Excited State Anions in Organic Transformations

Photocatalytic defluoroalkylation and hydrodefluorination of trifluoromethyls using o-phosphinophenolate

Under visible light irradiation, o-phosphinophenolate functions as an easily accessible photoredox catalyst to activate trifluoromethyl groups in trifluoroacetamides, trifluoroacetates, and trifluoromethyl (hetero)arenes to deliver corresponding difluoromethyl radicals. It works in relay with a thiol hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) catalyst to enable selective defluoroalkylation and hydrodefluorination. The reaction allows for the facile synthesis of a broad scope of difluoromethylene-incorporated carbonyl and (hetero)aromatic compounds, which are valuable fluorinated intermediates of interest in the pharmaceutical industry. The ortho-diphenylphosphino substituent, which is believed to facilitate photoinduced electron transfer, plays an essential role in the redox reactivity of phenolate. In addition to trifluoromethyl groups, pentafluoroethyl groups could also be selectively defluoroalkylated.

Photoredox catalysis can strongly reduce and cleave unactivated chemical bonds via photoinduced electron transfer. Here the authors use o-phosphinophenolate for photocatalytic C–F activation of a wide range of trifluoromethyl groups in trifluoroacetamides, trifluoroacetates, and trifluoromethyl(hetero)arenes to deliver corresponding difluoromethyl radicals.

Leveraging of Sulfur Anions in Photoinduced Molecular Transformations

This perspective describes recent advances in the use of sulfur anions to promote molecular transformations under irradiation with visible light. The topics are classified by the following reaction modes performed by the key sulfur anions: (1) C-S coupling via electron donor-acceptor (EDA) interactions, (2) photoinduced molecular transformation via sulfur anion EDA catalysis, (3) sulfur anions as photoredox and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) catalysts, and 4) dithiocarbamate and xanthate as nucleophilic catalysts for photoinduced radical cascade reactions.

Direct photo-induced reductive Heck cyclization of indoles for the efficient preparation of polycyclic indolinyl compounds

The photo-induced cleavage of C(sp2)-Cl bonds is an appealing synthetic tool in organic synthesis, but usually requires the use of high UV light, photocatalysts and/or photosensitizers. Herein is described a direct photo-induced chloroarene activation with UVA/blue LEDs that can be used in the reductive Heck cyclization of indoles and without the use of a photocatalyst or photosensitizer. The indole compounds examined display room-temperature phosphorescence. The photochemical reaction tolerates a panel of functional groups including esters, alcohols, amides, cyano and alkenes (27 examples, 50-88% yields), and can be used to prepare polycyclic compounds and perform the functionalization of natural product analogues in moderate to good yields. Mechanistic experiments, including time-resolved absorption spectroscopy, are supportive of photo-induced electron transfer between the indole substrate and DIPEA, with the formation of radical intermediates in the photo-induced dearomatization reaction.

Alkene Synthesis by Photo-Wolff-Kischner Reaction of Sulfur Ylides and N-Tosylhydrazones

A visible-light-driven and room temperature photo-Wolff-Kischner reaction of sulfur ylides and N-tosylhydrazones has been developed for the first time to provide modular access to alkene synthesis. The high functional group tolerance and broad substrate scope were demonstrated by more than 60 examples. Both E- and Z-olefinic stereochemistry in the products could be controlled with excellent stereoselectivity. A series of mechanistic studies support that the reaction should proceed through a radical-carbanion crossover pathway, specifically involving addition of photo-generated sulfur ylide radical cations to N-tosylhydrazones to form carbanions and subsequent Wolff-Kischner process.

Light-Induced Single-Electron Transfer Processes involving Sulfur Anions as Catalysts

Photoredox catalysis has evolved as an attractive approach to enable a wide variety of chemical reactions with high selectivity under mild conditions. The development of novel photocatalytic systems is key to obtaining new reactivity and improving their catalytic performances. In this context, cost-effective organic anion-based photocatalysts have recently attracted increasing interest. In particular, sulfur-based anionic catalysts are of interest due to their unique redox properties. This Perspective highlights and discusses recent advances in light-induced single-electron-transfer processes directly involving sulfur anions as catalysts. The content of this Perspective is organized along the different photoinduced electron-transfer pathways between catalysts and substrates.

Electro-mediated PhotoRedox Catalysis for Selective C(sp3 )-O Cleavages of Phosphinated Alcohols to Carbanions

We report a novel example of electro-mediated photoredox catalysis (e-PRC) in the reductive cleavage of C(sp3 )-O bonds of phosphinated alcohols to alkyl carbanions. As well as deoxygenations, olefinations are reported which are E-selective and can be made Z-selective in a tandem reduction/photosensitization process where both steps are photoelectrochemically promoted. Spectroscopy, computation, and catalyst structural variations reveal that our new naphthalene monoimide-type catalyst allows for an intimate dispersive precomplexation of its radical anion form with the phosphinate substrate, facilitating a reactivity-determining C(sp3 )-O cleavage. Surprisingly and in contrast to previously reported photoexcited radical anion chemistries, our conditions tolerate aryl chlorides/bromides and do not give rise to Birch-type reductions.

How Radical Are "Radical" Photocatalysts? A Closed-Shell Meisenheimer Complex Is Identified as a Super-Reducing Photoreagent

Super-reducing excited states have the potential to activate strong bonds, leading to unprecedented photoreactivity. Excited states of radical anions, accessed via reduction of a precatalyst followed by light absorption, have been proposed to drive photoredox transformations under super-reducing conditions. Here, we investigate the radical anion of naphthalene monoimide as a photoreductant and find that the radical doublet excited state has a lifetime of 24 ps, which is too short to facilitate photoredox activity. To account for the apparent photoreactivity of the radical anion, we identify an emissive two-electron reduced Meisenheimer complex of naphthalene monoimide, [NMI(H)]^-. The singlet excited state of [NMI(H)]^- is a potent reductant (-3.08 V vs Fc/Fc⁺), is long-lived (20 ns), and its emission can be dynamically quenched by chloroarenes to drive a radical photochemistry, establishing that it is this emissive excited state that is competent for reported C-C and C-P coupling reactivity. These results provide a mechanistic basis for photoreactivity at highly reducing potentials via singlet excited state manifolds and lays out a clear path for the development of exceptionally reducing photoreagents derived from electron-rich closed-shell anions.

Metal-Free Photoredox-Catalyzed Hydrodefluorination of Fluoroarenes Utilizing Amide Solvent as Reductant

A metal-free photoredox-catalyzed hydrodefluorination of fluoroarenes was achieved by using N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-para-phenylenediamine (1) as a strong photoreduction catalyst. This reaction was applicable not only to electron-rich monofluoroarenes but also to polyfluoroarenes to afford non-fluorinated arenes. The experimental mechanistic studies indicated that the amide solvent NMP plays an important role for regeneration of the photocatalyst, enabling additive-free photoreduction catalysis.

Turning the Light on Phenols: New Opportunities in Organic Synthesis

Phenols ( I ) are extremely relevant chemical functionalities in natural, synthetic and industrial chemistry. Their corresponding electron-rich anions, namely phenolates ( I ), are characterized by interesting physicochemical properties that can be drastically altered upon light excitation. Specifically, phenolates ( I ) become strong reducing agents in the excited state and are able to generate reactive radicals from suitable precursors via single-electron transfer processes. Thus, these species can photochemically trigger strategic bond-forming reactions, including their direct aromatic C-H functionalization. Moreover, substituted phenolate anions can act as photocatalysts to enable synthetically useful organic transformations. An alternative mechanistic manifold is represented by the ability of phenolate derivatives I to form ground state electron donor-acceptor (EDA) complexes with electron-poor radical sources. These complementary scenarios have paved the way for the development of a wide range of relevant organic reactions. In this Minireview, we present the main examples of this research field, and give insight on emerging trends in phenols photocatalysis towards richer organic synthesis.

Sensitization-initiated electron transfer via upconversion: mechanism and photocatalytic applications

Sensitization-initiated electron transfer (SenI-ET) describes a recently discovered photoredox strategy that relies on two consecutive light absorption events, triggering a sequence of energy and electron transfer steps. The cumulative energy input from two visible photons gives access to thermodynamically demanding reactions, which would be unattainable by single excitation with visible light. For this reason, SenI-ET has become a very useful strategy in synthetic photochemistry, but the mechanism has been difficult to clarify due to its complexity. We demonstrate that SenI-ET can operate via sensitized triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion, and we provide the first direct spectroscopic evidence for the catalytically active species. In our system comprised of fac-[Ir(ppy)₃] as a light absorber, 2,7-di-tert-butylpyrene as an annihilator, and N,N-dimethylaniline as a sacrificial reductant, all photochemical reaction steps proceed with remarkable rates and efficiencies, and this system is furthermore suitable for photocatalytic aryl dehalogenations, pinacol couplings and detosylation reactions. The insights presented here are relevant for the further rational development of photoredox processes based on multi-photon excitation, and they could have important implications in the greater contexts of synthetic photochemistry and solar energy conversion.

Recent advances in visible light-activated radical coupling reactions triggered by (i) ruthenium, (ii) iridium and (iii) organic photoredox agents

Photoredox chemistry with organic or transition metal agents has been reviewed in earlier years, but such is the pace of progress that we will overlap very little with earlier comprehensive reviews. This review first presents an overview of the area of research and then examines recent examples of C-C, C-N, C-O and C-S bond formations via radical intermediates with transition metal and organic radical promoters. Recent successes with Birch reductions are also included. The transition metal chemistry will be restricted to photocatalysts based on the most widely used metals, Ru and Ir, but includes coupling chemistries that take advantage of low-valent nickel, or occasionally copper, complexes to process the radicals that are formed. Our focus is on developments in the past 10 years (2011-2021). This period has also seen great advances in the chemistry of organic photoredox reagents and the review covers this area. The review is intended to present highlights and is not comprehensive.

Visible-Light-Induced Sulfur-Alkenylation of Alkenes

A visible-light-induced intermolecular sulfur-alkenylation of alkenes, including both activated and unactivated alkenes, is described. This sulfur-alkenylation reaction proceed in a highly regio- and stereospecific manner involving the visible-light-induced conversion of a ketene dithioacetal to the thiavinyl 1,3-dipole intermediate, followed by a formal [3 + 2] cycloaddition and C-S bond cleavage. Furthermore, it is also an efficient approach for the late-stage functionalization of natural products and complex molecules, even being induced by sunlight under ambient conditions.

Emerging concepts in photocatalytic organic synthesis

Visible light photocatalysis has become a powerful tool in organic synthesis that uses photons as traceless, sustainable reagents. Most of the activities in the field focus on the development of new reactions via common photoredox cycles, but recently a number of exciting new concepts and strategies entered less charted territories. We survey approaches that enable the use of longer wavelengths and show that the wavelength and intensity of photons are import parameters that enable tuning of the reactivity of a photocatalyst to control or change the selectivity of chemical reactions. In addition, we discuss recent efforts to substitute strong reductants, such as elemental lithium and sodium, by light and technological advances in the field.

Excited State Anions in Organic Transformations

Utilizing light is a smart way to fuel chemical transformations as it allows the energy to be selectively focused on certain molecules. Many reactions involving electronically excited species proceed via open-shell intermediates, which offer novel and unique routes to expand the hitherto used synthetic toolbox in organic chemistry. The direct conversion of non-prefunctionalized, less activated compounds is a highly desirable goal to pave the way towards more sustainable and atom-economic chemical processes. Photoexcited closed-shell anions have been shown to reach extreme potentials in single electron transfer reactions and reveal unusual excited-state reactivity. It is, therefore, surprising that their use as a reagent or photocatalyst is limited to a few examples. In this Review, we briefly discuss the characteristics of anionic photochemistry, highlight pioneering work, and show recent progress which has been made by utilizing photoexcited anionic species in organic synthesis.

Photocatalytic Reductive C-O Bond Cleavage of Alkyl Aryl Ethers by Using Carbazole Catalysts with Cesium Carbonate

Methods to activate the relatively stable ether C-O bonds and convert them to other functional groups are desirable. One-electron reduction of ethers is a potentially promising route to cleave the C-O bond. However, owing to the highly negative redox potential of alkyl aryl ethers (E^red < -2.6 V vs SCE), this mode of ether C-O bond activation is challenging. Herein, we report the visible-light-induced photocatalytic cleavage of the alkyl aryl ether C-O bond using a carbazole-based organic photocatalyst (PC). Both benzylic and non-benzylic aryl ethers underwent C-O bond cleavage to form the corresponding phenol products. Addition of Cs₂CO₃ was beneficial, especially in reactions using a N-H carbazole PC. The reaction was proposed to occur via single-electron transfer (SET) from the excited-state carbazole to the substrate ether. Interaction of the N-H carbazole PC with Cs₂CO₃ via hydrogen bonding exists, which enables a deprotonation-assisted electron-transfer mechanism to operate. In addition, the Lewis acidic Cs cation interacts with the substrate alkyl aryl ether to activate it as an electron acceptor. The high reducing ability of the carbazole combined with the beneficial effects of Cs₂CO₃ made this otherwise formidable SET event possible.

Phenolate anion-catalyzed direct activation of inert alkyl chlorides driven by visible light

A photochemical activation of inert alkyl chlorides catalyzed by phenolate anions was developed for C–O bond formation, dehalogenation, and cyclization under mild conditions.

Anti-Markovnikov hydroarylation of alkenes via polysulfide anion photocatalysis

A protocol for anti-Markovnikov hydroarylation of alkenes with aryl halides has been developed using polysulfide anions as photocatalysts in the presence of the Hantzsch ester and water under irradiation with visible light.

A photoexcited halogen-bonded EDA complex of the thiophenolate anion with iodobenzene for C(sp3)–H activation and thiolation

A direct photochemical thiolation of C(sp3)–H bond-containing substrates with thiophenol was developed. A halogen bonding-type EDA complex was found to trigger the downstream single electron transfer and hydrogen atom transfer process.