Potential mechanism of interleukin-8 production from lung cancer cells: an involvement of EGF-EGFR-PI3K-Akt-Erk pathway

A multi-targeted approach to suppress tumor-promoting inflammation

Cancers harbor significant genetic heterogeneity and patterns of relapse following many therapies are due to evolved resistance to treatment. While efforts have been made to combine targeted therapies, significant levels of toxicity have stymied efforts to effectively treat cancer with multi-drug combinations using currently approved therapeutics. We discuss the relationship between tumor-promoting inflammation and cancer as part of a larger effort to develop a broad-spectrum therapeutic approach aimed at a wide range of targets to address this heterogeneity. Specifically, macrophage migration inhibitory factor, cyclooxygenase-2, transcription factor nuclear factor-κB, tumor necrosis factor alpha, inducible nitric oxide synthase, protein kinase B, and CXC chemokines are reviewed as important antiinflammatory targets while curcumin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, lycopene, and anthocyanins are reviewed as low-cost, low toxicity means by which these targets might all be reached simultaneously. Future translational work will need to assess the resulting synergies of rationally designed antiinflammatory mixtures (employing low-toxicity constituents), and then combine this with similar approaches targeting the most important pathways across the range of cancer hallmark phenotypes.

Insights into immune responses in oral cancer through proteomic analysis of saliva and salivary extracellular vesicles

The development and progression of oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) involves complex cellular mechanisms that contribute to the low five-year survival rate of approximately 20% among diagnosed patients. However, the biological processes essential to tumor progression are not completely understood. Therefore, detecting alterations in the salivary proteome may assist in elucidating the cellular mechanisms modulated in OSCC and improve the clinical prognosis of the disease. The proteome of whole saliva and salivary extracellular vesicles (EVs) from patients with OSCC and healthy individuals were analyzed by LC-MS/MS and label-free protein quantification. Proteome data analysis was performed using statistical, machine learning and feature selection methods with additional functional annotation. Biological processes related to immune responses, peptidase inhibitor activity, iron coordination and protease binding were overrepresented in the group of differentially expressed proteins. Proteins related to the inflammatory system, transport of metals and cellular growth and proliferation were identified in the proteome of salivary EVs. The proteomics data were robust and could classify OSCC with 90% accuracy. The saliva proteome analysis revealed that immune processes are related to the presence of OSCC and indicate that proteomics data can contribute to determining OSCC prognosis.

Role of Chemokines in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Angiogenesis and Inflammation

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most common types of aggressive cancer. The tumor tissue, which shows an active angiogenesis, is composed of neoplastic and stromal cells, and an abundant inflammatory infiltrate. Angiogenesis is important to support tumor growth, while infiltrating cells contribute to the tumor microenvironment through the secretion of growth factors, cytokines and chemokines, important molecules in the progression of the disease. Chemokines are important in development, activation of the immune response, and physiological angiogenesis. Chemokines have emerged as important regulators in the pathophysiology of cancer. These molecules are involved in the angiogenesis/angiostasis balance and in the recruitment of tumor infiltrating hematopoietic cells. In addition, chemokines promote tumor cell survival, as well as the directing and establishment of tumor cells to metastasis sites. The findings summarized here emphasize the central role of chemokines as modulators of tumor angiogenesis and their potential role as therapeutic targets in the inflammatory process of NSCLC angiogenesis.

IL-8 promote carcinogenesis of primary epithelial cells from familial adenomatous polyposis

Accumulated evidences supported IL-8 play an important role during colorectal carcinogenesis. However, few direct-related evidences are available. In this paper, we found that high level of IL-8 was constitutively present both in familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) tissue and carcinoma tissue. Using primary epithelial cells from FAP samples, we study IL-8 effect on their growth, migration, and colonies formation. The results showed that IL-8 stimulated cells proliferation, migration, and colonies formation. Furthermore, High level of CEA, CK20, and EGFR was detected after exposure to IL-8 in primary epithelial cells. In conclusion, our findings showed that IL-8 promotes the adenoma-carcinoma transition in primary epithelial cells from FAP. Targeting IL-8 at adenoma stage may prevent or reduce carcinogenesis.

Therapeutic targeting of replicative immortality

One of the hallmarks of malignant cell populations is the ability to undergo continuous proliferation. This property allows clonal lineages to acquire sequential aberrations that can fuel increasingly autonomous growth, invasiveness, and therapeutic resistance. Innate cellular mechanisms have evolved to regulate replicative potential as a hedge against malignant progression. When activated in the absence of normal terminal differentiation cues, these mechanisms can result in a state of persistent cytostasis. This state, termed “senescence,” can be triggered by intrinsic cellular processes such as telomere dysfunction and oncogene expression, and by exogenous factors such as DNA damaging agents or oxidative environments. Despite differences in upstream signaling, senescence often involves convergent interdependent activation of tumor suppressors p53 and p16/pRB, but can be induced, albeit with reduced sensitivity, when these suppressors are compromised. Doses of conventional genotoxic drugs required to achieve cancer cell senescence are often much lower than doses required to achieve outright cell death. Additional therapies, such as those targeting cyclin dependent kinases or components of the PI3K signaling pathway, may induce senescence specifically in cancer cells by circumventing defects in tumor suppressor pathways or exploiting cancer cells’ heightened requirements for telomerase. Such treatments sufficient to induce cancer cell senescence could provide increased patient survival with fewer and less severe side effects than conventional cytotoxic regimens. This positive aspect is countered by important caveats regarding senescence reversibility, genomic instability, and paracrine effects that may increase heterogeneity and adaptive resistance of surviving cancer cells. Nevertheless, agents that effectively disrupt replicative immortality will likely be valuable components of new combinatorial approaches to cancer therapy.

Differential Expression of Gene Profiles in MRGX-treated Lung Cancer

Objectives:

Modified regular ginseng extract (MRGX) has stronger anti-cancer activity-possessing gensenoside profiles.

Methods:

To investigate changes in gene expression in the MRGX-treated lung cancer cells (A549), we examined genomic data with cDNA microarray results. After completing the gene-ontology-based analysis, we grouped the genes into up-and down-regulated profiles and into ontology-related regulated genes and proteins through their interaction network.

Results:

One hundred nine proteins that were up- and down-regulated by MRGX were queried by using IPA. IL8, MMP7 and PLAUR and were found to play a major role in the anti-cancer activity in MRGX-treated lung cancer cells. These results were validated using a Western blot analysis and a semi-quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis.

Conclusions:

Most MRGX-responsive genes are up-regulated transiently in A549 cells, but down-regulated in a sustained manner in lung cancer cells.

Quantum dot induced cellular perturbations involving varying toxicity pathways

Quantum dots (QD) with varying surface chemistry can have an impact on cellular uptake and a range of indicators for cell perturbation.

BMP9 regulates cross-talk between breast cancer cells and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells

PURPOSE

Breast cancer cells frequently metastasize to distant organs, including bone. Interactions between breast cancer cells and the bone microenvironment are known to enhance tumor growth and osteolytic damage. Here we investigated whether BMP9 (a secretary protein) may change the bone microenvironment and, by doing so, regulate the cross-talk between breast cancer cells and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells.

METHODS

After establishing a co-culture system composed of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells and HS-5 bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells, and exposure of this system to BMP9 conditioned media, we assessed putative changes in migration and invasion capacities of MDA-MB-231 cells and concomitant changes in osteogenic marker expression in HS-5 cells and metastases-related genes in MDA-MB-231 cells.

RESULTS

We found that BMP9 can inhibit the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells, and promote osteogenesis and proliferation of HS-5 cells, in the co-culture system. We also found that the BMP9-induced inhibition of migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells may be caused by a decreased RANK ligand (RANKL) secretion by HS-5 cells, leading to a block in the AKT signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

From our data we conclude that BMP9 inhibits the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells, and promotes the osteoblastic differentiation and proliferation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells by regulating cross-talk between these two types of cells through the RANK/RANKL signaling axis.

MiR-302c inhibits tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma by suppressing the endothelial-mesenchymal transition of endothelial cells

Endothelial cells (ECs) are critical for angiogenesis, and microRNA plays important roles in this process. In this study, we investigated the function and mechanism of miR-302c in the process of endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) in ECs. When miR-302c was overexpressed in HUVECs, the motility of the HUVECs was weakened; the expression levels of EndMT markers were also changed: vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin was up-regulated, whereas β-catenin, FSP1, and α-SMA were down-regulated. Further in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that the growth of HCC was inhibited when co-cultured or co-injected with HUVECs overexpressing miR-302c. On the contrary, when miR-302c was suppressed in HUVECs, the opposite results were observed. Reporter assays showed that miR-302c inhibited metadherin (MTDH) expression through directly binding to its 3'UTR. In addition, compared to ECs isolated from normal liver tissues of HCC patients, ECs isolated from tumor tissues expressed markedly low levels of miR-302c but high levels of MTDH. These results suggest that EC-specific miR-302c suppresses tumor growth in HCC through MTDH-mediated inhibition of EndMT. MTDH and miR-302c might provide a new strategy for anti-angiogenic therapy in HCC.

Expression and effects of epidermal growth factor on human periodontal ligament cells

Repair of damaged periodontal ligament (PDL) tissue is an essential challenge in tooth preservation. Various researchers have attempted to develop efficient therapies for healing and regenerating PDL tissue based on tissue engineering methods focused on targeting signaling molecules in PDL stem cells and other mesenchymal stem cells. In this context, we investigated the expression of epidermal growth factor (EGF) in normal and surgically wounded PDL tissues and its effect on chemotaxis and expression of osteoinductive and angiogenic factors in human PDL cells (HPDLCs). EGF as well as EGF receptor (EGFR) expression was observed in HPDLCs and entire PDL tissue. In a PDL tissue-injured model of rat, EGF and IL-1β were found to be upregulated in a perilesional pattern. Interleukin-1β induced EGF expression in HPDLCs but not EGFR. It also increased transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α) and heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) expression. Transwell assays demonstrated the chemotactic activity of EGF on HPDLCs. In addition, EGF treatment significantly induced secretion of bone morphogenetic protein 2 and vascular endothelial growth factor, and gene expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8), and early growth response-1 and -2 (EGR-1/2). Human umbilical vein endothelial cells developed well-formed tube networks when cultured with the supernatant of EGF-treated HPDLCs. These results indicated that EGF upregulated under inflammatory conditions plays roles in the repair of wounded PDL tissue, suggesting its function as a prospective agent to allow the healing and regeneration of this tissue.

Dual inhibition of EGFR at protein and activity level via combinatorial blocking of PI4KIIα as anti-tumor strategy

Our previous studies indicate that phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIα can promote the growth of multi-malignant tumors via HER-2/PI3K and MAPK pathways. However, the molecular mechanisms of this pathway and its potential for clinical application remain unknown. In this study, we found that PI4KIIα could be an ideal combinatorial target for EGFR treatment via regulating EGFR degradation. Results showed that PI4KIIα knockdown reduced EGFR protein level, and the expression of PI4KIIα shows a strong correlation with EGFR in human breast cancer tissues (r = 0.77, P < 0.01). PI4KIIα knockdown greatly prolonged the effects and decreased the effective dosage of AG-1478, a specific inhibitor of EGFR. In addition, it significantly enhanced AG1478-induced inhibition of tumor cell survival and strengthened the effect of the EGFR-targeting anti-cancer drug Iressa in xenograft tumor models. Mechanistically, we found that PI4KIIα suppression increased EGFR ligand-independent degradation. Quantitative proteomic analysis by stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) and LC-MS/MS suggested that HSP90 mediated the effect of PI4KIIα on EGFR. Furthermore, we found that combined inhibition of PI4KIIα and EGFR suppressed both PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways, and resulted in downregulation of multiple oncogenes like PRDX2, FASN, MTA2, ultimately leading to suppression of tumor growth. Therefore, we conclude that combined inhibition of PI4KIIα and EGFR exerts a multiple anti-tumor effect. Dual inhibition of EGFR at protein and activity level via combinatorial blocking of PI4KIIα presents a novel strategy to combat EGFR-dependent tumors.

Regulatory mechanisms of betacellulin in CXCL8 production from lung cancer cells

Background

Betacellulin (BTC), a member of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family, binds and activates ErbB1 and ErbB4 homodimers. BTC was expressed in tumors and involved in tumor growth progression. CXCL8 (interleukin-8) was involved in tumor cell proliferation via the transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR).

Materials and methods

The present study was designed to investigate the possible interrelation between BTC and CXCL8 in human lung cancer cells (A549) and demonstrated the mechanisms of intracellular signals in the regulation of both functions. Bio-behaviors of A549 were assessed using Cell-IQ Alive Image Monitoring System.

Results

We found that BTC significantly increased the production of CXCL8 through the activation of the EGFR-PI3K/Akt-Erk signal pathway. BTC induced the resistance of human lung cancer cells to TNF-α/CHX-induced apoptosis. Treatments with PI3K inhibitors, Erk1/2 inhibitor, or Erlotinib significantly inhibited BTC-induced CXCL8 production and cell proliferation and movement.

Conclusion

Our data indicated that CXCL8 production from lung cancer cells could be initiated by an autocrine mechanism or external sources of BTC through the EGFR–PI3K–Akt–Erk pathway to the formation of inflammatory microenvironment. BTC may act as a potential target to monitor and improve the development of lung cancer inflammation.

The role of EGF-EGFR signalling pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma inflammatory microenvironment

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) and their receptor (EGFR) play an important role in the development of cancer proliferation, and metastasis, although the mechanism remains unclear. The present study aimed at investigating the role of EGF-EGFR signalling pathway in the development of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) inflammatory environment. Gene profiles of inflammatory cytokines from HCC were measured. Cell bio-behaviours of HCC with low or high metastasis were detected by the live cell monitoring system. Cell proliferation was measured by CCK8. The protein level of CXCL5 and CXCL8 was measured by ELISA. The phosphorylation of PI3K, ERK, MAPK was measured by western blot. EGF significantly induced cell proliferation in HepG2 cells, but not in HCCLM3 cells. EGF prompted the cell movement in both HepG2 and HCCLM3 and regulated the production of CXCL5 and CXCL8 from HCC, which were inhibited by EGFR inhibitor, Erk inhibitor (U0126), or PI3K inhibitors (BEZ-235 and SHBM1009). HCC proliferation, metastasis and production of inflammatory cytokines were regulated via EGF-EGFR signal pathways. CXCL5 could interact with CXCL8, possibly by CXCR2 or the cross-talk between CXCR2 and EGFR. EGF-EGFR signaling pathway can be the potential target of therapies for HCC.

The Chemokine CXCL8 in Carcinogenesis and Drug Response

Although the functions of chemokines in the regulation of immune processes have been studied in some detail, the role of these biomolecules in cancer is not fully understood. Chemokines mediate migration of immune cells and other functions related to immunity. They are also involved in oncogenesis and in tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis through mechanisms similar to their roles in immune functions. Various chemokines also promote cell proliferation and resistance to apoptosis of stressed cells. Consequently, chemokines and their receptors present potential therapeutic targets for anticancer drugs. The chemokine CXCL8, also known as interleukin-8 (IL8), is a proinflammatory molecule that has functions within the tumor microenvironment. Due to its potent angiogenic effects and the activity of the chemokine and its receptors in the promotion of invasion and metastasis, CXCL8 and its receptors are now considered as attractive targets for cancer therapy. This review relates the current understanding of the regulation, signaling, and functions of CXCL8 that contribute to tumor growth and metastasis, and of its role in drug response.

Proteomics-based analysis of differentially expressed proteins in the CXCR1-knockdown gastric carcinoma MKN45 cell line and its parental cell

C-X-C chemokine receptor types 1 (CXCR1), a cell-surface G-protein-coupled receptor has been found to be associated with tumorigenesis, development, and progression of some tumors. Previously, we have found that CXCR1 overexpression is associated with late-stage gastric adenocarcinoma. We also have demonstrated that knockdown of CXCR1 could inhibit cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we compared the changes of protein expression profile between gastric carcinoma MKN45 cell line and CXCR1-knockdown MKN45 cell line by 2D electrophoresis. Among the 101 quantified proteins, 29 spots were significantly different, among which 13 were down-regulated and 16 were up-regulated after CXCR1 knockdown. These proteins were further identified by mass spectrometry analysis. Among them, several up-regulated proteins such as hCG2020155, Keratin8, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein C (C1/C2), and several down-regulated proteins such as Sorcin, heat shock protein 27, serpin B6 isoform b, and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K were confirmed. These proteins are related to cell cycle, the transcription regulation, cell adherence, cellular metabolism, drug resistance, and so on. These results provide an additional support to the hypothesis that CXCR1 might play an important role in proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and prognosis, and drug resistance of gastric carcinoma.

Rationale and Means to Target Pro-Inflammatory Interleukin-8 (CXCL8) Signaling in Cancer

It is well established that chronic inflammation underpins the development of a number of human cancers, with pro-inflammatory signaling within the tumor microenvironment contributing to tumor progression and metastasis. CXCL8 is an ELR⁺ pro-inflammatory CXC-chemokine which mediates its effects via signaling through two G protein-coupled receptors, CXCR1 and CXCR2. Elevated CXCL8-CXCR1/2 signaling within the tumor microenvironment of numerous cancers is known to enhance tumor progression via activation of signaling pathways promoting proliferation, angiogenesis, migration, invasion and cell survival. This review provides an overview of established roles of CXCL8-CXCR1/2 signaling in cancer and subsequently, discusses the possible strategies of targeting CXCL8-CXCR1/2 signaling in cancer, covering indirect strategies (e.g., anti-inflammatories, NFκB inhibitors) and direct CXCL8 or CXCR1/2 inhibition (e.g., neutralizing antibodies, small molecule receptor antagonists, pepducin inhibitors and siRNA strategies). Reports of pre-clinical cancer studies and clinical trials using CXCL8-CXCR1/2-targeting strategies for the treatment of inflammatory diseases will be discussed. The future translational opportunities for use of such agents in oncology will be discussed, with emphasis on exploitation in stratified populations.

High-glucose environment enhanced oxidative stress and increased interleukin-8 secretion from keratinocytes: new insights into impaired diabetic wound healing

Impaired wound healing frequently occurs in patients with diabetes. Interleukin (IL)-8 production by keratinocyte is responsible for recruiting neutrophils during healing. Intense inflammation is associated with diabetic wounds, while reduction of neutrophil infiltration is associated with enhanced healing. We hypothesized that increased neutrophil recruitment by keratinocytes may contribute to the delayed healing of diabetic wounds. Using cultured human keratinocytes and a diabetic rat model, the current study shows that a high-glucose environment enhanced IL-8 production via epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent manner in keratinocytes. In addition, diabetic rat skin showed enhanced EGFR, ERK, and IL-8 expression compared with control rats. The dermal neutrophil infiltration of the wound, as represented by expression of myeloperoxidase level, was also significantly higher in diabetic rats. Treating diabetic rats with dapsone, an agent known to inhibit neutrophil function, was associated with improved healing. In conclusion, IL-8 production and neutrophil infiltration are increased in a high-glucose environment due to elevated ROS level and contributed to impaired wound healing in diabetic skin. Targeting these dysfunctions may present novel therapeutic approaches.

Plasma RANTES, IL-10, and IL-8 levels in non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with EGFR-TKIs

Background

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), routinely used to treat advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with activated EGFR mutations, are associated with excellent response and improved performance status. Recently, pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-8 have been proposed as mediators of cancer development. EGFR-TKIs have been found to affect this network of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Methods

EGFR-TKIs (erlotinib, 150 mg/day; and gefitinib, 250 mg/day) were administered once per day. Treatment was continued until disease progressed or the patient developed intolerable symptoms of toxicity, or withdrew his/her consent for study participation. The treatment was a part of standard care. We investigated the correlation between plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines (including plasma RANTES, IL-10, and IL-8) levels and clinical outcomes following EGFR-TKI treatment in lung cancer patients. Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were evaluated at diagnosis and on treatment day 30 after the first administration of EGFR-TKIs.

Results

Overall, 33 patients were enrolled. Plasma pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were determined for all patients at diagnosis. Plasma samples from 26 patients were obtained on treatment day 30. High level of RANTES at diagnosis was associated with severe general fatigue (P = .026). Low level of RANTES at diagnosis was significantly associated with long-term survival (P = .0032). Percent decrease change of IL-10 was associated with severity of rash (P = .037). The plasma IL-8 level on treatment day 30 (median, 5.48 pg/mL; range, 0.49–26.13 pg/mL) was significantly lower than the level at diagnosis (median 10.45 pg/mL; 3.04–54.86 pg/mL; P = .021).

Conclusions

These results suggest that EGFR-TKIs may suppress systemic inflammation and promote tumor shrinkage. The network of pro-inflammatory cytokines was affected by EGFR-TKI treatment for NSCLC. In addition, the clinical outcomes of EGFR-TKI treatment were influenced by the status of the plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines at diagnosis.

Canonical correlation analysis for RNA-seq co-expression networks

Digital transcriptome analysis by next-generation sequencing discovers substantial mRNA variants. Variation in gene expression underlies many biological processes and holds a key to unravelling mechanism of common diseases. However, the current methods for construction of co-expression networks using overall gene expression are originally designed for microarray expression data, and they overlook a large number of variations in gene expressions. To use information on exon, genomic positional level and allele-specific expressions, we develop novel component-based methods, single and bivariate canonical correlation analysis, for construction of co-expression networks with RNA-seq data. To evaluate the performance of our methods for co-expression network inference with RNA-seq data, they are applied to lung squamous cell cancer expression data from TCGA database and our bipolar disorder and schizophrenia RNA-seq study. The preliminary results demonstrate that the co-expression networks constructed by canonical correlation analysis and RNA-seq data provide rich genetic and molecular information to gain insight into biological processes and disease mechanism. Our new methods substantially outperform the current statistical methods for co-expression network construction with microarray expression data or RNA-seq data based on overall gene expression levels.

Transforming growth factor-β1 and -β2 in gastric precancer and cancer and roles in tumor-cell interactions with peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro

Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and -β2 are correlated with poorer prognosis in gastric cancer (GC), which act in both tumor and immune cells. However, their expressions in precancer and tumor-cell interactions with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) remain unclear. Protein levels of TGF-β1 and -β2 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and corresponding mRNA levels were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in 93 surgical and biopsy specimens. Serum TGF-β concentration was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. AGS and MKN45 cell lines were directly or indirectly cocultured with PBMCs in vitro. TGF-β and Smad molecules were detected after cocultures and the growths of GC cells and PBMCs were assessed by cell proliferation assay. The results showed positive staining for TGF-β1 was detected in 20% of control samples, 52.3% of precancer, 59.1% of early GC and 66.7% of advanced GC samples, correlated with lesion progression (χ² = 9.487, P = 0.002). All tissues were positive for TGF-β2. TGF-β1 mRNA levels were increased in advanced cancers, while TGF-β2 increased earlier. TGF-β1 mRNA levels were higher in tumor than in peritumor, which positively correlated with Smad2 and Smad7. Serum TGF-β levels were significantly higher in patients with early and advanced cancers compared to controls (TGF-β1∶50.08±4.38 and 45.76±5.00 vs. 27.78±6.11 ng/mL; TGF-β2∶133.61±21.90 and 111.34±15.76 vs. 59.41±15.42 ng/mL, both P<0.05). The levels of TGF-β1 mRNA and cytokine secretion were higher in GC cells after direct coculture compared to indirect culture. TGF-β1 was decreased and TGF-β2 was increased in PBMCs after cocultures. Moreover, TGF-β1 inhibited the viability of PBMCs but not cancer cells. Collectively, neoplastic transformation may be an early event involving the increase of TGF-β1 in the general and local environment. TGF-β1 production is promoted by the direct interaction between GC cells and PBMCs, which might facilitate cancer development.

Molecular mechanisms of actions of formulations of the thyroid hormone analogue, tetrac, on the inflammatory response

BACKGROUND

Tetraiodothyroacetic acid (tetrac) and its nanoparticulate formulation (Nanotetrac) act at a cell surface receptor to block angiogenesis and tumor cell proliferation.

OBJECTIVE

The complex anti-angiogenic properties of tetrac and Nanotetrac caused us to search in the literature and in certain of our unpublished mRNA experiments for evidence that these agents affect the early inflammatory response, perhaps through actions on specific cytokines and chemokines.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tetrac and Nanotetrac inhibit expression in tumor cells of cytokine genes, e.g., specific interleukins, and chemokine genes, such as fractalkine (CX3CL1), and chemokine receptor genes (CX3CR1) that have been identified as high priority targets in the development of inflammation-suppressant drugs. The possibility is also examined that tetrac formulations have an effect on the function of inflammatory cells.

Dexamethasone reduces sensitivity to cisplatin by blunting p53-dependent cellular senescence in non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction

Dexamethasone (DEX) co-treatment has proved beneficial in NSCLC patients, improving clinical symptoms by the reduction of side effects after chemotherapy. However, recent studies have shown that DEX could render cancer cells more insensitive to cytotoxic drug therapy, but it is not known whether DEX co-treatment could influence therapy-induced senescence (TIS), and unknown whether it is in a p53-dependent or p53-independent manner.

Methods

We examined in different human NSCLC cell lines and detected cellular senescence after cisplatin (DDP) treatment in the presence or absence of DEX. The in vivo effect of the combination of DEX and DDP was assessed by tumor growth experiments using human lung cancer cell lines growing as xenograft tumors in nude mice.

Results

Co-treatment with DEX during chemotherapy in NSCLC resulted in increased tumor cell viability and inhibition of TIS compared with DDP treated group. DEX co-treatment cells exhibited the decrease of DNA damage signaling pathway proteins, the lower expression of p53 and p21^CIP1, the lower cellular secretory program and down-regulation of NF-κB and its signaling cascade. DEX also significantly reduced DDP sensitivity in vivo.

Conclusions

Our results underscore that DEX reduces chemotherapy sensitivity by blunting therapy induced cellular senescence after chemotherapy in NSCLC, which may, at least in part, in a p53-dependent manner. These data therefore raise concerns about the widespread combined use of gluocorticoids (GCs) with antineoplastic drugs in the clinical management of cancer patients.

Recreating the tumor microenvironment in a bilayer, hyaluronic acid hydrogel construct for the growth of prostate cancer spheroids

Cancer cells cultured in physiologically relevant, three-dimensional (3D) matrices can recapture many essential features of native tumor tissues. In this study, a hyaluronic acid (HA)-based bilayer hydrogel system that not only supports the tumoroid formation from LNCaP prostate cancer (PCa) cells, but also simulates their reciprocal interactions with the tumor-associated stroma was developed and characterized. HA hydrogels were prepared by mixing solutions of HA precursors functionalized with acrylate groups (HA-AC) and reactive thiols (HA-SH) under physiological conditions. The resultant viscoelastic gels have an average elastic modulus of 234 ± 30 Pa and can be degraded readily by hyaluronidase. The orthogonal and cytocompatible nature of the crosslinking chemistry permits facile incorporation of cytokine-releasing particles and PCa cells. In our bilayer hydrogel construct, the top layer contains heparin (HP)-decorated, HA-based hydrogel particles (HGPs) capable of releasing heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) in a sustained manner at a rate of 2.5 wt%/day cumulatively. LNCaP cells embedded in the bottom layer receive the growth factor signals from the top, and in response form enlarging tumoroids with an average diameter of 85 μm by day 7. Cells in 3D hydrogels assemble into spherical tumoroids, form close cellular contacts through E-cadherin, and show cortical organization of F-actin, whereas those plated as 2D monolayers adopt a spread-out morphology. Compared to cells cultured on 2D, the engineered tumoroids significantly increased the expression of two pro-angiogenic factors, vascular endothelial growth factor-165 (VEGF(165)) and interleukin-8 (IL-8), both at mRNA and protein levels. Overall, the HA model system provides a useful platform for the study of tumor cell responses to growth factors and for screening of anticancer drugs targeting these pathways.

Expression of C-X-C chemokine receptor types 1/2 in patients with gastric carcinoma: Clinicopathological correlations and significance

C-X-C chemokine receptor types 1/2 (CXCR1/2) may play multiple roles in the development and progression of a number of types of tumor. The abnormal expression of CXCR1/2 in various types of malignant tumors has been reported, but less is known with regard to gastric carcinoma. The present study was preliminarily conducted to elucidate the correlation between clinicopathological factors and the immunohistochemical expression of CXCR1/2 in patients with gastric carcinoma. The expression of CXCR1/2 in 69 specimens of sporadic gastric carcinoma and their corresponding non-neoplastic mucosa obtained by gastrectomy was assayed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) using a polyclonal anti-CXCR1/2 antibody. ERK1/2 and AKT phosphorylation and the expression of indicators of proliferation, growth and apoptosis (Bcl-2 and Bax, Cyclin D1, EGFR and Ki-67), angiogenesis (VEGF and CD34), invasion and metastasis (MMP-9, MMP-2, TIMP-2 and E-cadherin) were also detected by IHC. A total of 68 (98.6%) of the 69 patients with gastric carcinoma were found to have positive CXCR1/2 expression, which appeared to be significantly higher in gastric carcinoma compared with corresponding non-neoplastic mucosa tissues. The expression of CXCR1/2 in gastric carcinoma was significantly associated with invasion, metastasis and TNM staging (P<0.001). Correlation analysis between CXCR1/2 and pAKT (P=0.032), pERK (P<0.001), Cyclin D1 (P=0.049), EGFR (P=0.013), Bcl-2 (P=0.003), microvessel density (P=0.001), MMP-9 (P=0.013) and MMP-2 (P=0.027) expression using the Spearman test showed significant correlation in gastric carcinoma. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that, compared with negative or weak expression, overexpression of CXCR1/2 protein was a significant risk factor for TNM stage (P<0.001). These results preliminarily suggest that CXCR1/2 may be a useful maker for progression of the tumors and a promising target for gastric carcinoma therapy.

Chemopreventive effects of pterostilbene on urethane-induced lung carcinogenesis in mice via the inhibition of EGFR-mediated pathways and the induction of apoptosis and autophagy

Lung cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer deaths globally. Due to the lack of successful chemopreventive agents for lung cancer, there is an emerging need to evaluate new and effective agents for lung cancer prevention. Pterostilbene, a naturally occurring analogue of resveratrol, has been reported to be an effective chemopreventive agent against many cancers. The aim of this study is to investigate the chemopreventive effects of pterostilbene in urethane-induced murine lung tumors. Pretreatment with pterostilbene at 50 or 250 mg/kg significantly reduced tumor multiplicity by 26 and 49%, respectively. Pterostilbene also significantly inhibited tumor volume by 25 and 34% and decreased the tumor burden per mouse by 45 and 63%, respectively. The mechanisms by which pterostilbene suppresses lung tumorigenesis have been investigated in lung tissues and homogenates. The results indicate that the pterostilbene-mediated chemopreventive effects in vivo were a result of the inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its downstream pathways, leading to retarded cell cycle progression, and of the induction of apoptosis and autophagy during urethane-induced lung tumorigenesis.

Selection of disease-specific biomarkers by integrating inflammatory mediators with clinical informatics in AECOPD patients: a preliminary study

Systemic inflammation is a major factor influencing the outcome and quality of patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and acute exacerbations (AECOPD). Because of the inflammatory complexity, a great challenge is still confronted to optimize the identification and validation of disease-specific biomarkers. This study aimed at developing a new protocol of specific biomarker evaluation by integrating proteomic profiles of inflammatory mediators with clinical informatics in AECOPD patients, understand better their function and signal networks. Plasma samples were collected from healthy non-smokers or patients with stable COPD (sCOPD) or AECOPD on days 1 and 3 of the admission and discharging day (day 7–10). Forty chemokines were measured using a chemokine multiplex antibody array. Clinical informatics was achieved by a Digital Evaluation Score System (DESS) for assessing severity of patients. Chemokine data was compared among different groups and its correlation with DESS scores was performed by SPSS software. Of 40 chemokines, 30 showed significant difference between sCOPD patients and healthy controls, 16 between AECOPD patients and controls and 13 between AECOPD patients and both sCOPD and controls, including BTC, IL-9, IL-18Bpa, CCL22,CCL23, CCL25, CCL28, CTACK, LIGHT, MSPa, MCP-3, MCP-4 and OPN. Of them, some had significant correlation with DESS scores. There is a disease-specific profile of inflammatory mediators in COPD and AECOPD patients which may have a potential diagnostics together with clinical informatics of patients. Our preliminary study suggested that integration of proteomics with clinical informatics can be a new way to validate and optimize disease-special biomarkers.

VEGF165 attenuates the Th17/Treg imbalance that exists when transplanting allogeneic skeletal myoblasts to treat acute myocardial infarction

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether Th17/Treg imbalance exists, and whether VEGF(165) attenuates the imbalance in allogeneic skeletal myoblast transplantation (allo-SMT) for acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

METHODS

On days 1, 2, 4, and 7 after allo-SMT, the percentages and ratios of Th17 and Treg cells were analyzed by flow cytometry in three groups-the AMI group, the AMI-S group (allo-SMT) and the AMI-V group (with VEGF(165) treatment). Subsequently, related proinflammatory and regulatory cytokines and key transcription factors, ROR-γt mRNA and Foxp3 mRNA expression, were examined by Bio-plex and real-time polymerase chain reaction, respectively.

RESULTS

On days 1, 2, 4, and 7, the percentage of Tregs, related cytokine concentrations and transcript factor Foxp3 mRNA in the AMI-S group were lower than those in the AMI group, while those in the AMI-V group were higher than those in the AMI group. However, the percentage of Th17 cells, related cytokine concentrations and ROR-γt mRNA in the AMI-S group were higher than those in the AMI group; those in the AMI-V group were lower than those in the AMI group. Compared with the AMI group, the ratios of Th17/Treg cells significantly increased in the AMI-S group and decreased in the AMI-V group.

CONCLUSIONS

Th17/Treg imbalance participated in the formation and development of the inflammatory and immune response after allo-SMT. However, transfected VEGF(165) was able to relieve the severity of the Th17/Treg imbalance.

HIV-1 matrix protein p17 promotes angiogenesis via chemokine receptors CXCR1 and CXCR2

Vascular diseases supported by aberrant angiogenesis have increased incidence in HIV-1-infected patients. Several data suggest that endothelium dysfunction relies on action of HIV-1 proteins rather than on a direct effect of the virus itself. The HIV-1 matrix protein p17 is known to deregulate the biological activity of different immune cells. Recently, p17 was found to mimic IL-8 chemokine activity by binding to the IL-8 receptor CXCR1. Here we show that p17 binds with high affinity to CXCR2, a CXCR1-related receptor, and promotes the formation of capillary-like structures on human endothelial cells (ECs) by interacting with both CXCR1 and CXCR2 expressed on the EC surface. ERK signaling via Akt was defined as the pathway responsible for p17-induced tube formation. Ex vivo and in vivo experimental models confirmed the provasculogenic activity of p17, which was comparable to that induced by VEGF-A. The hypothesis of a major role for p17 in HIV-1-induced aberrant angiogenesis is enforced by the finding that p17 is detected, as a single protein, in blood vessels of HIV-1-patients and in particular in the nucleus of ECs. Localization of p17 in the nucleus of ECs was evidenced also in in vitro experiments, suggesting the internalization of exogenous p17 in ECs by mechanisms of receptor-mediated endocytosis. Recognizing p17 interaction with CXCR1 and CXCR2 as the key event in sustaining EC aberrant angiogenesis could help us to identify new treatment strategies in combating AIDS-related vascular diseases.

Regulatory mechanisms of interleukin-8 production induced by tumour necrosis factor-α in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Interleukin (IL)-8 plays the critical role in the initiation of micro-environmental inflammation responsible for tumour growth and patient prognosis. This study aimed at investigating the molecular mechanisms of IL-8 production from human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. The levels of IL-8 and phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), ERK1/2 and Akt in MHCC-97H cells were measured by ELISA, Western blot and immunofluorescence. NF-κB p65 protein nuclear translocation was determined by non-radioactive NF-κB p50/p65 transcription factor activity kit and cell bio-behaviours were detected by the real-time cell-monitoring system. Tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) significantly induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, ERK, Akt and production of IL-8 from HCC cells, which were prevented by SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor), PD98059 (ERK inhibitor), LY294002 and Wortmannin (PI3K inhibitor) and SB328437 (CCR3 inhibitor). TNF-α could significantly increase the translocation of NF-κB p65 protein into the nucleus in a dose-dependent manner, while SB203580 partially inhibited. In inflammatory micro-environment, HCC auto-produced IL-8 through p38 MAPK, ERK and PI3K/Akt signalling pathways, where the p38 MAPK is a central factor to activate the NF-κB pathway and regulate the expression of IL-8 production. There was a potential cross-talking between receptors.

The Nedd8-activating enzyme inhibitor MLN4924 induces autophagy and apoptosis to suppress liver cancer cell growth

Posttranslational neddylation of cullins in the Cullin-Ring E3 ligase (CRL) complexes is needed for proteolytic degradation of CRL substrates, whose accumulation induces cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, and senescence. The Nedd8-activating enzyme (NAE) is critical for neddylation of CRL complexes and their growth-promoting function. Recently, the anticancer small molecule MLN4924 currently in phase I trials was determined to be an inhibitor of NAE that blocks cullin neddylation and inactivates CRL, triggering an accumulation of CRL substrates that trigger cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, and senescence in cancer cells. Here, we report that MLN4924 also triggers autophagy in response to CRL inactivation and that this effect is important for the ability of MLN4924 to suppress the outgrowth of liver cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. MLN4924-induced autophagy was attributed partially to inhibition of mTOR activity, due to accumulation of the mTOR inhibitory protein Deptor, as well as to induction of reactive oxygen species stress. Inhibiting autophagy enhanced MLN4924-induced apoptosis, suggesting that autophagy is a survival signal triggered in response to CRL inactivation. In a xenograft model of human liver cancer, MLN4924 was well-tolerated and displayed a significant antitumor effect characterized by CRL inactivation and induction of autophagy and apoptosis in liver cancer cells. Together, our findings support the clinical investigation of MLN4924 for liver cancer treatment and provide a preclinical proof-of-concept for combination therapy with an autophagy inhibitor to enhance therapeutic efficacy.

Oncogenic KRAS-induced interleukin-8 overexpression promotes cell growth and migration and contributes to aggressive phenotypes of non-small cell lung cancer

The CXC chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8) is an angiogenic growth factor that is overexpressed in various cancers, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Previously, IL-8 was shown as a transcriptional target of RAS signaling, raising the possibility of its role in oncogenic KRAS-driven NSCLC. Using microarray analysis, we identified IL-8 as the most downregulated gene by shRNA-mediated KRAS knockdown in NCI-H1792 NSCLC cells where IL-8 is overexpressed. NSCLC cell lines harboring KRAS or EGFR mutations overexpressed IL-8, while IL-8 levels were more prominent in KRAS mutants compared to EGFR mutants. IL-8 expression was downregulated by shRNA-mediated KRAS knockdown in KRAS mutants or by treatment with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors and EGFR siRNAs in EGFR mutants. In our analysis of the relationship of IL-8 expression with clinical parameters and mutation status of KRAS or EGFR in 89 NSCLC surgical specimens, IL-8 expression was shown to be significantly higher in NSCLCs of males, smokers, and elderly patients and those with pleural involvement and KRAS mutated adenocarcinomas. In KRAS mutant cells, the MEK inhibitor markedly decreased IL-8 expression, while the p38 inhibitor increased IL-8 expression. Attenuation of IL-8 function by siRNAs or a neutralizing antibody inhibited cell proliferation and migration of KRAS mutant/IL-8 overexpressing NSCLC cells. These results indicate that activating mutations of KRAS or EGFR upregulate IL-8 expression in NSCLC; IL-8 is highly expressed in NSCLCs from males, smokers, elderly patients, NSCLCs with pleural involvement, and KRAS-mutated adenocarcinomas; and IL-8 plays a role in cell growth and migration in oncogenic KRAS-driven NSCLC.