51
|
Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Scheib H, Gren ECK, Cochran C, Person CE, Koludarov I, Kelln W, Hayes WK, King GF, Antunes A, Fry BG. Intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant Southern Pacific Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri): biodiscovery, clinical and evolutionary implications. J Proteomics 2014; 99:68-83. [PMID: 24463169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Due to the extreme variation of venom, which consequently results in drastically variable degrees of neutralization by CroFab antivenom, the management and treatment of envenoming by Crotalus oreganus helleri (the Southern Pacific Rattlesnake), one of the most medically significant snake species in all of North America, has been a clinician's nightmare. This snake has also been the subject of sensational news stories regarding supposed rapid (within the last few decades) evolution of its venom. This research demonstrates for the first time that variable evolutionary selection pressures sculpt the intraspecific molecular diversity of venom components in C. o. helleri. We show that myotoxic β-defensin peptides (aka: crotamines/small basic myotoxic peptides) are secreted in large amounts by all populations. However, the mature toxin-encoding nucleotide regions evolve under the constraints of negative selection, likely as a result of their non-specific mode of action which doesn't enforce them to follow the regime of the classic predator-prey chemical arms race. The hemorrhagic and tissue destroying snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) were secreted in larger amounts by the Catalina Island and Phelan rattlesnake populations, in moderate amounts in the Loma Linda population and in only trace levels by the Idyllwild population. Only the Idyllwild population in the San Jacinto Mountains contained potent presynaptic neurotoxic phospholipase A2 complex characteristic of Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) and Neotropical Rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus). The derived heterodimeric lectin toxins characteristic of viper venoms, which exhibit a diversity of biological activities, including anticoagulation, agonism/antagonism of platelet activation, or procoagulation, appear to have evolved under extremely variable selection pressures. While most lectin α- and β-chains evolved rapidly under the influence of positive Darwinian selection, the β-chain lectin of the Catalina Island population appears to have evolved under the constraint of negative selection. Both lectin chains were conspicuously absent in both the proteomics and transcriptomics of the Idyllwild population. Thus, we not only highlight the tremendous biochemical diversity in C. o. helleri's venom-arsenal, but we also show that they experience remarkably variable strengths of evolutionary selection pressures, within each toxin class among populations and among toxin classes within each population. The mapping of geographical venom variation not only provides additional information regarding venom evolution, but also has direct medical implications by allowing prediction of the clinical effects of rattlesnake bites from different regions. Such information, however, also points to these highly variable venoms as being a rich source of novel toxins which may ultimately prove to be useful in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results have direct implications for the treatment of envenomed patients. The variable venom profile of Crotalus oreganus helleri underscores the biodiscovery potential of novel snake venoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Holger Scheib
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Eric C K Gren
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Carl E Person
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Wayne Kelln
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Agosthino Antunes
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Georgieva D, Arni RK, Betzel C. Proteome analysis of snake venom toxins: pharmacological insights. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 5:787-97. [DOI: 10.1586/14789450.5.6.787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
53
|
Calvete JJ. Proteomic tools against the neglected pathology of snake bite envenoming. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 8:739-58. [DOI: 10.1586/epr.11.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
54
|
Venom down under: dynamic evolution of Australian elapid snake toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2621-55. [PMID: 24351719 PMCID: PMC3873703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5122621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the unparalleled diversity of venomous snakes in Australia, research has concentrated on a handful of medically significant species and even of these very few toxins have been fully sequenced. In this study, venom gland transcriptomes were sequenced from eleven species of small Australian elapid snakes, from eleven genera, spanning a broad phylogenetic range. The particularly large number of sequences obtained for three-finger toxin (3FTx) peptides allowed for robust reconstructions of their dynamic molecular evolutionary histories. We demonstrated that each species preferentially favoured different types of α-neurotoxic 3FTx, probably as a result of differing feeding ecologies. The three forms of α-neurotoxin [Type I (also known as (aka): short-chain), Type II (aka: long-chain) and Type III] not only adopted differential rates of evolution, but have also conserved a diversity of residues, presumably to potentiate prey-specific toxicity. Despite these differences, the different α-neurotoxin types were shown to accumulate mutations in similar regions of the protein, largely in the loops and structurally unimportant regions, highlighting the significant role of focal mutagenesis. We theorize that this phenomenon not only affects toxin potency or specificity, but also generates necessary variation for preventing/delaying prey animals from acquiring venom-resistance. This study also recovered the first full-length sequences for multimeric phospholipase A2 (PLA2) ‘taipoxin/paradoxin’ subunits from non-Oxyuranus species, confirming the early recruitment of this extremely potent neurotoxin complex to the venom arsenal of Australian elapid snakes. We also recovered the first natriuretic peptides from an elapid that lack the derived C-terminal tail and resemble the plesiotypic form (ancestral character state) found in viper venoms. This provides supporting evidence for a single early recruitment of natriuretic peptides into snake venoms. Novel forms of kunitz and waprin peptides were recovered, including dual domain kunitz-kunitz precursors and the first kunitz-waprin hybrid precursors from elapid snakes. The novel sequences recovered in this study reveal that the huge diversity of unstudied venomous Australian snakes are of considerable interest not only for the investigation of venom and whole organism evolution but also represent an untapped bioresource in the search for novel compounds for use in drug design and development.
Collapse
|
55
|
Snake venomics: From the inventory of toxins to biology. Toxicon 2013; 75:44-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
56
|
Sunagar K, Fry BG, Jackson TNW, Casewell NR, Undheim EAB, Vidal N, Ali SA, King GF, Vasudevan K, Vasconcelos V, Antunes A. Molecular evolution of vertebrate neurotrophins: co-option of the highly conserved nerve growth factor gene into the advanced snake venom arsenalf. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81827. [PMID: 24312363 PMCID: PMC3843689 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophins are a diverse class of structurally related proteins, essential for neuronal development, survival, plasticity and regeneration. They are characterized by major family members, such as the nerve growth factors (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), which have been demonstrated here to lack coding sequence variations and follow the regime of negative selection, highlighting their extremely important conserved role in vertebrate homeostasis. However, in stark contrast, venom NGF secreted as part of the chemical arsenal of the venomous advanced snake family Elapidae (and to a lesser extent Viperidae) have characteristics consistent with the typical accelerated molecular evolution of venom components. This includes a rapid rate of diversification under the significant influence of positive-selection, with the majority of positively-selected sites found in the secreted β-polypeptide chain (74%) and on the molecular surface of the protein (92%), while the core structural and functional residues remain highly constrained. Such focal mutagenesis generates active residues on the toxin molecular surface, which are capable of interacting with novel biological targets in prey to induce a myriad of pharmacological effects. We propose that caenophidian NGFs could participate in prey-envenoming by causing a massive release of chemical mediators from mast cells to mount inflammatory reactions and increase vascular permeability, thereby aiding the spread of other toxins and/or by acting as proapoptotic factors. Despite their presence in reptilian venom having been known for over 60 years, this is the first evidence that venom-secreted NGF follows the molecular evolutionary pattern of other venom components, and thus likely participates in prey-envenomation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Timothy N. W. Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution Group, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Eivind A. B. Undheim
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicolas Vidal
- Département Systématique et Evolution, Service de Systématique Moléculaire, UMR 7138, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Syed A. Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Glenn F. King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queenland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Three-fingered RAVERs: Rapid Accumulation of Variations in Exposed Residues of snake venom toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2172-208. [PMID: 24253238 PMCID: PMC3847720 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5112172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-finger toxins (3FTx) represent one of the most abundantly secreted and potently toxic components of colubrid (Colubridae), elapid (Elapidae) and psammophid (Psammophiinae subfamily of the Lamprophidae) snake venom arsenal. Despite their conserved structural similarity, they perform a diversity of biological functions. Although they are theorised to undergo adaptive evolution, the underlying diversification mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we report the molecular evolution of different 3FTx functional forms and show that positively selected point mutations have driven the rapid evolution and diversification of 3FTx. These diversification events not only correlate with the evolution of advanced venom delivery systems (VDS) in Caenophidia, but in particular the explosive diversification of the clade subsequent to the evolution of a high pressure, hollow-fanged VDS in elapids, highlighting the significant role of these toxins in the evolution of advanced snakes. We show that Type I, II and III α-neurotoxins have evolved with extreme rapidity under the influence of positive selection. We also show that novel Oxyuranus/Pseudonaja Type II forms lacking the apotypic loop-2 stabilising cysteine doublet characteristic of Type II forms are not phylogenetically basal in relation to other Type IIs as previously thought, but are the result of secondary loss of these apotypic cysteines on at least three separate occasions. Not all 3FTxs have evolved rapidly: κ-neurotoxins, which form non-covalently associated heterodimers, have experienced a relatively weaker influence of diversifying selection; while cytotoxic 3FTx, with their functional sites, dispersed over 40% of the molecular surface, have been extremely constrained by negative selection. We show that the a previous theory of 3FTx molecular evolution (termed ASSET) is evolutionarily implausible and cannot account for the considerable variation observed in very short segments of 3FTx. Instead, we propose a theory of Rapid Accumulation of Variations in Exposed Residues (RAVER) to illustrate the significance of point mutations, guided by focal mutagenesis and positive selection in the evolution and diversification of 3FTx.
Collapse
|
58
|
Chen L, Xia H, Wang Y, Chen K, Qin L, Wang B, Yao Q, Li J, He Y, Zhao E. Proteomic profiling of liver from Elaphe taeniura, a common snake in eastern and southeastern Asia. Genet Mol Biol 2013; 36:438-47. [PMID: 24130453 PMCID: PMC3795165 DOI: 10.1590/s1415-47572013000300020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake liver has been implicated in the adaptation of snakes to a variety of habitats. However, to date, there has been no systematic analysis of snake liver proteins. In this study, we undertook a proteomic analysis of liver from the colubrid snake Elaphe taeniura using a combination of two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flightmass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). We also constructed a local protein sequence database based on transcriptome sequencing to facilitate protein identification. Of the 268 protein spots revealed by 2-DE 109 gave positive MS signals, 84 of which were identified by searching the NCBInr, Swiss-Prot and local databases. The other 25 protein spots could not be identified, possibly because their transcripts were not be stable enough to be detected by transcriptome sequencing. GO analysis showed that most proteins may be involved in binding, catalysis, cellular processes and metabolic processes. Forty-two of the liver proteins identified were found in other reptiles and in amphibians. The findings of this study provide a good reference map of snake liver proteins that will be useful in molecular investigations of snake physiology and adaptation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
59
|
de Oliveira L, da Costa Prudente AL, Zaher H. Unusual labial glands in snakes of the genusGeophisWagler, 1830 (Serpentes: Dipsadinae). J Morphol 2013; 275:87-99. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2012] [Revised: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo de Oliveira
- Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo; Avenida Nazaré 481 Ipiranga São Paulo 04263-000 Brazil
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Zoologia; UNESP, Rio Claro; São Paulo Brazil
| | | | - Hussam Zaher
- Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo; Avenida Nazaré 481 Ipiranga São Paulo 04263-000 Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Heyborne WH, Mackessy SP. Identification and characterization of a taxon-specific three-finger toxin from the venom of the Green Vinesnake (Oxybelis fulgidus; family Colubridae). Biochimie 2013; 95:1923-32. [PMID: 23851011 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms contain a variety of protein and peptide toxins, and the three-finger toxins (3FTxs) are among the best characterized family of venom proteins. The compact nature and highly conserved molecular fold of 3FTxs, together with their abundance in many venoms, has contributed to their utility in structure-function studies. Although many target the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of vertebrate skeletal muscle, often binding with nanomolar Kds, several non-conventional 3FTxs show pronounced taxon-specific neurotoxic effects. Here we describe the purification and characterization of fulgimotoxin, a monomeric 3FTx from the venom of Oxybelis fulgidus, a neotropical rear-fanged snake. Fulgimotoxin retains the canonical 5 disulfides of the non-conventional 3FTxs and is highly neurotoxic to lizards; however, mice are unaffected, demonstrating that this toxin is taxon-specific in its effects. Analysis of structural features of fulgimotoxin and other colubrid venom 3FTxs indicate the presence of a "colubrid toxin motif" (CYTLY) and a second conserved segment (WAVK) found in Boiga and Oxybelis taxon-specific 3FTxs, both in loop II. Because specific residues in loop II conventional α-neurotoxic 3FTxs are intimately associated with receptor binding, we hypothesize that this loop, with its highly conserved substitutions, confers taxon-specific neurotoxicity. These findings underscore the importance of rear-fanged snake venoms for understanding the evolution of toxin molecules and demonstrate that even among well-characterized toxin families, novel structural and functional motifs may be found.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William H Heyborne
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
61
|
Barber CM, Isbister GK, Hodgson WC. Alpha neurotoxins. Toxicon 2013; 66:47-58. [PMID: 23416229 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
α-Neurotoxins have been isolated from hydrophid, elapid and, more recently, colubrid snake venoms. Also referred to as postsynaptic neurotoxins or 'curare mimetic' neurotoxins, they play an important role in the capture and/or killing of prey by binding to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor on the skeletal muscle disrupting neurotransmission. They are also thought to cause respiratory paralysis in envenomed humans. This review will discuss the historical background into the discovery, isolation, structure and mechanism of action of the α-neurotoxins, including targets and cellular outcomes, and then will examine the potential uses of α-neurotoxins as pharmacological tools and/or as drug leads.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carmel M Barber
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
62
|
Response to "Replies to Fry et al. (Toxicon 2012, 60/4, 434-448). Part B. Analyses of squamate reptile oral glands and their products: A call for caution in formal assignment of terminology designating biological function". Toxicon 2013; 64:113-5. [PMID: 23305625 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Revised: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
63
|
Brust A, Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Vetter I, Yang DC, Yang DC, Casewell NR, Jackson TNW, Koludarov I, Alewood PF, Hodgson WC, Lewis RJ, King GF, Antunes A, Hendrikx I, Fry BG. Differential evolution and neofunctionalization of snake venom metalloprotease domains. Mol Cell Proteomics 2012; 12:651-63. [PMID: 23242553 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m112.023135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP) are composed of five domains: signal peptide, propeptide, metalloprotease, disintegrin, and cysteine-rich. Secreted toxins are typically combinatorial variations of the latter three domains. The SVMP-encoding genes of Psammophis mossambicus venom are unique in containing only the signal and propeptide domains. We show that the Psammophis SVMP propeptide evolves rapidly and is subject to a high degree of positive selection. Unlike Psammophis, some species of Echis express both the typical multidomain and the unusual monodomain (propeptide only) SVMP, with the result that a lower level of variation is exerted upon the latter. We showed that most mutations in the multidomain Echis SVMP occurred in the protease domain responsible for proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities. The cysteine-rich and disintegrin-like domains, which are putatively responsible for making the P-III SVMPs more potent than the P-I and P-II forms, accumulate the remaining variation. Thus, the binding sites on the molecule's surface are evolving rapidly whereas the core remains relatively conserved. Bioassays conducted on two post-translationally cleaved novel proline-rich peptides from the P. mossambicus propeptide domain showed them to have been neofunctionalized for specific inhibition of mammalian a7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We show that the proline rich postsynaptic specific neurotoxic peptides from Azemiops feae are the result of convergent evolution within the precursor region of the C-type natriuretic peptide instead of the SVMP. The results of this study reinforce the value of studying obscure venoms for biodiscovery of novel investigational ligands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Brust
- ‡Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
64
|
Jackson TNW, Casewell NR, Fry BG. Response to "Replies to Fry et al. (Toxicon 2012, 60/4, 434-448). Part A. Analyses of squamate reptile oral glands and their products: A call for caution in formal assignment of terminology designating biological function". Toxicon 2012; 64:106-12. [PMID: 23168161 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Revised: 11/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
65
|
Ukuwela KDB, de Silva A, Mumpuni, Fry BG, Lee MSY, Sanders KL. Molecular evidence that the deadliest sea snake Enhydrina schistosa (Elapidae: Hydrophiinae) consists of two convergent species. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2012; 66:262-9. [PMID: 23044399 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2012.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2012] [Revised: 09/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We present a striking case of phenotypic convergence within the speciose and taxonomically unstable Hydrophis group of viviparous sea snakes. Enhydrina schistosa, the 'beaked sea snake', is abundant in coastal and inshore habitats throughout the Asian and Australian regions, where it is responsible for the large majority of recorded deaths and injuries from sea snake bites. Analyses of five independent mitochondrial and nuclear loci for populations spanning Australia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka indicate that this 'species' actually consists of two distinct lineages in Asia and Australia that are not closest relatives. As a result, Australian "E. schistosa" are elevated to species status and provisionally referred to Enhydrinazweifeli. Convergence in the characteristic 'beaked' morphology of these species is probably associated with the wide gape required to accommodate their spiny prey. Our findings have important implications for snake bite management in light of the medical importance of beaked sea snakes and the fact that the only sea snake anti-venom available is raised against Malaysian E. schistosa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kanishka D B Ukuwela
- Darling Building, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, North Terrace, SA 5005, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
66
|
Rey-Suárez P, Floriano RS, Rostelato-Ferreira S, Saldarriaga-Córdoba M, Núñez V, Rodrigues-Simioni L, Lomonte B. Mipartoxin-I, a novel three-finger toxin, is the major neurotoxic component in the venom of the redtail coral snake Micrurus mipartitus (Elapidae). Toxicon 2012; 60:851-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
67
|
Peichoto ME, Tavares FL, Santoro ML, Mackessy SP. Venom proteomes of South and North American opisthoglyphous (Colubridae and Dipsadidae) snake species: a preliminary approach to understanding their biological roles. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2012; 7:361-9. [PMID: 22974712 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Opisthoglyphous snake venoms remain under-explored despite being promising sources for ecological, evolutionary and biomedical/biotechnological research. Herein, we compared the protein composition and enzymatic properties of the venoms of Philodryas baroni (PbV), Philodryas olfersii olfersii (PooV) and Philodryas patagoniensis (PpV) from South America, and Hypsiglena torquata texana (HttV) and Trimorphodon biscutatus lambda (TblV) from North America. All venoms degraded azocasein, and this metalloproteinase activity was significantly inhibited by EDTA. PooV exhibited the highest level of catalytic activity towards synthetic substrates for serine proteinases. All venoms hydrolyzed acetylthiocholine at low levels, and only TblV showed phospholipase A(2) activity. 1D and 2D SDS-PAGE profile comparisons demonstrated species-specific components as well as several shared components. Size exclusion chromatograms from the three Philodryas venoms and HttV were similar, but TblV showed a notably different pattern. MALDI-TOF MS of crude venoms revealed as many as 49 distinct protein masses, assigned to six protein families. MALDI-TOF/TOF MS analysis of tryptic peptides confirmed the presence of cysteine-rich secretory proteins in all venoms, as well as a phospholipase A(2) and a three-finger toxin in TblV. Broad patterns of protein composition appear to follow phylogenetic lines, with finer scale variation likely influenced by ecological factors such as diet and habitat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María E Peichoto
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tropical, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
68
|
Pycroft K, Fry BG, Isbister GK, Kuruppu S, Lawrence J, Ian Smith A, Hodgson WC. Toxinology of Venoms from Five Australian Lesser Known Elapid Snakes. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2012; 111:268-74. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2012.00907.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle Pycroft
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. Australia
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Laboratory; School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - Geoffrey K. Isbister
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. Australia
- Discipline of Clinical Pharmacology; University of Newcastle; Newcastle NSW Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kuruppu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. Australia
| | - Josie Lawrence
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. Australia
| | - A. Ian Smith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. Australia
| | - Wayne C. Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. Australia
| |
Collapse
|
69
|
Kardong KV. Replies to Fry et al. (Toxicon 2012, 60/4, 434-448). Part B. Properties and biological roles of squamate oral products: The "venomous lifestyle" and preadaptation. Toxicon 2012; 60:964-6. [PMID: 22710187 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
70
|
Calvete JJ, Ghezellou P, Paiva O, Matainaho T, Ghassempour A, Goudarzi H, Kraus F, Sanz L, Williams DJ. Snake venomics of two poorly known Hydrophiinae: Comparative proteomics of the venoms of terrestrial Toxicocalamus longissimus and marine Hydrophis cyanocinctus. J Proteomics 2012; 75:4091-101. [PMID: 22643073 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2012] [Revised: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The venom proteomes of Toxicocalamus longissimus and Hydrophis cyanocinctus, a fossorial and a marine species, respectively, of the Hydrophiinae genus of Elapidae, were investigated by Edman degradation of RP-HPLC isolated proteins, and de novo MS/MS sequencing of in-gel derived tryptic peptide ions. The toxin arsenal of T. longissimus is made up of 1-2 type-I PLA(2) molecules, which account for 6.5% of the venom proteins, a minor PIII-SVMP (1.4% of the venom toxins), and ~20 members of the 3FTx family comprising 92% of the venom proteome. Seventeen proteins (5 type-I PLA(2)s and 12 3FTxs) were found in the venom of H. cyanocinctus. Three-finger toxins and type-I PLA(2) proteins comprise, respectively, 81% and 19% of its venom proteome. The simplicity of the H. cyanocinctus venom proteome is highlighted by the fact that only 6 venom components (3 short-chain neurotoxins, two long-chain neurotoxins, and one PLA(2) molecule) exhibit relative abundances >5%. As expected from its high neurotoxin abundance, the LD(50) for mice of H. cyanocinctus venom was fairly low, 0.132μg/g (intravenous) and 0.172μg/g (intraperitoneal). Our data indicate that specialization towards a lethal cocktail of 3FTx and type-I PLA(2) molecules may represent a widely adopted trophic solution throughout the evolution of Elapidae. Our results also points to a minimization of the molecular diversity of the toxin arsenal of the marine snake Hydrophis cyanocinctus in comparison to the venom proteome of its terrestrial relatives, and highlight that the same evolutionary solution, economy of the toxin arsenal, has been convergently adopted by different taxa in response to opposite selective pressures, loss and gain of neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Calvete
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
71
|
Utkin YN, Weise C, Kasheverov IE, Andreeva TV, Kryukova EV, Zhmak MN, Starkov VG, Hoang NA, Bertrand D, Ramerstorfer J, Sieghart W, Thompson AJ, Lummis SCR, Tsetlin VI. Azemiopsin from Azemiops feae viper venom, a novel polypeptide ligand of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:27079-86. [PMID: 22613724 PMCID: PMC3411050 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.363051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Azemiopsin, a novel polypeptide, was isolated from the Azemiops feae viper venom by combination of gel filtration and reverse-phase HPLC. Its amino acid sequence (DNWWPKPPHQGPRPPRPRPKP) was determined by means of Edman degradation and mass spectrometry. It consists of 21 residues and, unlike similar venom isolates, does not contain cysteine residues. According to circular dichroism measurements, this peptide adopts a β-structure. Peptide synthesis was used to verify the determined sequence and to prepare peptide in sufficient amounts to study its biological activity. Azemiopsin efficiently competed with α-bungarotoxin for binding to Torpedo nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) (IC50 0.18 ± 0.03 μm) and with lower efficiency to human α7 nAChR (IC50 22 ± 2 μm). It dose-dependently blocked acetylcholine-induced currents in Xenopus oocytes heterologously expressing human muscle-type nAChR and was more potent against the adult form (α1β1ϵδ) than the fetal form (α1β1γδ), EC50 being 0.44 ± 0.1 μm and 1.56 ± 0.37 μm, respectively. The peptide had no effect on GABAA (α1β3γ2 or α2β3γ2) receptors at a concentration up to 100 μm or on 5-HT3 receptors at a concentration up to 10 μm. Ala scanning showed that amino acid residues at positions 3–6, 8–11, and 13–14 are essential for binding to Torpedo nAChR. In biological activity azemiopsin resembles waglerin, a disulfide-containing peptide from the Tropidechis wagleri venom, shares with it a homologous C-terminal hexapeptide, but is the first natural toxin that blocks nAChRs and does not possess disulfide bridges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuri N Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117997, Russia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
72
|
Utkin YN, Weise C, Hoang NA, Kasheverov IE, Starkov VG, Tsetlin VI. The new peptide from the Fea's viper Azemiops feae venom interacts with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. DOKL BIOCHEM BIOPHYS 2012; 442:33-5. [PMID: 22419091 DOI: 10.1134/s1607672912010103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yu N Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
73
|
Fry BG, Casewell NR, Wüster W, Vidal N, Young B, Jackson TNW. The structural and functional diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system. Toxicon 2012; 60:434-48. [PMID: 22446061 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary origin and diversification of the reptilian venom system is described. The resolution of higher-order molecular phylogenetics has clearly established that a venom system is ancestral to snakes. The diversification of the venom system within lizards is discussed, as is the role of venom delivery in the behavioural ecology of these taxa (particularly Varanus komodoensis). The more extensive diversification of the venom system in snakes is summarised, including its loss in some clades. Finally, we discuss the contentious issue of a definition for "venom", supporting an evolutionary definition that recognises the homology of both the venom delivery systems and the toxins themselves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Research Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
74
|
Sunagar K, Johnson WE, O'Brien SJ, Vasconcelos V, Antunes A. Evolution of CRISPs associated with toxicoferan-reptilian venom and mammalian reproduction. Mol Biol Evol 2012; 29:1807-22. [PMID: 22319140 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/mss058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs) are glycoproteins found exclusively in vertebrates and have broad diversified functions. They are hypothesized to play important roles in mammalian reproduction and in reptilian venom, where they disrupt homeostasis of the prey through several mechanisms, including among others, blockage of cyclic nucleotide-gated and voltage-gated ion channels and inhibition of smooth muscle contraction. We evaluated the molecular evolution of CRISPs in toxicoferan reptiles at both nucleotide and protein levels relative to their nonvenomous mammalian homologs. We show that the evolution of CRISP gene in these reptiles is significantly influenced by positive selection and in snakes (ω = 3.84) more than in lizards (ω = 2.33), whereas mammalian CRISPs were under strong negative selection (CRISP1 = 0.55, CRISP2 = 0.40, and CRISP3 = 0.68). The use of ancestral sequence reconstruction, mapping of mutations on the three-dimensional structure, and detailed evaluation of selection pressures suggests that the toxicoferan CRISPs underwent accelerated evolution aided by strong positive selection and directional mutagenesis, whereas their mammalian homologs are constrained by negative selection. Gene and protein-level selection analyses identified 41 positively selected sites in snakes and 14 sites in lizards. Most of these sites are located on the molecular surface (nearly 76% in snakes and 79% in lizards), whereas the backbone of the protein retains a highly conserved structural scaffold. Nearly 46% of the positively selected sites occur in the cysteine-rich domain of the protein. This directional mutagenesis, where the hotspots of mutations are found on the molecular surface and functional domains of the protein, acts as a diversifying mechanism for the exquisite biological targeting of CRISPs in toxicoferan reptiles. Finally, our analyses suggest that the evolution of toxicoferan-CRISP venoms might have been influenced by the specific predatory mechanism employed by the organism. CRISPs in Elapidae, which mostly employ neurotoxins, have experienced less positive selection pressure (ω = 2.86) compared with the "nonvenomous" colubrids (ω = 4.10) that rely on grip and constriction to capture the prey, and the Viperidae, a lineage that mostly employs haemotoxins (ω = 4.19). Relatively lower omega estimates in Anguimorph lizards (ω = 2.33) than snakes (ω = 3.84) suggests that lizards probably depend more on pace and powerful jaws for predation than venom.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
75
|
de Chambrier A, Binh TT, Scholz T. Ophiotaenia bungari n. sp. (Cestoda), a parasite of Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider) (Ophidia: Elapidae) from Vietnam, with comments on relative ovarian size as a new and potentially useful diagnostic character for proteocephalidean tapeworms. Syst Parasitol 2011; 81:39-50. [PMID: 22139008 DOI: 10.1007/s11230-011-9320-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ophiotaenia bungari n. sp. (Cestoda: Proteocephalidea) is described from the intestine of the banded krait Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider) (Ophidia: Elapidae) in Vietnam. The new species differs from all but three Ophiotaenia species parasitic in Asian reptiles in the possession of a glandular apical organ. It differs from O. andersoni Jensen, Schmidt & Kuntz, 1983 in the position of the vagina in relation to the cirrus-sac (anterior and posterior in O. bungari versus anterior only in the latter species), in the cirrus-sac/proglottis width ratio (29-38 versus 50%) and by having more testes (100-150 versus 42-116 in O. andersoni); from O. chattoraji Srivastava, 1980 in the number of uterine diverticula (50-65 versus 10-26) and in the cirrus-sac/proglottis width ratio (29-38 versus 22%); and from O. rhabdophidis (Burt, 1937) by having more uterine diverticula (50-65 versus 30-45), by the cirrus-sac/proglottis width ratio (29-38 versus 20-25%) and by the width of the scolex (360-420 versus 130-187 μm). The taxonomic importance of the relative size of the ovary (i.e. the ratio of the ovarian size in relation to that of the entire proglottis), a character previously not used in the systematics of proteocephalidean cestodes, is discussed. Comparison of measurements of all of the nominal species of Ophiotaenia La Rue, 1911 and Proteocephalus Weinland, 1858 (c.135 species) has shown that the ovary of species parasitic in snakes in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australia is not only considerably smaller than that of congeneric species from European hosts, but also smaller than in all species of Proteocephalus parasitic in teleost fishes throughout the world.
Collapse
|
76
|
Pyron RA, Burbrink FT. Extinction, ecological opportunity, and the origins of global snake diversity. Evolution 2011; 66:163-78. [PMID: 22220872 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01437.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Snake diversity varies by at least two orders of magnitude among extant lineages, with numerous groups containing only one or two species, and several young clades exhibiting exceptional richness (>700 taxa). With a phylogeny containing all known families and subfamilies, we find that these patterns cannot be explained by background rates of speciation and extinction. The majority of diversity appears to derive from a radiation within the superfamily Colubroidea, potentially stemming from the colonization of new areas and the evolution of advanced venom-delivery systems. In contrast, negative relationships between clade age, clade size, and diversification rate suggest the potential for possible bias in estimated diversification rates, interpreted by some recent authors as support for ecologically mediated limits on diversity. However, evidence from the fossil record indicates that numerous lineages were far more diverse in the past, and that extinction has had an important impact on extant diversity patterns. Thus, failure to adequately account for extinction appears to prevent both rate- and diversity-limited models from fully characterizing richness dynamics in snakes. We suggest that clade-level extinction may provide a key mechanism for explaining negative or hump-shaped relationships between clade age and diversity, and the prevalence of ancient, species-poor lineages in numerous groups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Alexander Pyron
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, 2023 G St. NW, Washington, DC 20052, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
77
|
Georgieva D, Seifert J, Öhler M, von Bergen M, Spencer P, Arni RK, Genov N, Betzel C. Pseudechis australis Venomics: Adaptation for a Defense against Microbial Pathogens and Recruitment of Body Transferrin. J Proteome Res 2011; 10:2440-64. [DOI: 10.1021/pr101248e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dessislava Georgieva
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Laboratory of Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, c/o DESY, Notkestrasse 85, Build. 22a, 22603 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jana Seifert
- Department of Proteomics, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoser Strasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michaela Öhler
- Department of Proteomics, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoser Strasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin von Bergen
- Department of Proteomics, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoser Strasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Patrick Spencer
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares, Av. Lineeu Prestes 2242, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Raghuvir K. Arni
- Department of Physics, IBILCE/UNESP, Cristóvão Colombo 2265, CEP 15054-000, São José do Rio Preto, SP Brazil
| | - Nicolay Genov
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Christian Betzel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Laboratory of Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, c/o DESY, Notkestrasse 85, Build. 22a, 22603 Hamburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
78
|
Bites by the colubrid snake Philodryas patagoniensis: A clinical and epidemiological study of 297 cases. Toxicon 2010; 56:1018-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Revised: 07/04/2010] [Accepted: 07/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
79
|
Is the Puerto Rican racer, Alsophis portoricensis, really harmless? A case report series. Wilderness Environ Med 2010; 21:353-6. [PMID: 21168790 DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2010.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Revised: 07/28/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Puerto Rico (PR) is home to 10 indigenous species of snake. Alsophis portorricensis has traditionally been considered harmless. In 1961, Hageman classified A portorricensis as somewhere between "venomous" and "nonvenomous." In 1966, Heatwole and Banuchi reported the only case found in the literature of a "venomous" bite from Alsophis portorricensis. Only 6 cases of snakebite were reported to the PR Department of Health from 1998 to 2007; ecchymosis, swelling, and abnormal vital signs were noted in all of the cases. In 5 of these 6 cases, the captured snake was, in fact, identified as Alsophis portorricensis of the Colubridae family; in the remaining case, the description strongly suggests that it was the same species as the others. All bites were inflicted on fingers, which were presented for evaluation from 2 to 24 hours after the event. All documented cases report that the bite lasted from 1 to 4 minutes. All of the victims presented with localized pain and ecchymosis. Localized edema extended from the hand to the elbow in 4 cases, and up to the shoulder in 2 cases. All patients were treated symptomatically, observed at the Emergency Department (ED), and discharged home within 24 hours after the ED evaluation. All patients reported the resolution of symptoms within 1 week. Traditionally, PR has not been associated with any dangerous species of snake. These cases show that the second most abundant snake on the island can inflict a venomous bite, with local and systemic symptoms that warrant adequate preparation by the medical community.
Collapse
|
80
|
Venom on ice: first insights into Antarctic octopus venoms. Toxicon 2010; 56:897-913. [PMID: 20600223 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2009] [Revised: 06/12/2010] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The venom of Antarctic octopus remains completely unstudied. Here, a preliminary investigation was conducted into the properties of posterior salivary gland (PSG) extracts from four Antarctica eledonine (Incirrata; Octopodidae) species (Adelieledone polymorpha, Megaleledone setebos, Pareledone aequipapillae, and Pareledone turqueti) collected from the coast off George V's Land, Antarctica. Specimens were assayed for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), proteolytic, phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)), and haemolytic activities. For comparison, stomach tissue from Cirroctopus sp. (Cirrata; Cirroctopodidae) was also assayed for ALP, AChE, proteolytic and haemolytic activities. Dietary and morphological data were collected from the literature to explore the ecological importance of venom, taking an adaptive evolutionary approach. Of the incirrate species, three showed activities in all assays, while P. turqueti did not exhibit any haemolytic activity. There was evidence for cold-adaptation of ALP in all incirrates, while proteolytic activity in all except P. turqueti. Cirroctopus sp. stomach tissue extract showed ALP, AChE and some proteolytic activity. It was concluded that the AChE activity seen in the PSG extracts was possibly due to a release of household proteins, and not one of the secreted salivary toxins. Although venom undoubtedly plays an important part in prey capture and processing by Antarctica eledonines, no obvious adaptations to differences in diet or morphology were apparent from the enzymatic and haemolytic assays. However, several morphological features including enlarged PSG, small buccal mass, and small beak suggest such adaptations are present. Future studies should be conducted on several levels: Venomic, providing more detailed information on the venom compositions as well as the venom components themselves; ecological, for example application of serological or genetic methods in identifying stomach contents; and behavioural, including observations on capture of different types of prey.
Collapse
|
81
|
Peichoto ME, Paes Leme AF, Pauletti BA, Batista IC, Mackessy SP, Acosta O, Santoro ML. Autolysis at the disintegrin domain of patagonfibrase, a metalloproteinase from Philodryas patagoniensis (Patagonia Green Racer; Dipsadidae) venom. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2010; 1804:1937-42. [PMID: 20538077 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2010.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2010] [Revised: 05/27/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Patagonfibrase is a 57.5-kDa hemorrhagic metalloproteinase isolated from the venom of Philodryas patagoniensis (Patagonia Green Racer), a South American rear-fanged snake. Herein we demonstrate that patagonfibrase undergoes autolysis at its pH optimum (7.5) and at 37 degrees C, primarily producing a approximately 32.6 kDa fragment composed of disintegrin-like and cysteine-rich domains, as identified by mass spectrometry and N-terminal sequencing. The autolysis site for production of this fragment is similar to that observed for metalloproteinases from front-fanged Viperidae snake venoms. In the presence of Ca(2+), patagonfibrase was only partially autolysed, giving rise mainly to one fragment of approximately 52.2 kDa. In addition, calcium markedly enhanced the azocaseinolytic activity of patagonfibrase. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the structural and mechanistic bases of this family of metalloenzymes that are widely distributed among snake venoms, demonstrating that important post-translational modifications such as proteolysis can also contribute to the diversity and complexity of proteins found in rear-fanged snake venoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María E Peichoto
- Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Sargento Cabral 2139, 3400, Corrientes, Argentina.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
82
|
Feltens R, Görner R, Kalkhof S, Gröger-Arndt H, von Bergen M. Discrimination of different species from the genus Drosophila by intact protein profiling using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry. BMC Evol Biol 2010; 10:95. [PMID: 20374617 PMCID: PMC2858148 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-10-95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2009] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The use of molecular biology-based methods for species identification and establishing phylogenetic relationships has supplanted traditional methods relying on morphological characteristics. While PCR-based methods are now the commonly accepted gold standards for these types of analysis, relatively high costs, time-consuming assay development or the need for a priori information about species-specific sequences constitute major limitations. In the present study, we explored the possibility to differentiate between 13 different species from the genus Drosophila via a molecular proteomic approach. Results After establishing a simple protein extraction procedure and performing matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry (MS) with intact proteins and peptides, we could show that most of the species investigated reproducibly yielded mass spectra that were adequate for species classification. Furthermore, a dendrogram generated by cluster analysis of total protein patterns agrees reasonably well with established phylogenetic relationships. Conclusion Considering the intra- and interspecies similarities and differences between spectra obtained for specimens of closely related Drosophila species, we estimate that species typing of insects and possibly other multicellular organisms by intact protein profiling (IPP) can be established successfully for species that diverged from a common ancestor about 3 million years ago.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralph Feltens
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of the Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
83
|
Evolution of Conus peptide toxins: analysis of Conus californicus Reeve, 1844. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2010; 56:1-12. [PMID: 20363338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2008] [Revised: 03/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Conus species are characterized by their hyperdiverse toxins, encoded by a few gene superfamilies. Our phylogenies of the genus, based on mitochondrial genes, confirm previous results that C. californicus is highly divergent from all other species. Genetic and biochemical analysis of their venom peptides comprise the fifteen most abundant conopeptides and over 50 mature cDNA transcripts from the venom duct. Although C. californicus venom retains many of the general properties of other Conus species, they share only half of the toxin gene superfamilies found in other Conus species. Thus, in these two lineages, approximately half of the rapidly diversifying gene superfamilies originated after an early Tertiary split. Such results demonstrate that, unlike endogenously acting gene families, these genes are likely to be significantly more restricted in their phylogenetic distribution. In concordance with the evolutionary distance of C. californicus from other species, there are aspects of prey-capture behavior and prey preferences of this species that diverges significantly from all other Conus.
Collapse
|
84
|
Zelanis A, Teixeira da Rocha MM, de Fátima Domingues Furtado M. Preliminary biochemical characterization of the venoms of five Colubridae species from Brazil. Toxicon 2010; 55:666-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2009] [Revised: 09/19/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
85
|
Abstract
The author describes his experience following 2 bites to his hand by the same green palmsnake (Philodryas viridissimus) on the same day, and reviews the literature on bites from rear-fanged species of the genus Philodryas. Though this genus has long been thought to include the most venomous colubrid snakes in the Americas, the author's bites were relatively asymptomatic. Fatalities caused by Philodryas seem to be lacking in the primary literature, but mild to moderate symptoms do result from envenomations by at least 2 species. Medical researchers are urged to obtain accurate species identifications and to carefully report symptoms and fatalities from bites of colubrid snakes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Bruce Means
- Coastal Plains Institute and Land Conservancy, and Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 1313 Milton Street, Tallahassee, FL 32303, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
86
|
Peichoto ME, Mackessy SP, Teibler P, Tavares FL, Burckhardt PL, Breno MC, Acosta O, Santoro ML. Purification and characterization of a cysteine-rich secretory protein from Philodryas patagoniensis snake venom. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 150:79-84. [PMID: 19285568 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2009.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRiSPs) are widespread in reptile venoms, but most have functions that remain unknown. In the present study we describe the purification and characterization of a CRiSP (patagonin) from the venom of the rear-fanged snake Philodryas patagoniensis, and demonstrate its biological activity. Patagonin is a single-chain protein, exhibiting a molecular mass of 24,858.6 Da, whose NH(2)-terminal and MS/MS-derived sequences are nearly identical to other snake venom CRiSPs. The purified protein hydrolyzed neither azocasein nor fibrinogen, and it could induce no edema, hemorrhage or inhibition of platelet adhesion and aggregation. In addition, patagonin did not inhibit contractions of rat aortic smooth muscle induced by high K(+). However, it caused muscular damage to murine gastrocnemius muscle, an action that has not been previously described for any snake venom CRiSPs. Thus, patagonin will be important for studies of the structure-function and evolutionary relationships of this family of proteins that are widely distributed among snake venoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María E Peichoto
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Farmacología, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes, Argentina.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
87
|
Fry BG, Wroe S, Teeuwisse W, van Osch MJP, Moreno K, Ingle J, McHenry C, Ferrara T, Clausen P, Scheib H, Winter KL, Greisman L, Roelants K, van der Weerd L, Clemente CJ, Giannakis E, Hodgson WC, Luz S, Martelli P, Krishnasamy K, Kochva E, Kwok HF, Scanlon D, Karas J, Citron DM, Goldstein EJC, McNaughtan JE, Norman JA. A central role for venom in predation by Varanus komodoensis (Komodo Dragon) and the extinct giant Varanus (Megalania) priscus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:8969-74. [PMID: 19451641 PMCID: PMC2690028 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0810883106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The predatory ecology of Varanus komodoensis (Komodo Dragon) has been a subject of long-standing interest and considerable conjecture. Here, we investigate the roles and potential interplay between cranial mechanics, toxic bacteria, and venom. Our analyses point to the presence of a sophisticated combined-arsenal killing apparatus. We find that the lightweight skull is relatively poorly adapted to generate high bite forces but better adapted to resist high pulling loads. We reject the popular notion regarding toxic bacteria utilization. Instead, we demonstrate that the effects of deep wounds inflicted are potentiated through venom with toxic activities including anticoagulation and shock induction. Anatomical comparisons of V. komodoensis with V. (Megalania) priscus fossils suggest that the closely related extinct giant was the largest venomous animal to have ever lived.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Venomics Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
88
|
Risch M, Georgieva D, von Bergen M, Jehmlich N, Genov N, Arni RK, Betzel C. Snake venomics of the Siamese Russell's viper (Daboia russelli siamensis) -- relation to pharmacological activities. J Proteomics 2009; 72:256-69. [PMID: 19457351 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2008] [Revised: 01/08/2009] [Accepted: 01/08/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The venom proteome of Daboia russelli siamensis, a snake of medical importance in several Asian countries, was analysed by 2-D electrophoresis, subsequent MS/MS and enzymatic assays. The proteome comprises toxins from six protein families: serine proteinases, metalloproteinases, phospholipases A(2), L-amino acid oxidases, vascular endothelial growth factors and C-type lectin-like proteins. The venom toxin composition correlates with the clinical manifestation of the Russell's viper bite and explains pathological effects of the venom such as coagulopathy, oedema, hypotensive, necrotic and tissue damaging effects. The vast majority of toxins are potentially involved in coagulopathy and neurotoxic effects. The predominant venom components are proteinases capable of activating blood coagulation factors and promoting a rapid clotting of the blood, and neurotoxic phospholipase A(2)s. The analysis of the venom protein composition provides a catalogue of secreted toxins. The proteome of D. r. siamensis exhibits a lower level of toxin diversity than the proteomes of other viperid snakes. In comparison to the venoms of Vipera ammodytes ammodytes and Vipera ammodytes meridionalis, the venom from D. r. siamensis showed quantitative differences in the proteolytic, phospholipase A(2), L-amino acid oxidase and alkaline phosphatase activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Risch
- Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Department of Proteomics, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
89
|
Gutiérrez JM, Lomonte B, León G, Alape-Girón A, Flores-Díaz M, Sanz L, Angulo Y, Calvete JJ. Snake venomics and antivenomics: Proteomic tools in the design and control of antivenoms for the treatment of snakebite envenoming. J Proteomics 2009; 72:165-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2008] [Revised: 01/01/2009] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
90
|
Fry BG, Vidal N, van der Weerd L, Kochva E, Renjifo C. Evolution and diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system. J Proteomics 2009; 72:127-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
91
|
Kelly CMR, Barker NP, Villet MH, Broadley DG. Phylogeny, biogeography and classification of the snake superfamily Elapoidea: a rapid radiation in the late Eocene. Cladistics 2009; 25:38-63. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2008.00237.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
|
92
|
A nesting of vipers: Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the Viperidae (Squamata: Serpentes). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2008; 49:445-59. [PMID: 18804544 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Revised: 08/01/2008] [Accepted: 08/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
93
|
Pawlak J, Mackessy SP, Sixberry NM, Stura EA, Le Du MH, Ménez R, Foo CS, Ménez A, Nirthanan S, Kini RM. Irditoxin, a novel covalently linked heterodimeric three-finger toxin with high taxon-specific neurotoxicity. FASEB J 2008; 23:534-45. [PMID: 18952712 DOI: 10.1096/fj.08-113555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A novel heterodimeric three-finger neurotoxin, irditoxin, was isolated from venom of the brown treesnake Boiga irregularis (Colubridae). Irditoxin subunit amino acid sequences were determined by Edman degradation and cDNA sequencing. The crystal structure revealed two subunits with a three-finger protein fold, typical for "nonconventional" toxins such as denmotoxin, bucandin, and candoxin. This is the first colubrid three-finger toxin dimer, covalently connected via an interchain disulfide bond. Irditoxin showed taxon-specific lethality toward birds and lizards and was nontoxic toward mice. It produced a potent neuromuscular blockade at the avian neuromuscular junction (IC(50)=10 nM), comparable to alpha-bungarotoxin, but was three orders of magnitude less effective at the mammalian neuromuscular junction. Covalently linked heterodimeric three-finger toxins found in colubrid venoms constitute a new class of venom peptides, which may be a useful source of new neurobiology probes and therapeutic leads.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Pawlak
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Science Dr. 4, Singapore 117543
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
94
|
Tityus serrulatus venom peptidomics: Assessing venom peptide diversity. Toxicon 2008; 52:611-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2008] [Revised: 07/17/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
95
|
Unique gene organization of colubrid three-finger toxins: Complete cDNA and gene sequences of denmotoxin, a bird-specific toxin from colubrid snake Boiga dendrophila (Mangrove Catsnake). Biochimie 2008; 90:868-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2008.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2007] [Accepted: 02/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
96
|
Fox JW, Serrano SMT. Exploring snake venom proteomes: multifaceted analyses for complex toxin mixtures. Proteomics 2008; 8:909-20. [PMID: 18203266 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200700777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Snake venom proteomes are complex mixtures of a large number of distinct proteins. In a sense, the field of snake venom proteomics has been under investigation since the very earliest biochemical studies on venoms where peptides and proteins were isolated and structurally and biologically characterized. With the recent developments in mass spectrometry for the identification of proteins, coupled with venom gland transcriptomes, has the field of snake venom proteomics began to flourish. These developments have led to exciting insights into the protein composition of venoms and subsequently their pathological activities. In this review, we will discuss the state of art of snake venom proteomics. Although we have not reached the ultimate goal of characterizing and quantifying all unique proteins in a venom proteome, current technologies have opened many opportunities for high-throughput proteomic studies that have gone beyond simple protein identification to analyzing various functional aspects, such as post-translational modifications, proteolytic processing and toxin-target interactions. In this review, we will discuss the technological approaches used in the study of venom proteomics highlighting the advances made and future directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jay W Fox
- Department of Microbiology, Health Sciences Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
97
|
Escoubas P, Quinton L, Nicholson GM. Venomics: unravelling the complexity of animal venoms with mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2008; 43:279-295. [PMID: 18302316 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Animal venoms and toxins are now recognized as major sources of bioactive molecules that may be tomorrow's new drug leads. Their complexity and their potential as drug sources have been demonstrated by application of modern analytical technologies, which have revealed venoms to be vast peptide combinatorial libraries. Structural as well as pharmacological diversity is immense, and mass spectrometry is now one of the major investigative tools for the structural investigation of venom components. Recent advances in its use in the study of venom and toxins are reviewed. The application of mass spectrometry techniques to peptide toxin sequence determination by de novo sequencing is discussed in detail, in the light of the search for novel analgesic drugs. We also present the combined application of LC-MALDI separation with mass fingerprinting and ISD fragmentation for the determination of structural and pharmacological classes of peptides in complex spider venoms. This approach now serves as the basis for the full investigation of complex spider venom proteomes, in combination with cDNA analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Escoubas
- Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, CNRS UMR6097, 06560 Valbonne, France.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
98
|
Fry BG, Scheib H, van der Weerd L, Young B, McNaughtan J, Ramjan SFR, Vidal N, Poelmann RE, Norman JA. Evolution of an Arsenal. Mol Cell Proteomics 2008; 7:215-46. [PMID: 17855442 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m700094-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom is a key innovation underlying the evolution of advanced snakes (Caenophidia). Despite this, very little is known about venom system structural diversification, toxin recruitment event timings, or toxin molecular evolution. A multidisciplinary approach was used to examine the diversification of the venom system and associated toxins across the full range of the approximately 100 million-year-old advanced snake clade with a particular emphasis upon families that have not secondarily evolved a front-fanged venom system ( approximately 80% of the 2500 species). Analysis of cDNA libraries revealed complex venom transcriptomes containing multiple toxin types including three finger toxins, cobra venom factor, cysteine-rich secretory protein, hyaluronidase, kallikrein, kunitz, lectin, matrix metalloprotease, phospholipase A(2), snake venom metalloprotease/a disintegrin and metalloprotease, and waprin. High levels of sequence diversity were observed, including mutations in structural and functional residues, changes in cysteine spacing, and major deletions/truncations. Morphological analysis comprising gross dissection, histology, and magnetic resonance imaging also demonstrated extensive modification of the venom system architecture in non-front-fanged snakes in contrast to the conserved structure of the venom system within the independently evolved front-fanged elapid or viperid snakes. Further, a reduction in the size and complexity of the venom system was observed in species in which constriction has been secondarily evolved as the preferred method of prey capture or dietary preference has switched from live prey to eggs or to slugs/snails. Investigation of the timing of toxin recruitment events across the entire advanced snake radiation indicates that the evolution of advanced venom systems in three front-fanged lineages is associated with recruitment of new toxin types or explosive diversification of existing toxin types. These results support the role of venom as a key evolutionary innovation in the diversification of advanced snakes and identify a potential role for non-front-fanged venom toxins as a rich source for lead compounds for drug design and development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
99
|
Kuruppu S, Robinson S, Hodgson WC, Fry BG. The in vitro neurotoxic and myotoxic effects of the venom from the Suta genus (curl snakes) of elapid snakes. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2008; 101:407-10. [PMID: 18028104 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00131.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Australia has a tremendous diversity of elapid snakes, including many unique smaller sized species of this venomous snake family. However, little if anything is known about the majority of the venoms of these lesser studied snakes. In the current study, the venoms of Suta suta (curl snake) and Suta punctata (spotted-curl snake) were examined for in vitro activity using a skeletal muscle preparation (i.e. chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation). Both venoms caused concentration-dependent (3-10 microg/ml) inhibition of nerve-mediated twitches, and inhibited responses to exogenous acetylcholine and carbachol, indicating the presence of postsynaptic neurotoxins. These effects were prevented by prior addition of CSL Ltd. polyvalent snake antivenom (5 units/ml) but only partially reversed by the addition of antivenom (5 units/ml) at the t(90) time-point (i.e. time at which twitches were inhibited by 90%). Suta punctata venom (10 microg/ml) was also myotoxic as indicated by the inhibition of direct twitches of the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation. This effect was not reversed by antivenom (5 units/ml). This study highlights the danger of underestimating the potential severe clinical effects posed by these small but highly venomous snakes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjaya Kuruppu
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
100
|
Pahari S, Bickford D, Fry BG, Kini RM. Expression pattern of three-finger toxin and phospholipase A2 genes in the venom glands of two sea snakes, Lapemis curtus and Acalyptophis peronii: comparison of evolution of these toxins in land snakes, sea kraits and sea snakes. BMC Evol Biol 2007; 7:175. [PMID: 17900344 PMCID: PMC2174459 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2007] [Accepted: 09/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Snake venom composition varies widely both among closely related species and within the same species, based on ecological variables. In terrestrial snakes, such variation has been proposed to be due to snakes' diet. Land snakes target various prey species including insects (arthropods), lizards (reptiles), frogs and toads (amphibians), birds (aves), and rodents (mammals), whereas sea snakes target a single vertebrate class (fishes) and often specialize on specific types of fish. It is therefore interesting to examine the evolution of toxins in sea snake venoms compared to that of land snakes. Results Here we describe the expression of toxin genes in the venom glands of two sea snakes, Lapemis curtus (Spine-bellied Sea Snake) and Acalyptophis peronii (Horned Sea Snake), two members of a large adaptive radiation which occupy very different ecological niches. We constructed cDNA libraries from their venom glands and sequenced 214 and 192 clones, respectively. Our data show that despite their explosive evolutionary radiation, there is very little variability in the three-finger toxin (3FTx) as well as the phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes, the two main constituents of Lapemis curtus and Acalyptophis peronii venom. To understand the evolutionary trends among land snakes, sea snakes and sea kraits, pairwise genetic distances (intraspecific and interspecific) of 3FTx and PLA2 sequences were calculated. Results show that these proteins appear to be highly conserved in sea snakes in contrast to land snakes or sea kraits, despite their extremely divergent and adaptive ecological radiation. Conclusion Based on these results, we suggest that streamlining in habitat and diet in sea snakes has possibly kept their toxin genes conserved, suggesting the idea that prey composition and diet breadth may contribute to the diversity and evolution of venom components.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susanta Pahari
- Protein Science and Conservation Ecology Laboratories, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Center for Post Graduate Studies, Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College, 18/3, 9Main, Jayanagar 3Block, Bangalore, India
| | - David Bickford
- Protein Science and Conservation Ecology Laboratories, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Protein Science and Conservation Ecology Laboratories, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010 Australia
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Protein Science and Conservation Ecology Laboratories, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Deparment of Biochemistry, Medical college of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0614 USA
| |
Collapse
|