The effect of cooking on the phytochemical content of vegetables

Improving the Antioxidant Activity and Flavor of Faba (Vicia faba L.) Leaves by Domestic Cooking Methods

Faba leaves are an unusual vegetable which contain not only a range of functional phytochemicals, but also certain undesirable flavors, which limit their consumption. In this study, several cooking methods (microwaving, roasting, steaming, and boiling), which are expected to reduce the odd flavors, were evaluated in terms of both health benefit effects and odd flavor factors, including antioxidant activities and the content of non-volatile and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). A cooking time of 5 min was selected because of the high content of l-dopa (l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) and aim of reducing the undesirable flavors of the cooked faba leaves. Microwaving and steaming significantly increased the l-dopa content by 24% and 19%, respectively. Roasting specifically increased the content of flavonols, exhibiting a 28% increase of kaempferol-3-O-arabinoside-7-O-rhamnoside, representatively, whereas boiling decreased about 50% of most phytochemicals evaluated. Microwaving and steaming treatments significantly increased the antioxidant activities. The l-dopa content and antioxidant activities of the processed faba leaves were strongly positively correlated with either an R2 = 0.863 of DPPH radical scavenging activity or an R2 = 0.856 value of ABTS radical scavenging activity, showing that l-dopa was a key antioxidant. All cooking methods potentially improved the flavor of the cooked faba leaves compared with that of the fresh leaves, because they significantly reduced the contents of VOCs such as alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones. These VOCs were the main components (>90%) in the fresh leaves. Adverse aromatic hydrocarbons were newly formed by the microwaving treatment, typically producing p-xylene, which is known to be a harmful dose-dependent compound, but they were not detected in leaves processed by the other cooking methods; therefore, although microwaving efficiently increased antioxidant activity, the chemical safety of the aromatic hydrocarbons produced need further study.

Associations between Meat and Vegetable Intake, Cooking Methods, and Asthenozoospermia: A Hospital-Based Case–Control Study in China

Background: The role of meat and vegetable intake in the development of asthenozoospermia has been controversial, and the role of cooking methods for meat and vegetables in the association has yet to be determined. The present study aimed to illuminate the relationship between the consumption and cooking methods of meat and vegetables and the risk of asthenozoospermia. Methods: In this hospital-based case–control study, we enrolled 552 patients with asthenozoospermia and 585 healthy controls. Dietary information was assessed using a validated self-administered food frequency questionnaire. Asthenozoospermia was diagnosed according to the fifth edition of the WHO laboratory manual for the examination and processing of human semen. Results: Participants in the highest tertile of total meat and unprocessed meat intake had a 44% and 39% lower risk of asthenozoospermia than those in the lowest tertile (OR = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.37, 0.87 and OR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.40, 0.93), respectively. Participants with the highest processed meat consumption showed higher risk (OR = 1.44, 95% CI: 1.01, 2.06). Raw vegetable consumption was negatively associated with the risk of asthenozoospermia (OR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.45, 0.98). The stir-frying cooking method for meat was associated with increased risk of asthenozoospermia (OR = 1.58, 95% CI: 1.02, 2.46). Conclusions: Intake of total meat, unprocessed meat, and raw vegetable may reduce asthenozoospermia risk, while higher consumption of processed meat may increase the risk. Cooking methods may play a role in these associations. These findings need to be confirmed in large and prospective cohort studies.

Deep-frying purple potato Purple Majesty using sunflower oil: effect on the polyphenols, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity

The potato is a root vegetable native to the Americas; it consists of the starchy tuber of the plant Solanum tuberosum. There are many varieties, and the flesh can have different colour ranging from yellow to red and purple. Coloured varieties have a denser texture and slightly nuttier, earthier flavour than other potatoes. The desirable quality characteristics of potatoes depends on the intended use, and the acceptability of raw potatoes is determined by size, shape, colour, and the quality of can be evaluated in terms of colour, flavour, and texture. Deep-frying is the century-old and it is among the most common cooking processes, still being used to prepare a variety of food products on both industrial and domestic scales. Frying the potatoes is among the tastiest and appreciated way to cook this vegetable. Purple fleshed potatoes are widely considered one of the best-tasting purple potatoes varieties, they have a nice taste and add colour to a meal. They are a source of beneficial health compounds which makes them interesting as functional food. The anthocyanins present in the Purple Majesty variety are interesting for their health promoting abilities, anti-oxidative activity, and even other health beneficial effects, e.g. anti-influenza virus activity, and anti-stomach cancer activity. The aim of this study has been to assess the effect of deep-frying of purple potato Purple Majesty using sunflower oil on the polyphenols, anthocyanins and to evaluate the antioxidant activity of the cooked matrix compared to the fresh one. The results seem to suggest that the healthy characteristics of this functional food are retained after the cooking by frying.

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Purple potato “Purple Majesty” is rich in antioxidants and anthocyanins.

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Deep frying in sunflower oil affects positively the antioxidant activity.

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The anthocyanins increase their amount in the frying time range.

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Polyphenols amount decreases during frying time.

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The ferulic and gallic acids seem to increase their amount after 48 h of frying.

Valorization of ‘Rossa di Tropea’ Onion Waste through Green Recovery Techniques of Antioxidant Compounds

The aim of this work was to maximize the recovery of the bioactive components from an important solid waste derivate from Tropea onion processing. To achieve this, three different extractive procedures (conventional for maceration, ultrasound, and microwave-assisted) were employed, using only food-grade extraction solvents such as water and ethanol:water (50:50). Solvent, temperature, microwave power, time, and their interaction were studied as the principal factors that might affect the extractability rates. The obtained data suggest that the hydroalcoholic mixture proved to be the best for each of the techniques developed and at each time and temperature considered. In particular, the best results were achieved by conventional extraction for 60 min at 40 °C (total flavonoids content: 25.64 ± 1.40 mg QE g−1 d.w.; total anthocyanins content: 0.78 ± 0.01 mg C-3-GLUC g−1 d.w.). The UHPLC analysis of the optimally obtained extract revealed that the principal phytochemicals recovered were quercetin (5322.61 ± 0.32 mg kg−1) and quercetin 3-4′-diglucoside (1023.80 ± 0.34 mg kg−1) after conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction, respectively. In this perspective, the implementation of sustainable, food-grade extraction processes to recover value-added substances from solid onion waste could play a crucial role both in reducing the waste load and in formulating natural food additives with functional properties, with a potential direct industrial impact.

Unveiling the Bioactive Potential of Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Waste in Human Health from a Consumer Perspective

Food supply disruption and shortage verified during the current pandemic events are a scenario that many anticipate for the near future. The impact of climate changes on food production, the continuous decrease in arable land, and the exponential growth of the human population are important drivers for this problem. In this context, adding value to food waste is an obvious strategy to mitigate food shortages, but there is a long way to go in this field. Globally, it is estimated that one-third of all food produced is lost. This is certainly due to many different factors, but the lack of awareness of the consumer about the nutritional value of certain foods parts, namely peels and seeds, is certainly among them. In this review, we will unveil the nutritional and bioactive value of the waste discarded from the most important fresh fruit and vegetables consumed worldwide as a strategy to decrease food waste. This will span the characterization of the bioactive composition of selected waste from fruits and vegetables, particularly their seeds and peels, and their possible uses, whether in our diet or recycled to other ends.

Cooking and In Vitro Digestion Modulate the Anti-Diabetic Properties of Red-Skinned Onion and Dark Purple Eggplant Phenolic Compounds

The intake of phenolic-rich foods is an emerging preventive approach for the management of type 2 diabetes, thanks to the ability of these compounds to inhibit some key metabolic enzymes. In this study, the influence of cooking and in vitro digestion on the α-glucosidase, α-amylase, and dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitory activity of red-skinned onion (RSO) and dark purple eggplant (DPE) phenolic fractions was assessed. The applied cooking procedures had different influences on the total and individual phenolic compounds gastrointestinal bioaccessibility. DPE in vitro digested phenolic fractions displayed no inhibitory activity versus α-amylase and DPP-IV, whereas the fried DPE sample exhibited moderate inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase. This sample mainly contained hydroxycinnamic acid amides that can be responsible for the observed effect. Contrariwise, raw and cooked in vitro digested RSO phenolic fractions inhibited all three enzymes but with different effectiveness. Fried and raw RSO samples were the most active against them. Statistical analysis pointed out that quercetin mono-hexosides (mainly quercetin-4'-O-hexoside) were responsible for the inhibition of α-glucosidase, whereas quercetin di-hexosides (mainly quercetin-3-O-hexoside-4'-O-hexoside) were responsible for the DPP-IV-inhibitory activity of RSO samples. An accurate design of the cooking methods could be essential to maximize the release of individual phenolic compounds and the related bioactivities.

Raw and Cooked Vegetable Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Study of 400,000 Adults in UK Biobank

Objectives

Higher levels of vegetable consumption have been associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the independent effect of raw and cooked vegetable consumption remains unclear.

Methods

From the UK Biobank cohort, 399,586 participants without prior CVD were included in the analysis. Raw and cooked vegetable intakes were measured with a validated dietary questionnaire at baseline. Multivariable Cox regression was used to estimate the associations between vegetable intake and CVD incidence and mortality, adjusted for socioeconomic status, health status, and lifestyle factors. The potential effect of residual confounding was assessed by calculating the percentage reduction in the likelihood ratio (LR) statistics after adjustment for the confounders.

Results

The mean age was 56 years and 55% were women. Mean intakes of raw and cooked vegetables were 2.3 and 2.8 tablespoons/day, respectively. During 12 years of follow-up, 18,052 major CVD events and 4,406 CVD deaths occurred. Raw vegetable intake was inversely associated with both CVD incidence (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) [95% CI] for the highest vs. lowest intake: 0.89 [0.83–0.95]) and CVD mortality (0.85 [0.74–0.97]), while cooked vegetable intake was not (1.00 [0.91–1.09] and 0.96 [0.80–1.13], respectively). Adjustment for potential confounders reduced the LR statistics for the associations of raw vegetables with CVD incidence and mortality by 82 and 87%, respectively.

Conclusions

Higher intakes of raw, but not cooked, vegetables were associated with lower CVD risk. Residual confounding is likely to account for much, if not all, of the observed associations. This study suggests the need to reappraise the evidence on the burden of CVD disease attributable to low vegetable intake in the high-income populations.

Impact of Cultivar Selection and Thermal Processing by Air Drying, Air Frying, and Deep Frying on the Carotenoid Content and Stability and Antioxidant Capacity in Carrots (Daucus carota L.)

Epidemiological data suggest that consuming diets rich in carotenoids can reduce the risk of developing several non-communicable diseases. Thus, we investigated the extent to which carotenoid contents of foods can be increased by the choice of food matrices with naturally high carotenoid contents and thermal processing methods that maintain their stability. For this purpose, carotenoids of 15 carrot (Daucus carota L.) cultivars of different colors were assessed with UHPLC-DAD-ToF-MS. Additionally, the processing effects of air drying, air frying, and deep frying on carotenoid stability were applied. Cultivar selection accounted for up to 12.9-fold differences in total carotenoid content in differently colored carrots and a 2.2-fold difference between orange carrot cultivars. Air frying for 18 and 25 min and deep frying for 10 min led to a significant decrease in total carotenoid contents. TEAC assay of lipophilic extracts showed a correlation between carotenoid content and antioxidant capacity in untreated carrots.

A Review of the Effects of Olive Oil-Cooking on Phenolic Compounds

The fate of phenolic compounds in oil and food during cooking vary according to the type of cooking. From a nutritional point of view, reviews largely suggest a preference for using extra-virgin olive oil at a low temperature for a short time, except for frying and microwaving, for which there appears to be no significant advantages compared to olive oil. However, due to the poorly pertinent use of terminology, the different protocols adopted in studies aimed at the same objective, the different type and quality of oils used in experiments, and the different quality and quantity of PC present in the used oils and in the studied vegetables, the evidence available is mainly contradictory. This review tries to reanalyse the main experimental reports on the fate, accessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds in cooking oils and cooked vegetables, by considering different cooking techniques and types of oil and foods, and distinguishing experimental findings obtained using oil alone from those in combination with vegetables. The re-analysis indicates that incomplete and contradictory observations have been published in the last few years and suggests that further research is necessary to clarify the impact of cooking techniques on the phenolic compounds in oil and vegetables during cooking, especially when considering their nutritional properties.

Effect of Traditional Cooking and In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion of the Ten Most Consumed Beans from the Fabaceae Family in Thailand on Their Phytochemicals, Antioxidant and Anti-Diabetic Potentials

The edible beans in Fabaceae have been used for foods and medicines since the ancient time, and being used more and more. It is also appeared as a major ingredient in dairy cooking menu in many regions including Thailand, a rich biodiversity country. Many studies reported on health benefits of their flavonoids, but there is no report on the effect of cooking on phytochemical profile and pharmacological potentials. Thus, this present study aims to complete this knowledge, with the 10 most consumed Fabaceae beans in Thailand, by determining the impact of traditional cooking and gastrointestinal digestion on their phytochemicals, their antioxidant and anti-diabetic activities using different in vitro and in cellulo yeast models. The results showed that Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis were the richest source of phytochemicals, whereas the population of V. mungo, Phaseolus vulgaris, V. angularis, and V. unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis were richest in monomeric anthocyanin contents (MAC). Furthermore, the results clearly demonstrated the impact of the plant matrix effect on the preservation of a specific class of phytochemicals. In particular, after cooking and in vitro digestion, total flavonoid contents (TFC) in Glycine max extract was higher than in the uncooked sample. This study is the first report on the influence of cooking and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the inhibition capacity toward advanced glycation end products (AGEs). All samples showed a significant capacity to stimulate glucose uptake in yeast model, and V. angularis showed the highest capacity. Interestingly, the increase in glucose uptake after in vitro digestion was higher than in uncooked samples for both P. vulgaris and G. max samples. The current study is the first attempt to investigate at the effects of both processes not only on the natural bioactive compounds but also on antioxidant and anti-diabetic activities of Thailand's 10 most consumed beans that can be applied for agro-industrial and phytopharmaceutical sectors.

The Impact of Domestic Cooking Methods on Myrosinase Stability, Glucosinolates and Their Hydrolysis Products in Different Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) Accessions

Glucosinolate hydrolysis products are responsible for the health-promoting properties of Brassica vegetables. The impact of domestic cooking on the myrosinase stability, glucosinolates and hydrolysis products in 18 cabbage accession was investigated. Cabbages were steamed, microwaved, and stir-fried before analysis. Cooking significantly affected myrosinase stability and glucosinolate concentrations within and between cabbage morphotypes. Myrosinase was most stable after stir-frying, with up to 65% residual activity. Steaming and microwaving resulted in over 90% loss of myrosinase activity in some accessions. Stir-frying resulted in the greatest decrease in glucosinolate concentration, resulting in up to 70% loss. Steamed cabbages retained the highest glucosinolates after cooking (up to 97%). The profile and abundance of glucosinolate hydrolysis products detected varied across all cooking methods studied. Cooking reduced the amounts of nitriles and epithionitriles formed compared to raw samples. Steaming led to a significant increase in the concentration of beneficial isothiocyanates present in the cabbage and a significantly lower level of nitriles compared to other samples. Microwaving led to a reduction in the concentrations of both nitriles and isothiocyanates when compared to other cooking methods and raw cabbage. The results obtained help provide information on the optimal cooking methods for cabbage, suggesting that steaming may be the best approach to maximising beneficial isothiocyanate production.

The nutriRECIPE-Index - development and validation of a nutrient-weighted index for the evaluation of recipes

Background

Our objective was to develop a nutrient-based index for evaluating and improving menus in public catering. The nutriRECIPE-Index comprises 24 nutrients and nutrient groups. In developing the index, the following steps were included: setting the goals of the index, nutrient selection, target metrics and scaling, weighting, proof of concept and validation of the index. Furthermore, a unique database was created to integrate bioactive plant compounds in the assessment. An assessment of standard recipes and supposedly healthy recipes should show a significant difference in the results of the nutriRECIPE-Index. Finally, the nutriRECIPE-Index should generate similar or more specific results than existing indices such as the Nutri-Score and the Healthy Meal Index.

Methods

A whole meal cycle (comprising 6 weeks, 106 recipes and including different menu lines, partially with different side dishes) at a university canteen was analysed with the Federal Food Code (BLS) and the nutriRECIPE-Index. The Healthy Meal Index (comprising 3 nutritionally relevant items) and the Nutri-Score algorithm (comprising 7 items) were used to validate the nutrient composition and the results of the nutriRECIPE-Index.

Results

The resulting scores of the recipes and menu lines showed substantial differences, wherein the meals of a health-promoting menu line usually received higher scores than the standard recipes. A correlation between the nutriRECIPE-Index and the Healthy Meal Index (0.604) and the Nutri-Score (0.591) was observed. The nutriRECIPE-Index was better at identifying the worst menus and could better separate mediocre menus from good menus.

Conclusion

The nutriRECIPE-Index is a useful and comprehensive tool for evaluating the nutritional value of recipes and is the first to consider bioactive plant compounds. Further adjustments to different target populations, settings, and cultural backgrounds are possible.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40795-021-00483-7.

Pre-Hispanic Foods Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus), Nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) and Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) as New Alternative Ingredients for Developing Functional Cookies

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotusostreatus), nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) and amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) are pre-Hispanic foods widely consumed in Mexico. However, there are no standard products developed with these ingredientsas functional cookies. This study evaluated the impact of partial replacement (50%) of whole-wheat flour (WWF) with three formulations of P. ostreatus, nopal and amaranth flours (POF, NF and AF, respectively) on the nutritional/antioxidant properties of fortified cookies. The proportion of the flours' ingredients (WWF:AF:NF:POF) were 100% WWF (traditional cookies), 50:35:10:5 (F1), 50:30:15:5 (F2) and 50:40:5:5 (F3). Proximal composition, phenolic/flavonoid contents, and ABTS•+ scavenging activity were determined in flours and cookies.POF, NF and AF possess a high nutritional value comprising polyphenols/flavonoids and a significant antioxidant potential. Total protein, ash and flavonoids were higher in fortified cookies than in controls. Cookies prepared with F2-the highest nopal level-contained 5.29% of dietary fiber and five times higher polyphenol content than control cookies. The ABTS•+ scavenging ability was similar in the three enriched cookies (87.73-89.58%), but higher than that in traditional cookies (75.60%). The applicability of POF/NF/AF for replacing up to 50% of WWF in the production of functional cookies was demonstrated without compromising products' acceptability.This research promotes renewable local bioresouces for a sustainable agri-food chain, especially edible mushrooms.

An Overview of Registered Clinical Trials on Glucosinolates and Human Health: The Current Situation

Epidemiological studies suggest a potential role of glucosinolates (GSLs) and isothiocyanates on human health. However, evidence from intervention studies, due to heterogeneity in features of study design, duration, participants, food or food components administered, and outcomes analyzed, is still insufficient. The current review aims to provide an overview of the trials on GSLs and GSL-rich foods registered over the last 20 years with the intention to summarize the main topics and results, but also the existing gaps that still need to be covered. Studies were collected by using ClinicalTrials.gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN) registry. A total of 87 registered trials were identified with which most of them were performed by using extracts or pure compounds (n = 60) while few were conducted with GSL-rich foods (n = 27). In detail, sulforaphane was the most investigated compound, while broccoli was the most frequent food tested in the trials. The majority of the studies assessed the health effects of GSLs focusing on outcomes related to cancer and cognitive function, even if the current findings are not univocal. Emerging topics also included the study of GSLs and gut microbiota interaction and impact on skin health. Further attention was also drawn to the bioavailability of GSLs and/or derivatives from foods, extracts, and single compounds by also considering the contribution of the different genetic polymorphisms. In conclusion, although considerable efforts have been made to study GSLs and GSL-rich foods, further studies are necessary to provide evidence-based research and to corroborate the findings obtained. The interindividual response due to genetic polymorphisms should be further investigated in order to explore the contribution to the overall beneficial effect.

In Vitro Gingival Wound Healing Activity of Extracts from Reynoutria japonica Houtt Rhizomes

Rhizomes of Reynoutria japonica Houtt. are a traditional Chinese medicinal herb (Polygoni cuspidati rhizoma, hu zhang) used for treatment of numerous diseases including wound healing support. The aim of this study was to provide evidence for the value of this herbal drug’s traditional use as a gingival healing treatment as well as to obtain the most active extract. In vitro studies were performed using primary human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) with determination of viability (MTT assay), cell proliferation (the confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) was used to visualize histone 3 expression), cell migration (wound healing assay), and evaluation of the expression of collagen type III (immunocytochemical staining) after incubation with extracts from R. japonica rhizomes (25% or 40% ethanol or 60% acetone). In addition to these extracts, commercial dental rinse (containing chlorhexidine digluconate 0.2%) was tested as the gold standard of choice for gum healing in dental practice. The studied extracts were qualitatively and quantitatively characterized using the validated HPLC/DAD/ESI-HR-QTOF-MS method. Total phenols and tannins content were determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu assay. Low concentration of all extracts after 24 h incubation caused significant increase in HGF viability. This effect was most pronounced at a concentration of 50 µg/mL, which was selected for further experiments. All extracts (at 50 µg/mL) stimulated HGF to proliferate, migrate, and increase collagen III synthesis, but with different strength. The highest stimulated proliferation and migration activity was observed after incubation with 25% EtOH, which according to phytochemical analysis may be related to the highest content of resveratrol and an appropriate composition of procyanidins. The 25% EtOH extract from R. japonica rhizomes appears to be a promising gingival wound healing agent worthy of animal and clinical trials.

Intake Estimation of Phytochemicals in a French Well-Balanced Diet

Phytochemicals contribute to the health benefits of plant-rich diets, notably through their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, recommended daily amounts of the main dietary phytochemicals remain undetermined. We aimed to estimate the amounts of phytochemicals in a well-balanced diet. A modelled diet was created, containing dietary reference intakes for adults in France. Two one-week menus (summer and winter) were devised to reflect typical intakes of plant-based foods. Existing databases were used to estimate daily phytochemical content for seven phytochemical families: phenolic acids, flavonoids (except anthocyanins), anthocyanins, tannins, organosulfur compounds, carotenoids, and caffeine. The summer and winter menus provided 1607 and 1441 mg/day, respectively, of total polyphenols (phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins), the difference being driven by reduced anthocyanin intake in winter. Phenolic acids, flavonoids (including anthocyanins), and tannins accounted for approximately 50%, 25%, and 25% of total polyphenols, respectively. Dietary carotenoid and organosulfur compound content was estimated to be approximately 17 and 70 mg/day, respectively, in both seasons. Finally, both menus provided approximately 110 mg/day of caffeine, exclusively from tea and coffee. Our work supports ongoing efforts to define phytochemical insufficiency states that may occur in individuals with unbalanced diets and related disease risk factors.

Nutrient-Dense Shelf-Stable Vegetable Powders and Extruded Snacks Made from Carrots and Broccoli

Perishable fresh vegetables that do not meet cosmetic standards and by-products of processing are currently wasted. Broccoli and carrots were selected as model vegetables to demonstrate that they can be converted into nutrient-dense and shelf-stable food ingredients and formulated into convenient ready-to-eat snacks. Broccoli powder was a rich source of protein (30%) and dietary fibre (28%). Carrot powder had lower protein (6.5%) and dietary fibre content (24%) and was higher in sugar (47%) compared to broccoli powder (21%). Compared to the whole-vegetable powders, pomace powders were richer in fibre but had lower levels of total carbohydrates. There was a reduced expansion of extruded snacks with increasing levels of the vegetable component in the formulation. Processing and storage for 12 months at 25 °C or 40 °C resulted in changes in the measured soluble phenolic content. Changes during storage were dependent on the temperature and time. The changes may be in part due to the changes in the material properties of the matrix as a consequence of processing and storage, which affect extractability. The conversion of perishable vegetables and pomace into shelf-stable nutrient-dense food ingredients and products will reduce food loss and waste in the vegetable industry.

Effect of the Mediterranean diet in patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria

OBJECTIVE

Patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria often want to be informed about dietary modifications. There have been many studies evaluating dietary approaches in chronic spontaneous urticaria. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and chronic spontaneous urticaria.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional case-control observational study, 100 patients (70 males and 30 females, mean age: 38.6±13.0 years) with chronic spontaneous urticaria and age- and sex-matched 100 healthy controls 70 males and 30 females, mean age: 38.7±13.8 years) were enrolled. A validated 14-item questionnaire evaluating the Mediterranean diet score was used for the assessment of adherence to the Mediterranean diet. The severity and the control of chronic spontaneous urticaria were assessed by Urticaria Activity Score over 7 days and Urticaria Control Test, respectively.

RESULTS

The mean Mediterranean diet score in the patient group was 5.40±1.88, whereas in healthy controls it was 6.30±1.39 (p<0.001). The Urticaria Activity Score over 7 days score of the patients was negatively correlated with the Mediterranean diet score, whereas the Urticaria Control Test score was positively correlated.

CONCLUSION

We reported that adherence to the Mediterranean diet may be an independent factor that decreases the risk of chronic spontaneous urticaria. It may also reduce the severity of chronic spontaneous urticaria symptoms.

The retention and bioavailability of phytochemicals in the manufacturing of baked snacks

There is a growing body of evidence supporting the role that phytochemicals play in reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. Although there has been a rise in health products marketed as being "supergrains," "superfood," or advertising their abundance in antioxidants, these food items are often limited to powdered blends, dried fruit, nuts, or seeds, rarely intercepting the market of baked snacks. This is in part due to the still limited understanding of the impact that different industrial processes have on phytochemicals in a complex food matrix and their corresponding bioavailability. This review brings together the current data on how various industrial dehydration processes influence the retention and bioaccessibility of phytochemicals in baked snacks. It considers the interplay of molecules in an intricate snack matrix, limitations of conventional technologies, and constraints with consumer acceptance preventing wider utilization of novel technologies. Furthermore, the review takes a holistic approach, encompassing each stage of production-discussing the potential for inclusion of by-products to promote a circular economy and the proposal for a shift in agriculture toward biofortification or tailored growing of crops for their nutritional and post-harvest attributes.

Biomedical Effects of the Phytonutrients Turmeric, Garlic, Cinnamon, Graviola, and Oregano: A Comprehensive Review

Phytonutrients are plant foods that contain many natural bioactive compounds, called phytochemicals, which show specific biological activities. These phytonutrients and their phytochemicals may play an important role in health care maintaining normal organism functions (as preventives) and fighting against diseases (as therapeutics). Phytonutrients’ components are the primary metabolites (i.e., proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) and phytochemicals or secondary metabolites (i.e., phenolics, alkaloids, organosulfides, and terpenes). For years, several phytonutrients and their phytochemicals have demonstrated specific pharmacological and therapeutic effects in human health such as anticancer, antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and immune response. This review summarizes the effects of the most studied or the most popular phytonutrients (i.e., turmeric, garlic, cinnamon, graviola, and oregano) and any reported contraindications. This article also presents the calculated physicochemical properties of the main phytochemicals in the selected phytonutrients using Lipinski’s, Veber’s, and Ghose’s rules. Based on our revisions for this article, all these phytonutrients have consistently shown great potential as preventives and therapeutics on many diseases in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies.

Effects of Different Cooking Methods and Palm Oil Addition on the Bioaccessibility of Beta-Carotene of Sweet Leaf (Sauropus androgynous)

Beta-carotene is one of phytochemicals which play role as natural antioxidant related to the reduction of oxidative stress that is linked to Non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Sweet leaf (Sauropus androgynous), one of the indigineous plants in Asia, contains high contents of beta-carotene. However, the bioaccessibility of beta-carotene in sweet leaf might be altered among the different cooking methods. Therefore, the effects of different cooking methods (raw, boiling, and microwave cooking) and addition of palm oil on the bioaccessibility of beta-carotene of sweet leaf were investigated before and during in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. We found that the boiling and microwave cooking methods caused the lower beta-carotene contents in cooked sweet leaf compared to raw leaf. However, the addition of 10% (v/w) palm oil during cooking helped increasing the bioaccessible beta-carotene contents after digestion in all cooking methods, compared to those without palm oil addition (p<0.05). In addition, the bioaccessibility of beta-carotenes was found to increase about 20% when the palm oil was added into the microwaved sweet leaf. The findings of this study suggested that the addition of 10% (v/w) palm oil during cooking could improve the bioaccessible beta-carotene contents in the sweet leaf, especially when the sweet leaf was cooked by microwave.

Phytochemical characterization of raw and cooked traditionally consumed alimurgic plants

In the past, wild edible alimurgic plants became an important alternative food source when poverty, wars or drought made it difficult to access crops. These plants were considered rich in highly nutritional compounds and also frequently used as food-medicine given their health-promoting properties. With the aim of improving our knowledge on the content of beneficial or detrimental compounds in relation with past local dietary and curative traditions, 12 wild food plant species were collected from two study areas selected for their very different degree of industrialization, urbanization, and conservation of local past traditions among the population: the Bologna province (Northern Italy) and the Middle Agri Valley (Southern Italy). Protein, polyphenol flavonoid and biogenic amine (both free and conjugated) contents and antioxidant activity of raw and boiled wild food plant extracts, and of cooking water were analyzed by means of spectrophotometric and high-performance liquid chromatography methods. The results demonstrated that most of the phenolic compounds were released in the cooking water which also showed the highest antioxidant activity. Seventeen different phenolic compounds were identified, of which the health-related luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside and rutin were the most abundant (e.g., S. pratensis L. and C. intybus L.). On the other hand, biogenic amines were absent or present at very low levels in cooking water of those very same species (e.g., S. pratensis L., T. officinalis Weber, C. vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia and C. intybus L.) of which traditionally a decoction is used for therapeutic purposes. Free and conjugated spermidine and spermine were generally the most abundant biogenic amines, while none of the known detrimental monoamines (e.g., histamine) was detected. In conclusion, the present results seem to support past local popular traditions which indicated beneficial medical properties of some wild edible plant, as well as of their cooking water.

Modeling Softening Kinetics at Cellular Scale and Phytochemicals Extractability in Cauliflower under Different Cooking Treatments

The effects induced by heat on Depurple and Cheddar (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis) during boiling, steaming, and sous-vide were investigated to elucidate the role of the basic cellular elements in softening and extractability of sterols and tocopherols. With this aim, an elastoplastic mechanical model was conceptualized at a cell scale-size and validated under creep experiments. The total amount of the phytochemicals was used to validate multivariate regression models in forecasting. Boiling was the most effective method to enhance the softening mechanisms causing tissue decompartmentalization through cell wall loosening with respect to those causing cell separation, having no impact on the phytochemical extractability. Sous-vide showed the lowest impact on cell wall integrity, but the highest in terms of cell separation. Steaming showed an intermediate behavior. Tissue of the Depurple cauliflower was the most resistant to the heat, irrespectively to the heating technology. Local heterogeneity in the cell wall and cell membrane, expected as a plant variety-dependent functional property, was proposed as a possible explanation because sterol extractability under lower heat-transfer efficiency, i.e., steaming and sous-vide, decreased in Depurple and increased in Cheddar as well as because the extractability of sterols and tocopherols was greater in Cheddar.

Raw and Sous-Vide-Cooked Red Cardoon Stalks (Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis DC): (Poly)phenol Bioaccessibility, Anti-inflammatory Activity in the Gastrointestinal Tract, and Prebiotic Activity

The in vitro anti-inflammatory and prebiotic activity and the content and profile of bioaccessible (poly)phenols and catabolites of raw and sous-vide-cooked red cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis DC) were investigated during gastrointestinal (GI) digestion. Raw cardoon after in vitro GI digestion had 0.7% bioaccessible (poly)phenols, which protected against lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation by counteracting IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10 secretions in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Contrarily, GI-digested sous vide cardoon showed higher (poly)phenol bioaccessibility (59.8%) and exerted proinflammatory effects in Caco-2 cells. (Poly)phenols were highly metabolized during the first 8 h of in vitro fermentation, and nine catabolites were produced during 48 h of fermentation. Colonic-fermented raw and sous-vide-cooked cardoon did not show anti-inflammatory activity in HT-29 cells but presented potential prebiotic activity, comparable to the commercial prebiotic FOS, by stimulating health-promoting bacteria such as Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus/Enterococcus spp. and by increasing the production of total SCFAs, especially acetate.

Impact of post harvest treatment on antioxidant activity and phenolic profile of Moringa oleifera lam leaves

Abstract

Moringa oleifera leaves are an important source of dietary phytochemicals, such as flavonoids with high antioxidant activity (AOA). These components are however influenced by the post-harvest treatments applied as well as the processing conditions. Hence, it is crucial to determine the most appropriate post-harvest treatment that preserves or enhances AOA. To this effect the influence of steam blanching, fermentation / oxidation, oven drying and roasting of fresh Moringa leaves on their AOA was investigated. Processing conditions of time and temperature for each treatment were optimised using response surface methodology. The effect of the different treatments at optimal conditions on phenolic profile and AOA were compared. Roasting achieved the most significant (p < 0.05) improvement in phenolics (43%) and AOA (22–31%), which was accompanied by the formation of 2 new compounds, quercetin-3-O-acetylglucoside and Quercetine-3-O-rhamnoside. Steam blanching had the most deleterious effect on phenolics (− 31%) and AOA. Post-harvest treatments qualitatively and quantitatively affect phytochemical profile of Moringa leaves.

Graphical abstract

Nanotechnological Manipulation of Nutraceuticals and Phytochemicals for Healthy Purposes: Established Advantages vs. Still Undefined Risks

Numerous foods, plants, and their bioactive constituents (BACs), named nutraceuticals and phytochemicals by experts, have shown many beneficial effects including antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-cholesterol, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activities. Producers, consumers, and the market of food- and plant-related compounds are increasingly attracted by health-promoting foods and plants, thus requiring a wider and more fruitful exploitation of the healthy properties of their BACs. The demand for new BACs and for the development of novel functional foods and BACs-based food additives is pressing from various sectors. Unfortunately, low stability, poor water solubility, opsonization, and fast metabolism in vivo hinder the effective exploitation of the potential of BACs. To overcome these issues, researchers have engineered nanomaterials, obtaining food-grade delivery systems, and edible food- and plant-related nanoparticles (NPs) acting as color, flavor, and preservative additives and natural therapeutics. Here, we have reviewed the nanotechnological transformations of several BACs implemented to increase their bioavailability, to mask any unpleasant taste and flavors, to be included as active ingredients in food or food packaging, to improve food appearance, quality, and resistance to deterioration due to storage. The pending issue regarding the possible toxic effect of NPs, whose knowledge is still limited, has also been discussed.

The High Content of Quercetin and Catechin in Airen Grape Juice Supports Its Application in Functional Food Production

Ensuring healthy lives and well-being constitutes one of the Sustainable Development Goals of the UN 2030 agenda. Consequently, research into how natural products may promote health is essential for the new generation of nutraceuticals and functional foods that are in high demand today. Grape juice is a natural foodstuff composed of water, sugars, minerals, vitamins and a wide array of polyphenols. Polyphenols are bioactive compounds of great interest due to their antioxidant properties and benefits to health, supporting antimicrobial, anti-aging, and anticarcinogenic activity. The majority of grape juice produced in the world is used for the production of wine, although a small part is used in the food industry, mainly in baby food and sports drinks. The aim of this work is to determine the polyphenol content in the natural and concentrated juice of Airen grapes, the main white grape variety produced in Spain. For this, fresh juices from five grape varietals (Airen, Sauvignon Blanc, Gewürztraminer, Verdejo and Tempranillo) and concentrated Airen juice were analyzed and compared. Results showed similar contents of phenolic acids and stilbenes in all grape varietals studied, although the Airen variety demonstrated a higher concentration of two flavonoids: quercetin and catechin. It can be concluded that the grape juice concentration process negatively affects the stability of these compounds, causing a reduction in the polyphenol content that ranges between 54–71%, with the exception of quercetin and catechin.

Changes in antinutrients, phenolics, antioxidant activities and in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita moschata) during different domestic cooking methods

Pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita moschata) were subjected to different household cooking methods (boiling, microwaving, steaming, and stir-frying) to evaluate their effect on antinutrients, phenolic compounds, antioxidant properties (ABTS, and DPPH) and in vitro α-glucosidase activity. All cooking methods studied significantly reduced the antinutrients and antioxidant activities, whilst phenolic compounds p-coumaric and ferulic acids significantly increased. The cooking methods reduced the oxalates by more than 50%, tannins by 47% and phytates by 79.22%. Steaming and boiling resulted in highest concentrations of p-coumaric (195.40 mg kg^-1) and ferulic acids (103.90 mg kg^-1) compared to other methods. Overall, boiled leaves retained the highest total phenolic compounds, whilst steamed leaves retained the highest antioxidant capacity. Raw pumpkin leaf extracts showed higher in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitory effects than the cooked leaves. Thus, cooking affected the inhibitory effect of in vitro α-glucosidase activity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-021-00916-w.

Metabolic and biotransformation effects on dietary glucosinolates, their bioavailability, catabolism and biological effects in different organisms

Glucosinolate-producing plants have long been recognized for both their distinctive benefits to human nutrition and their resistance traits against pathogens and herbivores. Despite the accumulation of glucosinolates (GLS) in plants is associated with their resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, the defensive and biological activities of GLS are commonly conveyed by their metabolic products. In view of this, metabolism is considered the driving factor upon the interactions of GLS-producing plants with other organisms, also influenced by plant and plant attacking or digesting organism characteristics. Several microbial pathogens and insects have evolved the capacity to detoxify GLS-hydrolysis products or inhibit their formation via different means, highlighting the relevance of their metabolic abilities for the plants' defense system activation and target organism detoxification. Strikingly, some bacteria, fungi and insects can likewise produce their own myrosinase (MYR)-like enzymes in one of the most important adaptation strategies against the GLS-MYR plant defense system. Knowledge of GLS metabolic pathways in herbivores and pathogens can impact plant protection efforts and may be harnessed upon for genetically modified plants that are more resistant to predators. In humans, the interest in the implementation of GLS in diets for the prevention of chronic diseases has grown substantially. However, the efficiency of such approaches is dependent on GLS bioavailability and metabolism, which largely involves the human gut microbiome. Among GLS-hydrolytic products, isothiocyanates (ITC) have shown exceptional properties as chemical plant defense agents against herbivores and pathogens, along with their health-promoting benefits in humans, at least if consumed in reasonable amounts. Deciphering GLS metabolic pathways provides critical information for catalyzing all types of GLS towards the generation of ITCs as the biologically most active metabolites. This review provides an overview on contrasting metabolic pathways in plants, bacteria, fungi, insects and humans towards GLS activation or detoxification. Further, suggestions for the preparation of GLS containing plants with improved health benefits are presented.

Influence of Cooking Methods on Onion Phenolic Compounds Bioaccessibility

The impact of domestic cooking (baking, boiling, frying and grilling) and in vitro digestion on the stability and release of phenolic compounds from yellow-skinned (YSO) and red-skinned onions (RSO) have been evaluated. The mass spectrometry identification pointed out flavonols as the most representative phenolic class, led by quercetin-derivatives. RSO contained almost the double amount of phenolic compounds respect to YSO (50.12 and 27.42 mg/100 g, respectively). Baking, grilling and primarily frying resulted in an increased amount of total phenolic compounds, especially quercetin-derivatives, in both the onion varieties. Some treatments promoted the degradation of quercetin-3-O-hexoside-4′-O-hexoside, the main compound present in both the onion varieties, leading to the occurrence of quercetin-4′-O-hexoside and protocatechuic acid-4-O-hexoside. After in vitro digestion, the bioaccessibility index for total phenolic compounds ranged between 42.6% and 65.5% in grilled and baked YSO, respectively, and between 39.8% and 80.2% in boiled and baked RSO, respectively. Baking contributed to the highest amount of bioaccessible phenolic compounds for both the onion varieties after in vitro digestion. An in-depth design of the cooking process may be of paramount importance in modulating the gastro-intestinal release of onion phenolic compounds.

Bioprocessed Brewers' Spent Grain Improves Nutritional and Antioxidant Properties of Pasta

Brewers' spent grain (BSG), the by-product of brewing, was subjected to a xylanase treatment followed by fermentation with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum PU1. Bioprocessed BSG has been used as ingredient to obtain a fortified semolina pasta which can be labeled as "high fiber" and "source of protein" according to the European Community Regulation No. 1924/2006. Compared to native BSG, the use of bioprocessed BSG led to higher protein digestibility and quality indices (essential amino acid index, biological value, protein efficiency ratio, nutritional index), as well as lower predicted glycemic index. Bioprocessing also improved the technological properties of fortified pasta. Indeed, brightfield and confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed the formation of a more homogeneous protein network, resulting from the degradation of the arabinoxylan structure of BSG, and the release of the components entrapped into the cellular compartments. The extensive cell wall disruption contributed to the release of phenols, and conferred enhanced antioxidant activity to the fortified pasta. The persistence of the activity was demonstrated after in vitro-mimicked digestion, evaluating the protective effects of the digested pasta towards induced oxidative stress in Caco-2 cells cultures. The fortified pasta showed a peculiar sensory profile, markedly improved by the pre-treatment, thus confirming the great potential of bioprocessed BSG as health-promoting food ingredient.

The effect of processing and cooking on glucoraphanin and sulforaphane in brassica vegetables

Brassica vegetables are widely consumed mostly after processing and cooking. These processing and cooking methods not only can affect the taste, texture, flavor and nutrients of these vegetables, but also influence the levels of some important bioactive compounds, such as glucosinolates (GLSs). Glucoraphanin (GLR) is the most abundant GLSs and its hydrolyzed component, sulforaphane (SLR), is the most powerful anti-cancer compound in brassica vegetables. In this review, we find out that varied treatments impact the retention of GLR and the formation of SLR differently. Be specific, 1) freezing can avoid the losses of GLR while short-time microwaving, short-time steaming and fermentation promote the biotransformation from GLR to SLR; 2) Boiling and blanching cause the largest losses of GLR and SLR, while freezing significantly protect their losses.; 3) Stir-frying varies the levels of GLR and SLR in different cooking conditions.

Distribution of phytochelatins, metal-binding compounds, in plant foods: A survey of commonly consumed fruits, vegetables, grains and legumes

Phytochelatins (PyCs) are metal-binding compounds produced by plants. PyCs may reduce bioavailability of dietary toxic metals such as cadmium. However, the PyC concentrations in foods are unknown. The objective of this study was to analyze PyC contents in a subset of commonly consumed plant foods. Foods (20) across five groups were analyzed and PyCs quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The impact of factors such as food processing were also explored. PyCs were in all 20 foods. Five PyC types were detected with PyC2-Gly, PyC3-Gly and PyC2-Ala at quantifiable concentrations. PyC2-Gly was found at the highest concentrations and most widely distributed. PyC2-Gly concentrations were highest in fruits and root vegetables. Foods with increased processing tended to have reduced PyC concentrations. This survey of commonly consumed plant foods in the United States demonstrates PyCs are widely distributed and provides a foundation for understanding their concentrations and impact in the human diet.

Environmental Conditions and Agronomical Factors Influencing the Levels of Phytochemicals in Brassica Vegetables Responsible for Nutritional and Sensorial Properties

Recently, the consumption of healthy foods has been related to the prevention of cardiovascular, degenerative diseases and different forms of cancers, underlying the importance of the diet for the consumer’s health. Fruits and vegetables contain phytochemicals that act as protective factors for the human body, through different mechanisms of action. Among vegetables, Brassica received a lot of attention in the last years for the phytochemical compounds content and antioxidant capacity that confer nutraceutical value to the product. The amount of healthy bioactive compounds present in the Brassica defines the nutritional quality. These molecules could belong to the class of antioxidant compounds (e.g., phenols, vitamin C, etc.), or to non-antioxidant compounds (e.g., minerals, glucosinolates, etc.). The amount of these compounds in Brassica vegetables could be influenced by several factors, depending on the genotypes, the environmental conditions and the cultivation techniques adopted. The aim of this study is to highlight the main phytochemical compounds present in brassicas used as a food vegetable that confer nutritional and sensorial quality to the final product, and to investigate the main factors that affect the phytochemical concentration and the overall quality of Brassica vegetables.

Black, green, and pink pepper affect differently lipid oxidation during cooking and in vitro digestion of meat

Lipid oxidation products generated during meat digestion may contribute to the apparent epidemiological link between red meat intake and the risk of cardiovascular diseases and colorectal cancer. The aim of this work was to assess the lipid oxidation inhibitory activity of black, green, and pink pepper during cooking and in vitro digestion of meat. Peppers were characterized for their phenolic profiles by LC-ESI-MS and the antioxidant properties. Pink pepper showed the highest phenolic content and antioxidant activities. Then, the peppers were added to meat either before or after cooking, and the meat was subjected to in vitro digestion. Pink pepper added before cooking was the most effective, with an inhibition of 80% and 72% in lipid hydroperoxides and TBA-RS formation after digestion, respectively. These findings suggest that peppers, particularly pink pepper, can be used to minimize lipid oxidation in the gastro-intestinal tract and for the design of healthy dietary patterns.

Microstructural and chemical properties of gari and eba: Food products from cassava (Manihot esculenta Cranz)

The microstructure, elemental distribution and rheological behavior of two varieties of gari and their doughs (eba) were investigated. SEM analysis revealed a concave structure with fibre-strands, which were altered after processing to eba. Gari nanostructures which were analyzed with TEM were not affected when processed to eba. SEM-EDX microanalysis revealed the presence of magnesium, potassium, calcium, manganese, iron, and cobalt for both varieties, which were altered after processing. Rheological analysis revealed increases in storage modulus, with concomitant loss factor for both varieties. Their viscosity decreased with increasing shear rate. GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of sugar, fatty acids, and steroids in both varieties, which were also affected after processing. Both varieties showed significant free radical scavenging activity which was not affected after processing. These results indicate that the conclave microstructure, elements and phytochemicals of both gari varieties are altered after processing to eba, with their nanostructure and antioxidant activity unaltered.

Bioaccessibility of Tudela artichoke (Cynara scolymus cv. Blanca de Tudela) (poly)phenols: the effects of heat treatment, simulated gastrointestinal digestion and human colonic microbiota

The aim of this study was to evaluate the bioaccessibility of (poly)phenolic compounds in Tudela artichokes (Cynara scolymus cv. Blanca de Tudela) after an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and the effect of the human colonic microbiota. A total of 28 (poly)phenolic compounds were identified and quantified by LC-MS/MS in raw, boiled, sous vide and microwaved Tudela artichokes. Out of these, sixteen were phenolic acids, specifically caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs) and other minor hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, ten flavonoids belonging to the family of flavones (apigenin and luteolin derivatives) and two lignans (pinoresinol derivatives). Sous vide and microwaving caused mainly transesterification reactions of CQAs but maintained or even augmented the total (poly)phenolic contents of artichokes, while boiling decreased (poly)phenolic compounds by 25% due to leaching into the boiling water. Heat treatment exerted a positive effect on the bioaccessibility of (poly)phenols after gastrointestinal digestion. In raw artichokes, only 1.6% of the total (poly)phenolic compounds remained bioaccessible after gastrointestinal digestion, while in artichoke samples cooked by sous vide, boiled and microwaved, the percentage of bioaccessibility was 60.38%, 59.93% and 39,03% respectively. After fecal fermentation, 20 native (poly)phenolic compounds and 11 newly formed catabolites were quantified. 48 h of fecal fermentation showed that native (poly)phenols are readily degraded by colonic microbiota during the first 2 h of incubation. The colonic degradation of artichoke (poly)phenols follows a major pathway that involves the formation of caffeic acid, dihydrocaffeic acid, 3-(3'-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid, 3-phenylpropionic acid and phenylacetic acid, with 3-phenylpropionic acid being the most abundant end product. The catabolic pathways for colonic microbial degradation of artichoke CQAs are proposed.

Effect of different cooking methods on sea lettuce (Ulva rigida) volatile compounds and sensory properties

BACKGROUND

The effect of different cooking methods (boiling, vacuum and steamed cooking) on the volatile compound content and sensory properties of sea lettuce (Ulva rigida) seaweed was assessed. Sea lettuce was cooked at three different temperatures (50, 70 and 100 °C) for three different lengths of time (5, 10 and 15 min). Various statistical techniques were employed in order to establish any possible changes.

RESULTS

The different cooking methods modified significantly both the volatile compound content and the sensory properties of sea lettuce seaweed. In general, the cooked samples had lower concentrations of several volatile compounds than the control sample, mainly aldehydes. Regarding sensory analysis, the cooked samples exhibited lower values for various aroma descriptors such as seaside and seaweed, whereas descriptor scores such as cooked fish, salty dry fish and crustacean increased. No clear statistical differences were found between different cooking lengths of time and temperature levels with regard to both volatile compounds and sensory properties.

CONCLUSIONS

In the cooking of sea lettuce seaweeds, the main sensory changes and modifications in their volatile content took place during the first minutes of cooking and at medium cooking temperatures. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.