk and Surface Phase Transformations of Bimetallic Pd-In/Al2O3 Catalyst during Reductive and Oxidative Treatments In Situ

A series of oxidative treatments of PdIn-supported intermetallic nanoparticles at different temperatures were performed. The bulk and surface structure of catalyst during phase transformation was investigated by bulk- and surface-sensitive techniques (in situ XAFS, DRIFTS of adsorbed CO). It was found that comparison of palladium and indium fractions in bulk and on the surface suggests the formation of a «core-shell» structure. According to obtained results, the core consists of In-depleted intermetallic compound or inhomogeneous bimetallic phase with the inner core of metallic Pd, when a mixture of indium oxide, metallic palladium and small part of PdIn is present on the surface.

Crystal structure engineering in multimetallic high-index facet nanocatalysts

In the context of metal particle catalysts, composition, shape, exposed facets, crystal structure, and atom distribution dictate activity. While techniques have been developed to control each of these parameters, there is no general method that allows one to optimize all parameters in the context of polyelemental systems. Herein, by combining a solid-state, Bi-influenced, high-index facet shape regulation strategy with thermal annealing, we achieve control over crystal structure and atom distribution on the exposed high-index facets, resulting in an unprecedentedly diverse library of chemically disordered and ordered multimetallic (Pt, Co, Ni, Cu, Fe, and Mn) tetrahexahedral (THH) nanoparticles. Density functional theory calculations show that surface Bi modification stabilizes the {210} high-index facets of the nanoparticles, regardless of their internal atomic ordering. Moreover, we find that the ordering transition temperatures for the nanoparticles are dependent on their composition, and, in the case of Pt₃Fe₁ THH nanoparticles, increasing Ni substitution leads to an order-to-disorder transition at 900 °C. Finally, we have discovered that ordered intermetallic THH Pt₁Co₁ nanocatalysts exhibit a catalytic performance superior to disordered THH Pt₁Co₁ nanoparticles and commercial Pt/C catalysts toward methanol electrooxidation, highlighting the importance of crystal structure and atom distribution control on high-index facets in nanoscale catalysts.

Template-Directed Rapid Synthesis of Pd-Based Ultrathin Porous Intermetallic Nanosheets for Efficient Oxygen Reduction

Atomically ordered intermetallic nanoparticles exhibit improved catalytic activity and durability relative to random alloy counterparts. However, conventional methods with time-consuming and high-temperature syntheses only have rudimentary capability in controlling the structure of intermetallic nanoparticles, hindering advances of intermetallic nanocatalysts. We report a template-directed strategy for rapid synthesis of Pd-based (PdM, M=Pb, Sn and Cd) ultrathin porous intermetallic nanosheets (UPINs) with tunable sizes. This strategy uses preformed seeds, which act as the template to control the deposition of foreign atoms and the subsequent interatomic diffusion. Using the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) as a model reaction, the as-synthesized Pd₃ Pb UPINs exhibit superior activity, durability, and methanol tolerance. The favored geometrical structure and interatomic interaction between Pd and Pb in Pd₃ Pb UPINs are concluded to account for the enhanced ORR performance.

Building Durable Multimetallic Electrocatalysts from Intermetallic Seeds

ConspectusWhen combined with earth-abundant metals, Pt-based alloy nanoparticles (NPs) can be cost-effective electrocatalysts. However, these NPs can experience leaching of non-noble-metal components under harsh electrocatalytic conditions. The Skrabalak group has demonstrated a novel NP construct in which Pt-based random alloy surfaces are stabilized against non-noble-metal leaching by their deposition onto intermetallic seeds. These core@shell NPs are highly durable electrocatalysts, with the ability to tune catalytic performance by the core@shell architecture, surface alloy composition, and NP shape. This versatility was demonstrated in a model system in which random alloy (ra-) PtM surfaces were deposited onto ordered intermetallic (i-) PdCu seeds using seed-mediated co-reduction (SMCR). In the initial demonstration, ra-PtCu shells were deposited on i-PdCu seeds, with these core@shell NPs exhibiting higher specific and mass activities for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) when compared to similarly sized ra-PtCu NPs. These NPs also showed outstanding durability, maintaining ∼85% in specific activity after 5000 cycles. Characterization of the NPs after use revealed minimal loss of Cu. The activity enhancement was attributed to the strained surface that arises from the lattice mismatch between the intermetallic core and random alloy surface. The outstanding durability was attributed to the ordered structure of the intermetallic core.The origin of this durability enhancement was investigated by classical molecular dynamics simulations, where Pt atoms were found to have a lower potential energy when deposited on an intermetallic core than when deposited on a random alloy core. Also, ordering of Cu atoms at the core@shell interface appears to enhance the overall binding between the core and the shell materials. Inspired by this initial demonstration, SMCR has been used to achieve shells of different random alloy compositions, PtM (M = Ni, Co, Cu, or Fe). This advance is significant because ligand effects vary as a function of PtM identity and Pt/M ratio. These features also influence the degree of surface strain imparted from the lattice mismatch between the core and shell materials. Like the initial demonstration, standout features of these core@shell NPs were high durability and resistance to non-noble metal leaching.Moving forward, efforts have been directed toward integrating shape-control to this core@shell NP construct. This integration is motivated by the shape-dependent catalytic performance of NPs derived from the selective expression of specific facets. Considering the initial i-PdCu@ra-PtCu system, NPs with a cubic shape have been achieved by judicious selection of capping ligands during SMCR. Evaluation of these NPs as catalysts for the electrooxidation of formic acid found that the nanocubic shape enhances catalytic performance compared to similar core@shell NPs with a spherical morphology. We envision that SMCR can be applied to other NP systems to achieve highly durable catalysts as the syntheses of monodisperse and shape-controlled intermetallic seeds are advanced. This Account highlights the role of intermetallic cores in providing more durable electrocatalysts. More broadly, the versatility of SMCR is highlighted as a route to integrate architecture, alloy surfaces, and shape within one NP system, and how this achievement is inspiring new high-performance and robust catalysts is discussed.

Atomistic Imaging of Competition between Surface Diffusion and Phase Transition during the Intermetallic Formation of Faceted Particles

To explore the ordering mechanism of facet alloy nanocrystals with randomly distributed atoms, we investigate kinetic and thermodynamic behaviors of the ordering phase transition from face-centered cubic Pt₃Co nanocrystals to L1₂-Pt₃Co intermetallic nanocrystals. It is observed that the ordering occurs from the surface and then gradually into the interior in a layer-by-layer mode, involving the competition between two kinds of phase transition modes: long-range surface diffusion-induced phase transition (SDIPT) and short-range reconstruction-induced body phase transition (RIBPT). The density functional theory calculations demonstrate that the surface status acts as a pivotal part in the thermodynamics and kinetics of the nanoscale ordering transition. With the development of the controllable heating process, both SDIPT and RIBPT modes can be manipulated as well as the morphology of the final product. This in situ work lays the foundations for potentially realizing shape-controlled intermetallic nanostructures by utilizing the thermal annealing method and makes preparations for the rational design of the surface and near-surface atomic configurations at the atomic scale.

A Robust PtNi Nanoframe/N-Doped Graphene Aerogel Electrocatalyst with Both High Activity and Stability

Insufficient catalytic activity and stability and high cost are the barriers for Pt-based electrocatalysts in wide practical applications. Herein, a hierarchically porous PtNi nanoframe/N-doped graphene aerogel (PtNiNF-NGA) electrocatalyst with outstanding performance toward methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) in acid electrolyte has been developed via facile tert-butanol-assisted structure reconfiguration. The ensemble of high-alloying-degree-modulated electronic structure and correspondingly the optimum MOR reaction pathway, the structure superiorities of hierarchical porosity, thin edges, Pt-rich corners, and the anchoring effect of the NGA, endow the PtNiNF-NGA with both prominent electrocatalytic activity and stability. The mass and specific activity (1647 mA mg_Pt ^-1 , 3.8 mA cm^-2 ) of the PtNiNF-NGA are 5.8 and 7.8 times higher than those of commercial Pt/C. It exhibits exceptional stability under a 5-hour chronoamperometry test and 2200-cycle cyclic voltammetry scanning.

Resolving the nanoparticles' structure-property relationships at the atomic level: a study of Pt-based electrocatalysts

Achieving highly active and stable oxygen reduction reaction performance at low platinum-group-metal loadings remains one of the grand challenges in the proton-exchange membrane fuel cells community. Currently, state-of-the-art electrocatalysts are high-surface-area-carbon-supported nanoalloys of platinum with different transition metals (Cu, Ni, Fe, and Co). Despite years of focused research, the established structure-property relationships are not able to explain and predict the electrochemical performance and behavior of the real nanoparticulate systems. In the first part of this work, we reveal the complexity of commercially available platinum-based electrocatalysts and their electrochemical behavior. In the second part, we introduce a bottom-up approach where atomically resolved properties, structural changes, and strain analysis are recorded as well as analyzed on an individual nanoparticle before and after electrochemical conditions (e.g. high current density). Our methodology offers a new level of understanding of structure-stability relationships of practically viable nanoparticulate systems.

Galvanic replacement of intermetallic nanocrystals as a route toward complex heterostructures

Galvanic replacement reactions are a reliable method for transforming monometallic nanotemplates into bimetallic products with complex nanoscale architectures. When replacing bimetallic nanotemplates, even more complex multimetallic products can be made, with final nanocrystal shapes and architectures depending on multiple processes, including Ostwald ripening and the Kirkendall effect. Galvanic replacement, therefore, is a promising tool in increasing the architectural complexity of multimetallic templates, especially if we can identify and control the relevant processes in a given system and apply them more broadly. Here, we study the transformation of intermetallic PdCu nanoparticles in the presence of HAuCl₄ and H₂PtCl₆, both of which are capable of oxidizing both Pd and Cu. Replacement products consistently lost Cu more quickly than Pd, preserved the crystal structure of the original intermetallic template, and grew a new phase on the sacrificial template. In this way, atomic and nanometer-scale architectures are integrated within individual nanocrystals. Product morphologies included faceting of the original spherical particles as well as formation of core@shell and Janus-style particles. These variations are rationalized in terms of differing diffusion behaviors. Overall, galvanic replacement of multimetallic templates is shown to be a route toward increasingly exotic particle architectures with control exerted on both Angstrom and nanometer-scale features, while inviting further consideration of template and oxidant choices.

Recent advances in formic acid electro-oxidation: from the fundamental mechanism to electrocatalysts

Direct formic acid fuel cells have attracted significant attention because of their low fuel crossover, high safety, and high theoretical power density among all the proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. Much effort has been devoted to the study of formic acid oxidation, including the reaction processes and electrocatalysts. However, as a model reaction, the anodic electro-oxidation process of formic acid is still not very clear, especially regarding the confirmation of the intermediates, which is not helpful for the design and synthesis of high-performance electrocatalysts for formic acid oxidation or conducive to understanding the reaction mechanisms of other small fuel molecules. Herein, we briefly review the recent advances in investigating the mechanism of formic acid electro-oxidation and the basic design concepts of formic acid oxidation electrocatalysts. Rather than an exhaustive overview of all aspects of this topic, this mini-review mainly outlines the progress of this field in recent years.

Random alloy and intermetallic nanocatalysts in fuel cell reactions

Fuel cells that use small organic molecules or hydrogen as the anode fuel can power clean electric vehicles. From an experimental perspective, the possible fuel cells' electrocatalytic reaction mechanisms are obtained through in situ electrochemical spectroscopy techniques and density functional theory calculations, providing theoretical guidance for further development of novel nanocatalysts. As advanced nanocatalysts for fuel cells' electrochemical reactions, alloy nanomaterials have greatly improved electrocatalytic activity and stability and have attracted widespread attention. Enhanced electrocatalytic performance of alloy nanocatalysts could be closely related to the synergistic effects, such as electronic and strain effects. Depending on the arrangement of atoms, alloys can be classified into random alloy and intermetallic compounds (ordered structure). Intermetallic compounds generally have lower heats of formation and stronger heteroatomic bonding strength relative to the random alloy, resulting in high chemical and structural stability in either full pH solutions or electrochemical tests. Here, we summarize the latest advances and the structure-function relationship of noble metal alloy nanocatalysts, among which Pt-based catalysts are the main ones, as well as comprehensively understand why they significantly affect the electrocatalytic performance of fuel cells. Novel alloy nanocatalysts with a robust three-phase interface to achieve efficient charge and mass transfer can obtain desirable activity and stability in the electrochemical workstation tests, and is expected to acquire a higher power density on fuel cell test systems with harsh test conditions.

Bromide Ions Triggered Synthesis of Noble Metal-Based Intermetallic Nanocrystals

Ordered intermetallic nanomaterials with a well-defined crystal structure and fixed stoichiometry facilitate the predictable control of their electronic structure and catalytic performance. To obtain the thermodynamically stable intermetallic structures, the conventional approaches with high-temperature annealing are still far from satisfactory, because of annealing-induced aggregation and sintering of nanomaterials. Herein, a general wet-chemical method is developed to synthesize a series of noble metal-based intermetallic nanocrystals, including hexagonal close-packed (hcp) PtBi nanoplates, face-centered cubic (fcc) Pd₃ Pb nanocubes, and hcp Pd_2.5 Bi_1.5 nanoparticles. During the synthetic process, Br^- ions play two important roles for the formation of ordered intermetallic structures: i) Br^- ions can coordinate with the metal ions to decrease their reduction potentials thus slowing down the reduction kinetics. ii) Br^- ions can combine with molecular oxygen to generate an oxidative etching effect, hence reconstructing the atom arrangement, which is beneficial for the formation of the intermetallic structure. As a proof-of-concept application, Pd₃ Pb nanocubes are used as electrocatalysts for ethanol and methanol oxidation reactions, which exhibit significantly improved electrochemical performance compared with the commercial Pd black catalyst.

Electrospinning Synthesis of Carbon-Supported Pt3Mn Intermetallic Nanocrystals and Electrocatalytic Performance towards Oxygen Reduction Reaction

To realize the large-scale application of fuel cells, it is still a great challenge to improve the performance and reduce the cost of cathode catalysts towards oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). In this work, carbon-supported ordered Pt₃Mn intermetallic catalysts were prepared by thermal annealing electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers containing Platinum(II) acetylacetonate/ Manganese(III) acetylacetonate. Compared with its counterparts, the ordered Pt₃Mn intermetallic obtained at 950 °C exhibits a more positive half-potential and higher kinetic current density during the ORR process. Benefiting from their defined stoichiometry and crystal structure, the Mn atoms in Pt₃Mn intermetallic can modulate well the geometric and electronic structure of surface Pt atoms, endowing Pt₃Mn catalyst with an enhanced ORR catalytic activity. Moreover, it also has a better catalytic stability and methanol tolerance than commercial Pt/C catalyst. Our study provides a new strategy to fabricate a highly active and durable Pt₃Mn intermetallic electrocatalyst towards ORR.

Efficient polyalcohol oxidation electrocatalysts enabled by PtM (M = Fe, Co, and Ni) nanocubes surrounded by (200) crystal facets

Due to the high-density (200) crystal planes and abundant active sites, cubic platinum nanomaterials have become outstanding electrocatalysts in promoting fuel cell reactions. However, because of the fact that the facet-controlled synthesis is difficult, it is still a grand challenge to synthesize a sequence of Pt-based nanocubes via a universal method. Herein, we report a general and simple eco-friendly solvothermal method to prepare (200)-enclosed PtM nanocubes. Different from the other nanomaterials, nanocubes are conducive to mass transfer. Moreover, the synergistic and electronic effects between M and Pt are profitable to improve the utilization of precious metals. We used (200)-encapsulated nanocrystals to evaluate their electrocatalytic performance towards glycerol and ethylene glycol oxidation reactions in an alkaline medium. In particular, Pt4Co nanocubes showed superior mass activities in glycerol and ethylene glycol oxidation reactions, which are 6.2- and 5.0-fold higher than those obtained for commercial Pt/C catalysts, respectively. Meanwhile, Pt4M catalysts manifested excellent stability in the endurance test, which is attributed to the alloying effect promoting the electrooxidation of intermediates. Our study provides an ideal method for the construction of Pt-based bimetallic nanocubes, which can be used for anode reactions of polyol fuel cells and beyond.

Effect of lattice mismatch and shell thickness on strain in core@shell nanocrystals

Bimetallic nanocrystals with a core@shell architecture are versatile, multifunctional particles. The lattice mismatch between core and shell regions induces strain, affecting the electronic properties of the shell metal, which is important for applications in catalysis. Here, we analyze this strain in core@shell nanocubes as a function of lattice mismatch and shell thickness. Coupling geometric phase analysis from atomic resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy images with molecular dynamics simulations reveals lattice relaxation in the shell within only a few monolayers and an overexpansion in the axial direction. Interestingly, many works report core@shell metal nanocatalysts with optimum performance at greater shell thicknesses. Our findings suggest that not strain alone but secondary factors, such as structural defects or structural changes in operando, may account for observed enhancements in some strain-engineered nanocatalysts; e.g., Rh@Pt nanocubes for formic acid electrooxidation.

Preserving the Exposed Facets of Pt3Sn Intermetallic Nanocubes During an Order to Disorder Transition Allows the Elucidation of the Effect of the Degree of Alloy Ordering on Electrocatalysis

Controlling which facets are exposed in nanocrystals is crucial to understanding different activity between ordered and disordered alloy electrocatalysts. We modify the degree of ordering of Pt₃Sn nanocubes, while maintaining the shape and size, to enable a direct evaluation of the effect of the order on ORR catalytic activity. We demonstrate a 2.3-fold enhancement in specific activity by 60- and 30%-ordered Pt₃Sn nanocubes compared to 95%-ordered. This was shown to be likely due to surface vacancies in the less-ordered particles. The greater order, however, results in higher stability of the electrocatalyst, with the more disordered nanoparticles showing the dissolution of tin and platinum species during electrocatalysis.

Intermetallic Pd3Pb nanocubes with high selectivity for the 4-electron oxygen reduction reaction pathway

Pd-Based nanoparticles are excellent alternatives to the typically used Pt-based materials that catalyze fuel cell reactions. Specifically, Pd-based intermetallic nanomaterials have shown great promise as electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in alkaline media; however, their synthesis remains a challenge and shape-controlled nanoparticles are limited. Here, a low-temperature approach to intermetallic Pd₃Pb nanocubes is demonstrated and their electrocatalytic properties evaluated for the ORR. The intermetallic Pd₃Pb nanocubes outperformed all reference catalysts, with a mass activity of 154 mA mg_Pd^-1 which is a 130% increase in activity compared to the commercial Pd/C reference and a 230% increase compared to Pd nanocubes. Tafel analysis reveals that the Pd₃Pb nanocubes are highly selective for the 4-electron reduction pathway, with minimal HO₂^- formation. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that the increased activity for the intermetallic nanocubes compared to Pd is likely due to the weakening of OH* adsorption, decreasing the required overpotential. These results show that intermetallic Pd₃Pb nanocubes are highly efficient for the 4-electron pathway of the ORR and could inspire the study of other shape-controlled intermetallics as catalysts for fuel cell applications.

Pt2+-Exchanged ZIF-8 nanocube as a solid-state precursor for L10-PtZn intermetallic nanoparticles embedded in a hollow carbon nanocage

Nanoparticles with an atomically ordered alloy phase have received enormous attention for application as catalysts in fuel cells because of their unique electronic properties resulting from unusually strong d-orbital interactions between two metal components. However, the synthesis of intermetallic nanoparticles requires a high reaction temperature, thus necessitating the protection of nanoparticles with inorganic layers to prevent aggregation of nanoparticles during synthesis. The protective layer needs to be removed later for application as a catalyst, which is a cumbersome process. Herein, a novel synthetic strategy is reported for the preparation of L1₀-PtZn intermetallic nanoparticles by utilizing Pt²⁺-exchanged ZIF-8 nanocubes as a solid-state precursor. The Pt²⁺-exchanged ZIF-8 phase plays a dual role as a metal ion source for L1₀-PtZn nanoparticles and as a carbonaceous matrix that restrains the aggregation of nanoparticles during thermal treatment. The L1₀-PtZn nanoparticles embedded in a hollow carbon nanocage obtained from one-step annealing of Pt²⁺-exchanged ZIF-8 showed better electrocatalytic activity and durability toward methanol oxidation under acidic electrolyte conditions than those obtained from commercial Pt/C catalysts.

Surface sites assembled-strategy on Pt–Ru nanowires for accelerated methanol oxidation

Isolated Ru atoms activate more Pt atoms involved in the Langmuir–Hinshelwood (L–H) pathway, which collectively accelerate methanol oxidation.

Crystal phase-dependent electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution performance of ruthenium–boron intermetallics

Four crystal phases of ruthenium–boron intermetallics, including Ru₇B₃, RuB, Ru₂B₃ and RuB₂, are selectively synthesized and their activity trends toward the HER are investigated.

Borohydride stabilized gold-silver bimetallic nanocatalysts for highly efficient 4-nitrophenol reduction

Bimetallic Au _x Ag_1-x nanoparticles, prepared using sodium borohydride as the sole reducing and capping agent for various NaBH₄ : metal molar ratios, were investigated as catalysts for 4-nitrophenol reduction. This approach yielded the highest catalytic activities observed for this model reaction to date.

Structurally ordered PtSn intermetallic nanoparticles supported on ATO for efficient methanol oxidation reaction

The development of cost-effective methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) catalysts with a high activity and stability is highly desirable for direct methanol fuel cells. In this study, the structurally ordered PtSn intermetallic nanoparticles supported on Sb-doped SnO₂ (ATO) have been successfully synthesized in ethylene glycol (EG) solution at 200 °C. Pt NPs were firstly formed on ATO, followed by the transformation from Pt into hexagonal PtSn on the surface of ATO. The obtained structurally ordered PtSn intermetallic NPs supported on ATO demonstrate significantly enhanced MOR activity and durability in comparison with commercial Pt/C. Our PtSn intermetallic NPs supported on ATO show a MOR activity 4.1 times higher than that of commercial Pt/C catalysts. Accelerated durability tests indicate that the commercial Pt/C catalysts lose about 50% of their initial current density after 500 cycles while the Pt/ATO-200-3 h catalyst loses only about 15% of its initial current density. Our PtSn intermetallic NPs supported on ATO are also found to have higher CO tolerance than commercial Pt/C. This work demonstrates an important strategy to rationally design high-performance structurally ordered Pt-based intermetallic NP catalysts for fuel cells and other applications.

Computationally generated maps of surface structures and catalytic activities for alloy phase diagrams

To facilitate the rational design of alloy catalysts, we introduce a method for rapidly calculating the structure and catalytic properties of a substitutional alloy surface that is in equilibrium with the underlying bulk phase. We implement our method by developing a way to generate surface cluster expansions that explicitly account for the lattice parameter of the bulk structure. This approach makes it possible to computationally map the structure of an alloy surface and statistically sample adsorbate binding energies at every point in the alloy phase diagram. When combined with a method for predicting catalytic activities from adsorbate binding energies, maps of catalytic activities at every point in the phase diagram can be created, enabling the identification of synthesis conditions likely to result in highly active catalysts. We demonstrate our approach by analyzing Pt-rich Pt-Ni catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction, finding 2 regions in the phase diagram that are predicted to result in highly active catalysts. Our analysis indicates that the Pt3Ni(111) surface, which has the highest known specific activity for the oxygen reduction reaction, is likely able to achieve its high activity through the formation of an intermetallic phase with L12 order. We use the generated surface structure and catalytic activity maps to demonstrate how the intermetallic nature of this phase leads to high catalytic activity and discuss how the underlying principles can be used in catalysis design. We further discuss the importance of surface phases and demonstrate how they can dramatically affect catalytic activity.

Intermetallic Pd3Pb ultrathin nanoplate-constructed flowers with low-coordinated edge sites boost oxygen reduction performance

Although tremendous efforts have been devoted to exploring non-Pt based electrocatalysts toward the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), achievements in both catalytic activity and durability are still far from satisfactory. Here, we report a facile approach for the synthesis of intermetallic Pd3Pb ultrathin nanoplate-constructed flowers. Such highly opened hierarchical nanostructures with an ordered phase and low-coordinated edge sites exhibited a substantially enhanced activity toward the ORR. Especially, the intermetallic Pd3Pb nanoflowers achieved a record-breaking mass activity (1.14 mA μgPd-1) in an alkaline solution at 0.9 V vs. a reversible hydrogen electrode among the reported Pd-based ORR electrocatalysts to date, which was 1.8, 3.9 and 11.4 times higher than those of intermetallic Pd3Pb nanocubes, Pd3Pb dendrites and commercial Pt/C, respectively. More importantly, the intermetallic Pd3Pb nanoflowers also showed a higher durability with only 23.7% loss in mass activity after 10 000 cycles compared to the commercial Pt/C (35% loss in mass activity) due to their chemically stable intermetallic structures.

Disorder-to-Order Transition Mediated by Size Refocusing: A Route toward Monodisperse Intermetallic Nanoparticles

Intermetallic nanoparticles are remarkable due to their often enhanced catalytic, magnetic, and optical properties, which arise from their ordered crystal structures and high structural stability. Typical syntheses of intermetallic nanoparticles include thermal annealing of the disordered counterpart in atmosphere (or vacuum) or colloidal syntheses, where the phase transformation is achieved in solution. Although both methods can produce intermetallic nanoparticles, there is difficulty in achieving monodisperse nanoparticles, which is critical to exploiting their properties for various applications. Here, we show that overgrowth on random alloy AuCu nanoparticles mediated by size refocusing yields monodisperse intermetallic AuCu nanoparticles. Size refocusing has been used in syntheses of semiconductor and upconverting nanocrystals to achieve monodisperse samples, but now we demonstrate size refocusing as a mechanism to achieve the disorder-to-order phase transformation in multimetallic nanoparticles. The phase transformation was monitored by time evolution experiments, where analysis of reaction aliquots with transmission electron microscopy and powder X-ray diffraction revealed the generation and dissolution of small nanoparticles coupled with an increase in the average size of the nanoparticles and conversion to the ordered phase. This demonstration advances the understanding of intermetallic nanoparticle formation in colloidal syntheses, which can expedite the development of electrocatalysts and magnetic storage materials.

Polyhedron-Assembled Ternary PtCuCo Nanochains: Integrated Functions Enhance the Electrocatalytic Performance of Methanol Oxidation at Elevated Temperature

Recently, the preparation of a high-performance one-dimensional alloy nanostructure for fuel cells has been given increasing attention due to its smart-structure merits and electronic effect triggered by alloying different kinds of metals at the nanoscale. In this study, unique ternary PtCuCo nanochains assembled with small polyhedra are first achieved and used as high-performance anode electrocatalysts toward methanol oxidation at elevated temperature (60 °C) that is closer to the operating temperature of direct methanol fuel cells than room temperature. The specific activity/mass activity of Pt₄₅Cu₃₅Co₂₀ one-dimensional nanochains can reach up to 18.24 mA cm^-2/4.19 A mg^-1_Pt that is 9.25/10.47 times that of commercial Pt black in sulfuric acid medium. After a 3600 s durability test, the remaining current density of Pt₄₅Cu₃₅Co₂₀ one-dimensional nanochains is 73.3 times that of commercial Pt black. The structure characterizations show that the high density of surface active sites, d-band center of the Pt downshift, moderate strain effect, and synergetic effect are jointly responsible for the enhanced electrocatalytic performance of one-dimensional ternary PtCuCo nanochains.