Antiarthritic effect of bee venom: Inhibition of inflammation mediator generation by suppression of NF-?B through interaction with the p50 subunit

A New Mixed All-Atom/Coarse-Grained Model: Application to Melittin Aggregation in Aqueous Solution

We introduce a new mixed resolution, all-atom/coarse-grained approach (AACG), for modeling peptides in aqueous solution and apply it to characterizing the aggregation of melittin. All of the atoms in peptidic components are represented, while a single site is used for each water molecule. With the full flexibility of the peptide retained, our AACG method achieves speedups by a factor of 3-4 for CPU time reduction and another factor of roughly 7 for diffusion. An Ewald treatment permits the inclusion of long-range electrostatic interactions. These characteristics fit well with the requirements for studying peptide association and aggregation, where the system sizes and time scales require considerable computational resources with all-atom models. In particular, AACG is well suited for biologics since changes in peptide shape and long-range electrostatics may play an important role. The application of AACG to melittin, a 26-residue peptide with a well-known propensity to aggregate in solution, serves as an initial demonstration of this technology for studying peptide aggregation. We observed the formation of melittin aggregates during our simulations and characterized the time-evolution of aggregate size distribution, buried surface areas, and residue contacts. Key interactions including π-cation and π-stacking involving TRP19 were also examined. Our AACG simulations demonstrated a clear salt effect and a moderate temperature effect on aggregation and support the molten globule model of melittin aggregates. As a showcase, this work illustrates the useful role for AACG in investigations of peptide aggregation and its potential to guide formulation and design of biologics.

Melittin suppresses tumor progression by regulating tumor-associated macrophages in a Lewis lung carcinoma mouse model

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) are a major component of tumor stroma. It has been reported that TAMs have M2-like phenotype and facilitate tumor progression by promoting angiogenesis and immunosuppression. Melittin, a major polypeptide of bee venom, has been widely studied as an anti-cancer drug due to its cytotoxicity to malignant cells. However, very little is known regarding the effect of melittin on immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. This study focuses on the effect of melittin on TAMs in a Lewis lung carcinoma mouse model. Melittin inhibited the rapid tumor growth compared to the control in vivo. Melittin increased the M1/M2 ratio of TAMs by selectively reducing the number of CD206⁺ M2-like TAMs while not altering the population of CD86⁺ M1-like TAMs. Melittin also preferentially binds to M2 macrophages, and this binding was not associated with phagocytosis. Gene and protein expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegf) and mannose receptor C type 1 (Mrc1/CD206) was reduced in M2-like bone marrow-derived macrophages by melittin treatment, but there was no significant change in the gene level of Vegf and FMS-like tyrosine kinase 1 (Flt1/VEGFR1) in tumor cells in vitro. Additionally, the levels of VEGF and CD31, markers of angiogenesis, were significantly decreased by melittin treatment in tumor tissues. This study revealed a novel role for melittin in tumor treatment and suggested that melittin could be a promising therapeutic agent for targeting M2-like TAMs.

Melittin inhibits osteoclast formation through the downregulation of the RANKL-RANK signaling pathway and the inhibition of interleukin-1β in murine macrophages

Melittin is a major toxic component of bee venom (Apis mellifera). It is not known whether melittin is involved in bone metabolism and osteoclastogenesis. The aim of this study was to determine the role of melittin in the regulation of osteoclastogenesis. In vitro osteoclastogenesis assays were performed using mouse RAW 264.7 cells and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) treated with receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). Morphologic and functional analyses for osteoclast-like multinucleated cells (MNCs) were performed by tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining, F-actin staining and pit formation methods. The gene expression of TRAP, cathepsin K, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and carbonic anhydrase II was measured by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. The protein expression levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), the p65 subunit of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), c-Fos, c-Jun, nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1), TNF receptor-associated factor-6 (TRAF6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were assessed by western blot analysis. Melittin inhibited the mRNA expression of TRAP, cathepsin K, MMP-9 and carbonic anhydrase II in RANKL-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The increased protein expression of TRAF6, p-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p-JNK, p-p65, p-c-Fos and NFATc1 induced by RANKL was significantly suppressed in the RAW 264.7 cells treated with melittin. A synergistic effect of IL-1β on the formation of RANKL-induced osteoclast-like MNCs was found in two experimental cells. The increased expression of IL-1β following the stimulation of RAW 264.7 cells with RANKL activated TRAF6, p-ERK, p-JNK, p-p65, p-c-Fos and NFATc1. These effects were attenuated by the downregulation of IL-1β using siRNA against IL-1β, and also by treatment with melittin. On the whole, the findings of this study demonstrate that melittin inhibits the formation of osteoclast-like MNCs by interfering with the RANKL-RANK signaling pathway.

Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely terrestrial, folk-medicinally important invertebrates: a comparative survey and review

Traditional healing methods involving hundreds of insect and other invertebrate species are reviewed. Some of the uses are based on the tenet of "similia similibus" (let likes be cured by likes), but not all non-conventional health promoting practices should be dismissed as superstition or wishful thinking, for they have stood the test of time. Two questions are addressed: how can totally different organ systems in a human possibly benefit from extracts, potions, powders, secretions, ashes, etc. of a single species and how can different target organs, e.g. bronchi, lungs, the urinary bladder, kidneys, etc. apparently respond to a range of taxonomically not even closely related species? Even though therapeutically used invertebrates are generally small, they nevertheless possess organs for specific functions, e.g. digestion, gas exchange, reproduction. They have a nervous system, endocrine glands, a heart and muscle tissue and they contain a multitude of different molecules like metabolites, enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, secretions, etc. that have come under increased scientific scrutiny for pharmacological properties. Bearing that in mind it seems likely that a single species prepared and used in different ways could have a multitude of uses. But how, for example, can there be remedies for breathing and other problems, involving earthworms, molluscs, termites, beetles, cockroaches, bugs, and dragonflies? Since invertebrates themselves can suffer from infections and cancers, common defence reactions are likely to have evolved in all invertebrates, which is why it would be far more surprising to find that each species had evolved its own unique disease fighting system. To obtain a more comprehensive picture, however, we still need information on folk medicinal uses of insects and other invertebrates from a wider range of regions and ethnic groups, but this task is hampered by western-based medicines becoming increasingly dominant and traditional healers being unable and sometimes even unwilling to transmit their knowledge to the younger generation. However, collecting and uncontrolled uses of therapeutic invertebrates can put undue pressure on certain highly sought after species and this is something that has to be borne in mind as well.

Natural Vaccine Adjuvants and Immunopotentiators Derived From Plants, Fungi, Marine Organisms, and Insects

Immunopotentiators derived from different natural sources are under investigation with varying success. This chapter gives an overview of developments from plants, fungi, marine organisms, and insects. Plant-derived immune stimulators consist of a diverse range of small molecules or large polysaccharides. Notable examples that have been assessed in both preclinical and clinical trials include saponins, tomatine, and inulin. Similarly, fungi produce a range of potential candidate molecules, with β-glucans showing the most promise. Other complex molecules that have established adjuvant activity include α-galactosylceramide (originally obtained from a marine sponge), chitosan (commonly produced from chitin from shrimps), and peptides (found in bee venom). Some organisms, for example, endophytic fungi and bees, produce immunostimulants using compounds obtained from plants. The main challenges facing this type of research and tools being developed to overcome them are examined.

Melittin, a Potential Natural Toxin of Crude Bee Venom: Probable Future Arsenal in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus

Since diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the most common and serious endocrine metabolic disorders, it is important to elucidate novel antidiabetic therapeutic agents from various sources, including natural products. Bee venom (BV) is a complex mixture of proteins, peptides, and low molecular components, and melittin is the main constituent. Melittin is a peptide consisting of 26 amino acids with the sequence GIGAVLKVLTTGLPALISWIKRKRQQ. It has several important biological effects and has a relatively low toxicity. Recent studies using animal models have confirmed that melittin has significant glucose and lipid lowering activities by acting on several mechanistic pathways. The main antidiabetic activity of melittin is increasing insulin secretion via depolarization of pancreatic β-cells. Other possible mechanisms may involve stimulation of phospholipase A2, increase of glucose uptake, improving lipid profile, and/or reduction of inflammation. This review summarizes the various sources, proteomics, biological roles, adverse effects, and medical applications of melittin and its mechanism of action in combating DM.

Safety of essential bee venom pharmacopuncture as assessed in a randomized controlled double-blind trial

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

While bee venom (BV) pharmacopuncture use is common in Asia, frequent occurrence of allergic reactions during the treatment process is burdensome for both practitioner and patient.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study compared efficacy and safety in isolated and purified essential BV (eBV) pharmacopuncture filtered for phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and histamine sections, and original BV to the aim of promoting safe BV pharmacopuncture use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In in vitro, we examined the effect of BV and eBV on nitric oxide (NO) production induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 macrophages, and clinically, 20 healthy adults aged 20-40 years were randomly allocated and administered eBV 0.2mL and BV pharmacopuncture 0.2mL on left and right forearm, respectively, and physician, participant, and outcome assessor were blinded to treatment allocation. Local pain, swelling, itching, redness, wheals, and adverse reactions were recorded by timepoint.

RESULTS

eBV and BV exhibited similar inhibitory effects on NO production. Also, in comparison between eBV and BV pharmacopuncture administration areas on each forearm, eBV displayed significantly lower local pain at 24h post-administration (P=0.0062), and less swelling at 30min (P=0.0198), 2 (P=0.0028), 24 (P=0.0068), and 48h post-administration (P=0.0253). eBV also showed significantly less itching at 24 (P=0.0119), 48 (P=0.0082), and 96h (P=0.0141), while redness was significantly less at 30min (P=0.0090), 6 (P=0.0005), and 24h (P<0.0001). Time-by-treatment interactions were statistically significant for itching and redness (P<0.001, and P<0.001, respectively), and all original BV pharmacopuncture administered regions showed a tendency toward more severe itching and redness in later measurements.

CONCLUSIONS

eBV and BV displayed comparable anti-inflammatory effects, and eBV pharmacopuncture presented less local allergic reactions.

The Pathogenetic Effect of Natural and Bacterial Toxins on Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common allergic skin disease that is associated with chronic, recurrent eczematous and pruritic lesions at the flexural folds caused by interacting factors related to environmental and immune system changes. AD results in dry skin, and immunoglobulin E-mediated allergic reactions to foods and environmental allergens. While steroids and anti-histamines temporarily relieve the symptoms of AD, the possibility of side effects from pharmacological interventions remains. Despite intensive research, the underlying mechanisms for AD have not been clarified. A study of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) established the role of its toxins in the pathogenesis of AD. Approximately 90% of patients with AD experience S. aureus colonization and up to 50%–60% of the colonizing S. aureus is toxin-producing. Any damage to the protective skin barrier allows for the entry of invading allergens and pathogens that further drive the pathogenesis of AD. Some natural toxins (or their components) that have therapeutic effects on AD have been studied. In addition, recent studies on inflammasomes as one component of the innate immune system have been carried out. Additionally, studies on the close relationship between the activation of inflammasomes and toxins in AD have been reported. This review highlights the literature that discusses the pathogenesis of AD, the role of toxins in AD, and the positive and negative effects of toxins on AD. Lastly, suggestions are made regarding the role of inflammasomes in AD.

Inhibitory effects of bee venom and its components against viruses in vitro and in vivo

Bee venom (BV) from honey bee (Apis Melifera L.) contains at least 18 pharmacologically active components including melittin (MLT), phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂), and apamin etc. BV is safe for human treatments dose dependently and proven to possess different healing properties including antibacterial and antiparasitidal properties. Nevertheless, antiviral properties of BV have not well investigated. Hence, we identified the potential antiviral properties of BV and its component against a broad panel of viruses. Co-incubation of non-cytotoxic amounts of BV and MLT, the main component of BV, significantly inhibited the replication of enveloped viruses such as Influenza A virus (PR8), Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), and Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). Additionally, BV and MLT also inhibited the replication of non-enveloped viruses such as Enterovirus-71 (EV-71) and Coxsackie Virus (H3). Such antiviral properties were mainly explained by virucidal mechanism. Moreover, MLT protected mice which were challenged with lethal doses of pathogenic influenza A H1N1 viruses. Therefore, these results provides the evidence that BV and MLT could be a potential source as a promising antiviral agent, especially to develop as a broad spectrum antiviral agent.

Bee Venom Inhibits Porphyromonas gingivalis Lipopolysaccharides-Induced Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines through Suppression of NF-κB and AP-1 Signaling Pathways

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease that leads to destruction of tooth supporting tissues. Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), especially its lipopolysaccharides (LPS), is one of major pathogens that cause periodontitis. Bee venom (BV) has been widely used as a traditional medicine for various diseases. Previous studies have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial effects of BV. However, a direct role and cellular mechanism of BV on periodontitis-like human keratinocytes have not been explored. Therefore, we investigated the anti-inflammatory mechanism of BV against P. gingivalis LPS (PgLPS)-induced HaCaT human keratinocyte cell line. The anti-inflammatory effect of BV was demonstrated by various molecular biological methods. The results showed that PgLPS increased the expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and interferon (IFN)-γ. In addition, PgLPS induced activation of the signaling pathways of inflammatory cytokines-related transcription factors, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and activator protein 1 (AP-1). BV effectively inhibited those pro-inflammatory cytokines through suppression of NF-κB and AP-1 signaling pathways. These results suggest that administration of BV attenuates PgLPS-induced inflammatory responses. Furthermore, BV may be a useful treatment to anti-inflammatory therapy for periodontitis.

Anti-cancer effect of bee venom on colon cancer cell growth by activation of death receptors and inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B

Bee venom (BV) has been used as a traditional medicine to treat arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, cancerous tumors, and skin diseases. However, the effects of BV on the colon cancer and their action mechanisms have not been reported yet. We used cell viability assay and soft agar colony formation assay for testing cell viability, electro mobility shift assay for detecting DNA binding activity of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and Western blotting assay for detection of apoptosis regulatory proteins. We found that BV inhibited growth of colon cancer cells through induction of apoptosis. We also found that the expression of death receptor (DR) 4, DR5, p53, p21, Bax, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-8, and cleaved caspase-9 was increased by BV treatment in a dose dependent manner (0–5 μg/ml). Consistent with cancer cell growth inhibition, the DNA binding activity of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) was also inhibited by BV treatment. Besides, we found that BV blocked NF-κB activation by directly binding to NF-κB p50 subunit. Moreover, combination treatment with BV and p50 siRNA or NF-κB inhibitor augmented BV-induced cell growth inhibition. However, p50 mutant plasmid (C62S) transfection partially abolished BV-induced cell growth inhibiton. In addition, BV significantly suppressed tumor growth in vivo. Therefore, these results suggested that BV could inhibit colon cancer cell growth, and these anti-proliferative effects may be related to the induction of apoptosis by activation of DR4 and DR5 and inhibition of NF-κB.

Contribution of large-sized primary sensory neuronal sensitization to mechanical allodynia by upregulation of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide gated channels via cyclooxygenase 1 cascade

Under physiological state, small- and medium-sized dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons are believed to mediate nociceptive behavioral responses to painful stimuli. However, recently it has been found that a number of large-sized neurons are also involved in nociceptive transmission under neuropathic conditions. Nonetheless, the underlying mechanisms that large-sized DRG neurons mediate nociception are poorly understood. In the present study, the role of large-sized neurons in bee venom (BV)-induced mechanical allodynia and the underlying mechanisms were investigated. Behaviorally, it was found that mechanical allodynia was still evoked by BV injection in rats in which the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1-positive DRG neurons were chemically deleted. Electrophysiologically, in vitro patch clamp recordings of large-sized neurons showed hyperexcitability in these neurons. Interestingly, the firing pattern of these neurons was changed from phasic to tonic under BV-inflamed state. It has been suggested that hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide gated channels (HCN) expressed in large-sized DRG neurons contribute importantly to repeatedly firing. So we examined the roles of HCNs in BV-induced mechanical allodynia. Consistent with the overexpression of HCN1/2 detected by immunofluorescence, HCNs-mediated hyperpolarization activated cation current (I_h) was significantly increased in the BV treated samples. Pharmacological experiments demonstrated that the hyperexcitability and upregulation of I_h in large-sized neurons were mediated by cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1)-prostaglandin E2 pathway. This is evident by the fact that the COX-1 inhibitor significantly attenuated the BV-induced mechanical allodynia. These results suggest that BV can excite the large-sized DRG neurons at least in part by increasing I_h through activation of COX-1.

Effects of Emollient Containing Bee Venom on Atopic Dermatitis: A Double-Blinded, Randomized, Base-Controlled, Multicenter Study of 136 Patients

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common, complex disease that follows a chronic relapsing course and significantly affects the quality of life of patients. Skin barrier dysfunction and inflammatory processes induce and aggravate this skin condition. Proper use of an emollient for hydration is a keystone of AD treatment. Bee venom is known to have anti-inflammatory effects and has been widely used in traditional medicine to treat various inflammatory disorders.

OBJECTIVE

To find out the beneficial effect of an emollient containing bee venom in the treatment of patients with AD.

METHODS

This study included 136 patients with AD who were randomized to receive either an emollient containing bee venom and silk-protein or a vehicle that was identical except for the bee venom for 4 weeks. The patients were instructed to apply the emollient twice daily on their entire body and not to use other medications, including topicals, during the course of the study. The eczema area and severity index (EASI) score, transepidermal water loss, and visual analogue scale (VAS) score of itching were evaluated at the first visit and after 2 and 4 weeks. The investigator global assessment was evaluated at 2 and 4 weeks after the application of emollient containing bee venom or vehicle.

RESULTS

Patients applying emollient containing bee venom showed significantly lower EASI score and VAS value compared to patients applying emollient without bee venom.

CONCLUSION

Emollient containing bee venom is a safe and effective option for patients with AD.

Melittin ameliorates CVB3-induced myocarditis via activation of the HDAC2-mediated GSK-3β/Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway

Viral myocarditis (VMC) is characterized as an inflammatory process of the myocardium and can be fatal in infants and children. Melittin is a major polypeptide in honey bee venom that has been traditionally used against inflammation. However, its effect on VMC and the underlying molecular mechanism has not been reported. In this study, BALB/c mice were intraperitoneally injected with CVB3 to build a VMC model and treated with melittin. The results showed that melittin increased the mice's body weight and inhibited CVB3 replication. HE staining also showed that melittin alleviated myocardial injury in the VMC model. Flow cytometry showed that melittin inhibited myocardial cell apoptosis; in addition, real-time PCR showed that melittin decreased the expression of bax and caspase-3, and increased the expression of bcl-2. The results of echocardiographic examination showed that melittin improved cardiac function. Moreover, melittin decreased the activity of AST, CK, HBDH and LDH, and decreased the production of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and MCP-1 in CVB3-induced myocardial tissues. Finally, we also found that melittin increased the expression of HDAC2 and activated the GSK-3β/Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway, whereas these changes were reversed by inhibition of HDAC2 in VMC model mice. In conclusion, our results suggested that melittin ameliorates CVB3-induced myocarditis via activation of the HDAC2-mediated GSK-3β/Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway.

The Protective Effect of Melittin on Renal Fibrosis in an Animal Model of Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction

Renal fibrosis is the principal pathological process underlying the progression of chronic kidney disease that leads to end-stage renal disease. Melittin is a major component of bee venom, and it has anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory properties in various cell types. Thus, this study examined the therapeutic effects of melittin on the progression of renal fibrosis using the unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model. In addition, the effects of melittin on inflammation and fibrosis in renal fibroblast cells were explored using transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1). Histological observation revealed that UUO induced a considerable increase in the number of infiltrated inflammatory cells. However, melittin treatment markedly reduced these reactions compared with untreated UUO mice. The expression levels of inflammatory cytokines and pro-fibrotic genes were significantly reduced in melittin-treated mice compared with UUO mice. Melittin also effectively inhibited fibrosis-related gene expression in renal fibroblasts NRK-49F cells. These findings suggest that melittin attenuates renal fibrosis and reduces inflammatory responses by the suppression of multiple growth factor-mediated pro-fibrotic genes. In conclusion, melittin may be a useful therapeutic agent for the prevention of fibrosis that characterizes the progression of chronic kidney disease.

Anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic extract from skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) heart in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and mouse ear edema model

This study investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of the ethanolic extract (THEE) obtained from the heart of skipjack tuna using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. THEE markedly suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, THEE decreased the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor-kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65), and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) including phosphorylated c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (p-JNK), phosphorylated extracellular signal-related kinase (p-ERK), and p-p38 proteins. Moreover, THEE orally treated at doses of 50, 100, and 250 mg/kg inhibited the croton oil-induced edema formation and the reduction of the epidermal/dermal thickness and the mast cell numbers was observed in histological analysis. There were no mortalities occurred in mice administered THEE at 5,000 mg/kg body weight. Taken together, these results indicate that THEE exerts the anti-inflammatory activities via inhibition of NF-κB and MAPKs activation.

Antifungal Activity of Bee Venom and Sweet Bee Venom against Clinically Isolated Candida albicans

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to investigate the antifungal effect of bee venom (BV) and sweet bee venom (SBV) against Candida albicans (C. albicans) clinical isolates.

METHODS

In this study, BV and SBV were examined for antifungal activities against the Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC) strain and 10 clinical isolates of C. albicans. The disk diffusion method was used to measure the antifungal activity and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays were performed by using a broth microdilution method. Also, a killing curve assay was conducted to investigate the kinetics of the anti- fungal action.

RESULTS

BV and SBV showed antifungal activity against 10 clinical isolates of C. albicans that were cultured from blood and the vagina by using disk diffusion method. The MIC values obtained for clinical isolates by using the broth microdilution method varied from 62.5 μg/ mL to 125 μg/mL for BV and from 15.63 μg/mL to 62.5 μg/mL for SBV. In the killing-curve assay, SBV behaved as amphotericin B, which was used as positive control, did. The antifungal efficacy of SBV was much higher than that of BV.

CONCLUSION

BV and SBV showed antifungal activity against C. albicans clinical strains that were isolated from blood and the vagina. Especially, SBV might be a candidate for a new antifungal agent against C. albicans clinical isolates.

Anti-Inflammatory Applications of Melittin, a Major Component of Bee Venom: Detailed Mechanism of Action and Adverse Effects

Inflammation is a pervasive phenomenon triggered by the innate and adaptive immune systems to maintain homeostasis. The phenomenon normally leads to recovery from infection and healing, but when not properly phased, inflammation may cause immune disorders. Bee venom is a toxin that bees use for their protection from enemies. However, for centuries it has been used in the Orient as an anti-inflammatory medicine for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. Bee venom and its major component, melittin, are potential means of reducing excessive immune responses and provide new alternatives for the control of inflammatory diseases. Recent experimental studies show that the biological functions of melittin could be applied for therapeutic use in vitro and in vivo. Reports verifying the therapeutic effects of melittin are accumulating in the literature, but the cellular mechanism(s) of the anti-inflammatory effects of melittin are not fully elucidated. In the present study, we review the current knowledge on the therapeutic effects of melittin and its detailed mechanisms of action against several inflammatory diseases including skin inflammation, neuroinflammation, atherosclerosis, arthritis and liver inflammation, its adverse effects as well as future prospects regarding the use of melittin.

Effect of Bee Venom and Its Fractions on the Release of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in PMA-Differentiated U937 Cells Co-Stimulated with LPS

The venom of Apis mellifera (honey bee) has been reported to play a role in immunotherapy, but existing evidence to support its immuno-modulatory claims is insufficient. Four fractions from whole bee venom (BV) were separated using medium pressure liquid chromatography. Their ability to induce the production of cytokines TNFα, IL-1β and IL-6 in phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA)-treated U937 cells was assessed. The levels of the three cytokines produced by stimulation with the four fractions and crude BV without LPS were not significantly different from negative control values. However, co-stimulation of the cells with LPS and Fraction 4 (F-4) induced a 1.6-fold increase in TNF-α level (p < 0.05) compared to LPS alone. Likewise, LPS-induced IL-1β production was significantly synergised in the presence of F-1 (nine-fold), F-2 (six-fold), F-3 (four-fold) and F-4 (two-fold) fractions, but was only slightly enhanced with crude BV (1.5-fold) relative to LPS. Furthermore, the LPS-stimulated production of IL-6 was not significantly increased in cells co-treated with F-2 and F-3, but the organic fraction (F-4) showed an inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on IL-6 production. The latter was elucidated by NMR spectroscopy and found to contain(Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol. The effects observed with the purified BV fractions were more marked than those obtained with the crude sample.

Bee Venom Phospholipase A2: Yesterday's Enemy Becomes Today's Friend

Bee venom therapy has been used to treat immune-related diseases such as arthritis for a long time. Recently, it has revealed that group III secretory phospholipase A₂ from bee venom (bee venom group III sPLA₂) has in vitro and in vivo immunomodulatory effects. A growing number of reports have demonstrated the therapeutic effects of bee venom group III sPLA₂. Notably, new experimental data have shown protective immune responses of bee venom group III sPLA₂ against a wide range of diseases including asthma, Parkinson’s disease, and drug-induced organ inflammation. It is critical to evaluate the beneficial and adverse effects of bee venom group III sPLA₂ because this enzyme is known to be the major allergen of bee venom that can cause anaphylactic shock. For many decades, efforts have been made to avoid its adverse effects. At high concentrations, exposure to bee venom group III sPLA₂ can result in damage to cellular membranes and necrotic cell death. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge about the therapeutic effects of bee venom group III sPLA₂ on several immunological diseases and described the detailed mechanisms of bee venom group III sPLA₂ in regulating various immune responses and physiopathological changes.

Bee Venom Accelerates Wound Healing in Diabetic Mice by Suppressing Activating Transcription Factor-3 (ATF-3) and Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS)-Mediated Oxidative Stress and Recruiting Bone Marrow-Derived Endothelial Progenitor Cells

Multiple mechanisms contribute to impaired diabetic wound healing including impaired neovascularization and deficient endothelial progenitor cell (EPC) recruitment. Bee venom (BV) has been used as an anti-inflammatory agent for the treatment of several diseases. Nevertheless, the effect of BV on the healing of diabetic wounds has not been studied. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the impact of BV on diabetic wound closure in a type I diabetic mouse model. Three experimental groups were used: group 1, non-diabetic control mice; group 2, diabetic mice; and group 3, diabetic mice treated with BV. We found that the diabetic mice exhibited delayed wound closure characterized by a significant decrease in collagen production and prolonged elevation of inflammatory cytokines levels in wounded tissue compared to control non-diabetic mice. Additionally, wounded tissue in diabetic mice revealed aberrantly up-regulated expression of ATF-3 and iNOS followed by a marked elevation in free radical levels. Impaired diabetic wound healing was also characterized by a significant elevation in caspase-3, -8, and -9 activity and a marked reduction in the expression of TGF-β and VEGF, which led to decreased neovascularization and angiogenesis of the injured tissue by impairing EPC mobilization. Interestingly, BV treatment significantly enhanced wound closure in diabetic mice by increasing collagen production and restoring the levels of inflammatory cytokines, free radical, TGF-β, and VEGF. Most importantly, BV-treated diabetic mice exhibited mobilized long-lived EPCs by inhibiting caspase activity in the wounded tissue. Our findings reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying improved diabetic wound healing and closure following BV treatment. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 2159-2171, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Bee venom inhibits growth of human cervical tumors in mice

We studied whether bee venom (BV) inhibits cervical tumor growth through enhancement of death receptor (DR) expressions and inactivation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in mice. In vivo study showed that BV (1 mg/kg) inhibited tumor growth. Similar inhibitory effects of BV on cancer growth in primary human cervical cancer cells were also found. BV (1–5 μg/ml) also inhibited the growth of cancer cells, Ca Ski and C33Aby the induction of apoptotic cell death in a dose dependent manner. Agreed with cancer cell growth inhibition, expression of death receptors; FAS, DR3 and DR6, and DR downstream pro-apoptotic proteins including caspase-3 and Bax was concomitantly increased, but the NF-κB activity and the expression of Bcl-2 were inhibited by treatment with BV in tumor mice, human cancer cell and human tumor samples as well as cultured cancer cells. In addition, deletion of FAS, DR3 and DR6 by small interfering RNA significantly reversed BV-induced cell growth inhibitory effects as well as NF-κB inactivation. These results suggest that BV inhibits cervical tumor growth through enhancement of FAS, DR3 and DR6 expression via inhibition of NF-κB pathway.

The protective effect of bee venom on fibrosis causing inflammatory diseases

Bee venom therapy is a treatment modality that may be thousands of years old and involves the application of live bee stings to the patient’s skin or, in more recent years, the injection of bee venom into the skin with a hypodermic needle. Studies have proven the effectiveness of bee venom in treating pathological conditions such as arthritis, pain and cancerous tumors. However, there has not been sufficient review to fully elucidate the cellular mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects of bee venom and its components. In this respect, the present study reviews current understanding of the mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory properties of bee venom and its components in the treatment of liver fibrosis, atherosclerosis and skin disease.

Apoptotic Effect of Sanggenol L via Caspase Activation and Inhibition of NF-κB Signaling in Ovarian Cancer Cells

In the present study, the underlying apoptotic mechanism of sanggenol L was elucidated in ovarian cancer cells. Sanggenol L showed cytotoxic and antiproliferative effect in A2780, SKOV-3, and OVCAR-3 ovarian cancer cells in a concentration-dependent fashion. Consistently, sanggenol L increased sub-G1 phase population and early and late apoptotic portion in ovarian cancer cells. Also, sanggenol L activated caspase9/3, suppressed the phosphorylation of IκBα and p65 NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells), attenuated the expression of Cyclin D1, and cleaved poly(adenosine diphosphate ribose -ribose) polymerase in SKOV-3, A2780, and OVCAR-3 cells. Furthermore, sanggenol L blocked nuclear translocation of NF-κB and also attenuated the expression of NF-κB related genes such as c-Myc, Cyclin D1, and Bcl-X L, Bcl-2, in lipopolysaccharide-treated SKOV-3 cells. Overall, our findings for the first time suggest that sanggenol L induces apoptosis via caspase activation and inhibition of NF-κB/IκBα phosphorylation as a potent chemotherapeutic agent for ovarian cancers.

Bee venom ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced memory loss by preventing NF-kappaB pathway

Background

Accumulation of beta-amyloid and neuroinflammation trigger Alzheimer’s disease. We previously found that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) caused neuroinflammation with concomitant accumulation of beta-amyloid peptides leading to memory loss. A variety of anti-inflammatory compounds inhibiting nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) activation have showed efficacy to hinder neuroinflammation and amyloidogenesis. We also found that bee venom (BV) inhibits NF-κB.

Methods

A mouse model of LPS-induced memory loss used administration of BV (0.8 and 1.6 μg/kg/day, i.p.) to ICR mice for 7 days before injection of LPS (2.5 mg/kg/day, i.p.). Memory loss was assessed using a Morris water maze test and passive avoidance test. For in vitro study, we treated BV (0.5, 1, and 2 μg/mL) to astrocytes and microglial BV-2 cells with LPS (1 μg/mL).

Results

We found that BV inhibited LPS-induced memory loss determined by behavioral tests as well as cell death. BV also inhibited LPS-induced increases in the level of beta-amyloid (Aβ), β-and γ-secretases activities, NF-κB and its DNA-binding activity and expression of APP, and BACE1 and neuroinflammation proteins (COX-2, iNOS, GFAP and IBA-1) in the brain and cultured cells. In addition, pull-down assay and molecular modeling showed that BV binds to NF-κB.

Conclusions

BV attenuates LPS-induced amyloidogenesis, neuroinflammation, and therefore memory loss via inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway. Thus, BV could be useful for treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.

Improved Therapeutic Profiles of PLA2-Free Bee Venom Prepared by Ultrafiltration Method

Bee venom (BV) has long been used in traditional Eastern and Western medicine for chronic inflammation, pain and skin therapy. Human exposure to BV, however, often causes unwanted adverse effects and is even fatal in some cases. Phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) of BV is now suspected to play a key role in these adverse effects. We investigated the potential use of PLA₂-free bee venom (PBV) as a replacement for BV in cosmetic products. PBV prepared by molecular weight cut-off ultrafiltration exhibits a superior profile in comparison with regular BV, by inhibiting elastase activity and suppressing the induction of nitric oxide (NO) and metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), while retaining the effects of cell proliferation and protection against ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced damage in human dermal fibroblast cells. PBV thus appears to be more promising than BV as a cosmetic ingredient with a reduced potential for adverse reactions in the recipient.

Study on a 4-week recovery test of sweet bee venom after a 13-week, repeated, intramuscular dose toxicity test in sprague-dawley rats

Objectives:

This study was performed to check for reversibility in the changes induced by a 13-week, repeated, dose toxicity test of Sweet Bee Venom (SBV) in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats.

Methods:

Fifteen male and 15 female SD rats were treated with 0.28 mg/kg of SBV (high-dosage group) and the same numbers of male and female SD rats were treated with 0.2 mL/kg of normal saline (control group) for 13 weeks. We selected five male and five female SD rats from the high-dosage group and the same numbers of male and female SD rats from the control group, and we observed these rats for four weeks. We conducted body-weight measurements, ophthalmic examinations, urinalyses and hematology, biochemistry, histology tests.

Results:

(1) Hyperemia and movement disorder were observed in the 13-week, repeated, dose toxicity test, but these symptoms were not observed during the recovery period. (2) The rats in the high-dose group showed no significant changes in weight compared to the control group. (3) No significant differences in the ophthalmic parameters, urine analyses, complete blood cell counts (CBCs), and biochemistry were observed among the recovery groups. (4) No changes in organ weights were observed during the recovery period. (5) Histological examination of the thigh muscle indicated cell infiltration, inflammation, degeneration, necrosis of muscle fiber, and fibrosis during the treatment period, but these changes were not observed during the recovery period. The fatty liver change that was observed during the toxicity test was not observed during the recovery period. No other organ abnormalities were observed.

Conclusion:

The changes that occurred during the 13-week, repeated, dose toxicity test are reversible, and SBV can be safely used as a treatment modality.

Efficacy of parenteral administration of bee venom in experimental arthritis in the rat: a comparison with methotrexate

The use of bee venom (BV) to treat inflammation and pain in arthritis has become increasingly common. This study aimed to compare the effects of BV and methotrexate (MTX), the most used disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug, in arthritic rats. Edema, erythema, cyanosis, hyperalgesia, reduction of the body mass gain, high circulating tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and anti-type II collagen antibodies (AACII), and altered activity of basic (APB) and neutral (APN) aminopeptidases and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) are present in arthritic rats. MTX and/or BV do not affect AACII in healthy or arthritic individuals, but restores TNF-α to normal levels in arthritic rats. BV restores body mass gain to normal levels and MTX ameliorates body mass gain. BV contains DPPIV. BV restores APN in synovial fluid (SF) and in soluble fraction (S) from synovial tissue (ST), and DPPIV in solubilized membrane-bound fraction (M) from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). MTX restores APN of SF, as well as ameliorates APB of S-PBMCs, APN of S-ST and DPPIV of M-PBMCs. The combination therapy does not overcome the effects of BV or MTX alone on the peptidase activities. Edema is ameliorated by MTX or BV alone. MTX, but not BV, is effective in reducing hyperalgesia. Data show that anti-arthritic effects of BV at non-acupoints are not negligible when compared with MTX.

Melittin has a chondroprotective effect by inhibiting MMP-1 and MMP-8 expressions via blocking NF-κB and AP-1 signaling pathway in chondrocytes

Bee venom is a natural ingredient produced by the honey bee (Apis mellifera), and has been widely used in China, Korea and Japan as a traditional medicine for various diseases such as arthritis, rheumatism, and skin diseases However, the regulation of the underlying molecular mechanisms of the anti-arthritis by bee venom and its major peptides is largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the potential molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-arthritis effect of bee venom and its major peptides, melittin and apamin, in tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) responsive C57BL/6 mice chondrocyte cells. The bee venom and melittin significantly and selectively suppressed the TNF-α-mediated decrease of type II collagen expression, whereas the apamin had no effects on the type II collagen expression. We, furthermore, found that the bee venom and melittin inhibited the protein expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and MMP-8, which suggests that the chondroprotective effect of bee venom may be caused by melittin. The inhibitory effects of melittin on the TNF-α-induced MMP-1 and MMP-8 protein expression were regulated by the inhibition of NF-kB and AP-1. In addition, melittin suppressed the TNF-α-induced phosphorylation of Akt, JNK and ERK1/2, but did not affect the phosphorylation of p38 kinase. These results suggest that melittin suppresses TNF-α-stimulated decrease of type II collagen expression by the inhibiting MMP-1 and MMP-8 through regulation of the NF-kB and AP-1 pathway and provision of a novel role for melittin in anti-arthritis action.

Efficacy of the apitherapy in the treatment of recalcitrant localized plaque psoriasis and evaluation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) serum level: A double-blind randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

No universal consensus about optimal modality for treating the recalcitrant localized plaque psoriasis (RLPP) is available.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the immunological and clinical therapeutic effect of using apitherapy in the treatment of RLPP.

METHODS

Randomized 50 patients with RLPP received apitherapy (n = 25) and placebo (n = 25) every week. Both treatments were injected into lesions at weekly intervals for a maximum of 12 treatments. Following up was 6 months later. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) level was measured at pre-study and at 12th week.

RESULTS

A significant difference was found between the therapeutic responses of RLPP to the apitherapy and placebo groups (p<0.001). In the apitherapy group, complete response was achieved in 92% of patients. There was statistically significant decrease in TNF-α in the apitherapy group compared to the placebo group. No recurrence was observed in the apitherapy group.

CONCLUSION

Apitherapy is effective and a safe treatment for recalcitrant localized plaque psoriasis, when other topical or physical therapies have failed.

Perineural pretreatment of bee venom attenuated the development of allodynia in the spinal nerve ligation injured neuropathic pain model; an experimental study

Background

Diluted bee venom (BV) is known to have anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. We therefore assessed whether perineural bee venom pretreatment could attenuate the development of neuropathic pain in the spinal nerve ligation injured animal model.

Methods

Neuropathic pain was surgically induced in 30 male Sprague Dawley rats by ligation of the L5 and L6 spinal nerves, with 10 rats each treated with saline and 0.05 and 0.1 mg BV. Behavioral testing for mechanical, cold, and thermal allodynia was conducted on postoperative days 3 to 29. Three rats in each group and 9 sham operated rats were sacrificed on day 9, and the expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1), ankyrin type 1 (TRPA1), and melastatin type 8 (TRPM8) receptors in the ipsilateral L5 dorsal root ganglion was analyzed.

Results

The perineural administration of BV to the spinal nerves attenuated the development of mechanical, thermal, and cold allodynia, and the BV pretreatment reduced the expression of TRPV1, TRPA1, TRPM8 and c − Fos in the ipsilateral dorsal root ganglion.

Conclusion

The current study demonstrates that the perineural pretreatment with diluted bee venom before the induction of spinal nerve ligation significantly suppresses the development of neuropathic pain. Furthermore, this bee venom induced suppression was strongly related with the involvement of transient receptor potential family members.

Melittin-glutathione S-transferase fusion protein exhibits anti-inflammatory properties and minimal toxicity

Although potent, proteins often require chemical modification for therapeutic use. Immunogenicity, difficult synthesis, and scale-up of these modifications are all engineering obstacles that stand in the way of expanding the use of these therapeutics. Melittin, a peptide derived from bee venom, has been shown to modulate inflammation. Although potentially therapeutic, the native peptide causes cell lysis and toxicity significantly hindering therapeutic application. Based upon the knowledge of the pore formation mechanism, we examined the toxicity and therapeutic effect of a melittin fusion protein with glutathione-S-transferase. The fusion of melittin and glutathione S-transferase results in diminished toxicity of the peptide and retained anti-inflammatory properties at doses that exceed toxic concentration of native melittin. Our results suggest that fusion proteins, particularly those of glutathione-S-transferase, may be facile modifications to control protein activity.

Inhibitory effects of bee venom on Propionibacterium acnes-induced inflammatory skin disease in an animal model

Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) is a major contributing factor to the inflammatory component of acne. The many prescription medications for acne allow for a large number of potential combination treatments. However, several antibiotics, apart from their antibacterial effects, exert side‑effects, such as the suppression of host inflammatory responses. Purified bee venom (BV) is a natural toxin produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). BV has been widely used as a traditional medicine for various diseases. In the present study, to investigate the therapeutic effects of BV against P. acnes-induced inflammatory skin disease, P. acnes was intradermally injected into the ears of mice. After the injection, BV was applied to the skin surface of the right ear. Histological observation revealed that P. acnes induced a considerable increase in the number of infiltrated inflammatory cells. However, treatment with BV markedly reduced these reactions compared with the P. acnes-injected mice not treated with BV. Moreover, the expression levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-1β were significantly reduced in the BV-treated mice compared with the untreated P. acnes-injected mice. In addition, treatment with BV significantly inhibited Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 and CD14 expression in P. acnes-injected tissue. The binding activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and activator protein (AP)-1 was markedly suppressed following treatment with BV. The results from our study, using an animal model, indicate that BV exerts an inhibitory effect on inflammatory skin diseases. In conclusion, our data indicate that BV has potential for use as an anti-acne agent and may be useful in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries.

Neuroprotective effects of melittin on hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptotic cell death in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells

Background

Free radicals are involved in neuronal cell death in human neurodegenerative diseases. Since ancient times, honeybee venom has been used in a complementary medicine to treat various diseases and neurologic disorders. Melittin, the main component of honeybee venom, has various biologic effects, including anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory activities.

Methods

We investigated the neuroprotective effects of melittin against H₂O₂-induced apoptosis in the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. The neuroprotective effects of melittin on H₂O₂-induced apoptosis were investigated using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenylterazolium bromide assay, caspase 3 activity, 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining, a lactate dehydrogenase release assay, Western blots, and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.

Results

The H₂O₂-treated cells had decreased cell viability with apoptotic features and increased production of caspase-3. On the other hand, melittin treatment increased cell viability and decreased apoptotic DNA fragmentation. Melittin attenuated the H₂O₂-induced decrease in mRNA and protein production of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2. In addition, melittin inhibited both the H₂O₂-induced mRNA and protein expression of Bax-associated pro-apoptotic factor and caspase-3.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that melittin has potential therapeutic effects as an agent for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Cancer cell growth inhibitory effect of bee venom via increase of death receptor 3 expression and inactivation of NF-kappa B in NSCLC cells

Our previous findings have demonstrated that bee venom (BV) has anti-cancer activity in several cancer cells. However, the effects of BV on lung cancer cell growth have not been reported. Cell viability was determined with trypan blue uptake, soft agar formation as well as DAPI and TUNEL assay. Cell death related protein expression was determined with Western blotting. An EMSA was used for nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) activity assay. BV (1–5 μg/mL) inhibited growth of lung cancer cells by induction of apoptosis in a dose dependent manner in lung cancer cell lines A549 and NCI-H460. Consistent with apoptotic cell death, expression of DR3 and DR6 was significantly increased. However, deletion of DRs by small interfering RNA significantly reversed BV induced cell growth inhibitory effects. Expression of pro-apoptotic proteins (caspase-3 and Bax) was concomitantly increased, but the NF-κB activity and expression of Bcl-2 were inhibited. A combination treatment of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-like weak inducer of apoptosis, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, docetaxel and cisplatin, with BV synergistically inhibited both A549 and NCI-H460 lung cancer cell growth with further down regulation of NF-κB activity. These results show that BV induces apoptotic cell death in lung cancer cells through the enhancement of DR3 expression and inhibition of NF-κB pathway.

Protective effect of melittin against inflammation and apoptosis on Propionibacterium acnes-induced human THP-1 monocytic cell

Melittin is a cationic, hemolytic peptide that is the main toxic component in the venom of the honey bee (Apis mellifera). It has been used in treatment of various chronic inflammatory diseases. However, the cellular mechanism and the anti-apoptotic effect of melittin in Propionibactierium acnes (P. acnes)-induced THP-1 cells have not been explored. In the present study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic mechanism by examining the effect of melittin on P. acnes-induced THP-1 monocytic cells. THP-1 monocytic cells were stimulated by heat-killed P. acnes in the presence of melittin. The expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, NF-κB signaling, caspase family, and PARP signaling were measured by ELISA or Western blot analysis. The number of apoptotic cells and changes of cell morphology were examined using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. Heat-killed P. acnes increased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and cleavage of caspase-3 and -8 in heat-killed P. acnes-induced THP-1 cells. However, treatment with melittin inhibited the pro-inflammatory cytokines and cleavage of the caspase-3 and -8. Moreover, the cleaved PARP appeared after 8h of heat-killed P. acnes treatment and its cleavage was reduced by melittin treatment. These results demonstrate that 1.0×10(7) CFU/ml of heat-killed P. acnes induces THP-1 cell apoptosis and secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Also, administration of melittin significantly decreases the expression of various inflammatory cytokines in heat-killed P. acnes-treated THP-1 monocytic cells. In particular, melittin exerts anti-apoptotic effects against 1.0×10(7) CFU/ml of heat-killed P. acnes injury to THP-1 cells.

Myorelaxant effect of bee venom topical skin application in patients with RDC/TMD Ia and RDC/TMD Ib: a randomized, double blinded study

The aim of the study was the evaluation of myorelaxant action of bee venom (BV) ointment compared to placebo. Parallel group, randomized double blinded trial was performed. Experimental group patients were applying BV for 14 days, locally over masseter muscles, during 3-minute massage. Placebo group patients used vaseline for massage. Muscle tension was measured twice (TON1 and TON2) in rest muscle tonus (RMT) and maximal muscle contraction (MMC) on both sides, right and left, with Easy Train Myo EMG (Schwa-medico, Version 3.1). Reduction of muscle tonus was statistically relevant in BV group and irrelevant in placebo group. VAS scale reduction was statistically relevant in both groups: BV and placebo. Physiotherapy is an effective method for myofascial pain treatment, but 0,0005% BV ointment gets better relief in muscle tension reduction and analgesic effect. This trial is registered with Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02101632.

Apitherapy Have a Role in Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis

AIM: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease in which the fatty myelin sheaths around the axons of the brain and spinal cord are damaged. We Study the effect of Apitherapy in treatment of MS.MATERIAL AND METHODS: Fifty patients with MS, their ages ranged between 26-71 years, were subjected to complete clinical and neurological history and examination to confirm the diagnosis. All cases were under their regular treatment they were divided into two main groups, Group I received honey, pollen, royal jelly and propolis and were treated with apiacupuncture 3 times weekly, for 12 months, in addition to their medical treatment, while group II remains on their ordinary medical treatment only. Apiacupuncture was done by bee stings for regulating the immune system.RESULTS: Results revealed that 4 patients showed some improvement regarding their defects in gait, bowel control, constipation and urination, while 12 cases, showed some mild improvement in their movement in bed, and better improvement in bed sores, sensation, and better motor power, only two cases of them were able to stand for few minutes with support.CONCLUSION: Although Apitherapy is not a curable therapy in MS, but it can be used to minimize the clinical symptoms of MS, and can be included among programs of MS therapy.

Protective effects of melittin on tumor necrosis factor-α induced hepatic damage through suppression of apoptotic pathway and nuclear factor-kappa B activation

Melittin, a major polypeptide in honeybee venom, have been used to treat inflammatory disease. Various studies have demonstrated the anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects of bee venom and melittin. However, the precise mechanism of melittin in liver disease is not yet known. Apoptosis contributes to liver inflammation and fibrosis. Knowledge of the apoptotic mechanisms is important to develop new and effective therapies for treatment of cirrhosis. In the present study, we investigated the anti-apoptotic effect of melittin on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/actinomycin (Act) D-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes. Our results show significant protection from DNA damage by melittin treatment compared with corresponding TNF-α/Act D-treated hepatocytes without melittin. Melittin inhibited TNF-α/Act D-induced activation of the caspase, bcl-2 family of proteins and poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP)-1. Our results also indicate that melittin decreased nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) by degradation of phosphorylation of IκB kinase (p-IKK) and NF-κB DNA binding activity in TNF-α/Act D-treated hepatocytes. These results suggest that melittin possesses a potent suppressive effect on apoptotic responses in TNF-α/Act D-treated hepatocytes via the NF-κB pathway.

Enhanced Anti-Cancer Effect of Snake Venom Activated NK Cells on Lung Cancer Cells by Inactivation of NF-κB

In the present study, we investigated anti-cancer effect of snake venom activated NK cells (NK-92MI) in lung cancer cell lines. We used snake venom (4 μg/ml) treated NK-92MI cells to co-culture with lung cancer cells. There was a further decrease in cancer cell growth up to 65% and 70% in A549 and NCI-H460 cell lines respectively, whereas 30–40% was decreased in cancer cell growth by snake venom or NK-92MI alone treatment. We further found that the expression of various apoptotic proteins such as that Bax, and cleaved caspase-3 as well as the expression of various death receptor proteins like DR3, DR4 and Fas was also further increased. Moreover, consistent with cancer cell growth inhibition, the DNA binding activity of NF-κB was also further inhibited after treatment of snake venom activated NK-92MI cells. Thus, the present data showed that activated NK cells could further inhibit lung cancer cell growth.

Combined cytogenotoxic effects of bee venom and bleomycin on rat lymphocytes: an in vitro study

This study was carried out to determine the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of bee venom (BV) and/or the chemotherapeutic agent bleomycin (BLM) on healthy isolated rat lymphocytes utilizing morphometric and molecular techniques. Using the Ficoll-Histopaque density gradient centrifugation technique, lymphocytes were isolated, divided into groups, and subjected to BV and/or BLM at incubation medium concentrations of 10 or 20 μg/mL respectively for 24 and 72 hrs. An MTT assay and fluorescent microscopy examinations were used to assess the cytotoxic effects. To determine the predominant type of BV and/or BLM-induced cell death, LDH release assay was employed beside quantitative expression analyses of the apoptosis-related genes (Caspase-3 and Bcl-2). The genotoxic effects of the tested compounds were evaluated via DNA fragmentation assay. The results of these assays demonstrated that BV potentiates BLM-induced cytotoxicity through increased LDH release and diminished cell viability. Nevertheless, BV significantly inhibited the BLM-induced DNA damage. The results verify that BV significantly attenuates the genotoxic effects of BLM on noncancerous isolated rat lymphocytes but does not diminish BLM cytotoxicity.

Functional characterization of naturally occurring melittin peptide isoforms in two honey bee species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana

Insect-derived antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have diverse effects on antimicrobial properties and pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammation and anticancer properties. Naturally occurring genetic polymorphism have a direct and/or indirect influence on pharmacological effect of AMPs, therefore information on single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) occurring in natural AMPs provides an important clue to therapeutic applications. Here we identified nucleotide polymorphisms in melittin gene of honey bee populations, which is one of the potent AMP in bee venoms. We found that the novel SNP of melittin gene exists in these two honey bee species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana. Nine polymorphisms were identified within the coding region of the melittin gene, of which one polymorphism that resulted in serine (Ser) to asparagine (Asp) substitution that can potentially effect on biological activities of melittin peptide. Serine-substituted melittin (Mel-S) showed more cytotoxic effect than asparagine-substituted melittin (Mel-N) against E. coli. Also, Mel-N and Mel-S had different inhibitory effects on the production of inflammatory factors such as IL-6 and TNF-α in BV-2 cells. Moreover, Mel-S showed stronger cytotoxic activities than Mel-N peptide against two human ovarian cancer cell lines. Using carbon nanotube-based transistor, we here characterized that Mel-S interacted with small unilamellar liposomes more strongly than Mel-N. Taken together, our present study demonstrates that there exist different characteristics of the gene frequency and the biological activities of the melittin peptide in two honey bee species, Apis mellifera and A. cerana.

Melittin ameliorates the inflammation of organs in an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis animal model

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a selective loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord, brainstem, and motor cortex, leading to weakness of the limb and bulbar muscles. Although the immediate cause of death in ALS is the destruction of motor neurons, ALS is a multi-organ disease that also affects the lungs, spleen, and liver. Melittin is one of components of bee venom and has anti-neuroinflammatory effects in the spinal cord, as shown in an ALS animal model. To investigate the effects of melittin on inflammation in the lungs and spleen, we used hSOD1(G93A) transgenic mice that are mimic for ALS. Melittin treatment reduced the expression of inflammatory proteins, including Iba-1 and CD14 by 1.9- and 1.3-fold (p<0.05), respectively, in the lungs of symptomatic hSOD1(G93A) transgenic mice. In the spleen, the expression of CD14 and COX2 that are related to inflammation were decreased by 1.4 fold (p<0.05) and cell survival proteins such as pERK and Bcl2 were increased by 1.3- and 1.5-fold (p<0.05) in the melittin-treated hSOD1G93A transgenic mice. These findings suggest that melittin could be a candidate to regulate the immune system in organs affected by ALS.