Microfluidic assembly of monodisperse multistage pH-responsive polymer/porous silicon composites for precisely controlled multi-drug delivery

Quercetin-Based Modified Porous Silicon Nanoparticles for Enhanced Inhibition of Doxorubicin-Resistant Cancer Cells

One of the most challenging obstacles in nanoparticle's surface modification is to achieve the concept that one ligand can accomplish multiple purposes. Upon such consideration, 3-aminopropoxy-linked quercetin (AmQu), a derivative of a natural flavonoid inspired by the structure of dopamine, is designed and subsequently used to modify the surface of thermally hydrocarbonized porous silicon (PSi) nanoparticles. This nanosystem inherits several advanced properties in a single carrier, including promoted anticancer efficiency, multiple drug resistance (MDR) reversing, stimuli-responsive drug release, drug release monitoring, and enhanced particle-cell interactions. The anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) is efficiently loaded into this nanosystem and released in a pH-dependent manner. AmQu also effectively quenches the fluorescence of the loaded DOX, thereby allowing the use of the nanosystem for monitoring the intracellular drug release. Furthermore, a synergistic effect with the presence of AmQu is observed in both normal MCF-7 and DOX-resistant MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Due to the similar structure as dopamine, AmQu may facilitate both the interaction and internalization of PSi into the cells. Overall, this PSi-based platform exhibits remarkable superiority in both multifunctionality and anticancer efficiency, making this nanovector a promising system for anti-MDR cancer treatment.

Microfluidic assembly of a nano-in-micro dual drug delivery platform composed of halloysite nanotubes and a pH-responsive polymer for colon cancer therapy

Harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract hinder the oral delivery of many drugs. Developing oral drug delivery systems based on commercially available materials is becoming more challenging due to the demand for simultaneously delivering physicochemically different drugs for treating complex diseases. A novel architecture, namely nanotube-in-microsphere, was developed as a drug delivery platform by encapsulating halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) in a pH-responsive hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate polymer using microfluidics. HNTs were selected as orally acceptable clay mineral and their lumen was enlarged by selective acid etching. Model drugs (atorvastatin and celecoxib) with different physicochemical properties and synergistic effect on colon cancer prevention and inhibition were simultaneously incorporated into the microspheres at a precise ratio, with atorvastatin and celecoxib being loaded in the HNTs and polymer matrix, respectively. The microspheres showed spherical shape, narrow particle size distribution and pH-responsive dissolution behavior. This nanotube/pH-responsive polymer composite protected the loaded drugs from premature release at pH⩽6.5, but allowed their fast release and enhanced the drug permeability, and the inhibition of colon cancer cell proliferation at pH 7.4. Overall, the nano-in-micro drug delivery composite fabricated by microfluidics is a promising and flexible platform for the delivery of multiple drugs for combination therapy.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) are attracting increasing attention for drug delivery applications. However, conventional HNTs-based oral drug delivery systems are lack of the capability to precisely control the drug release at a desired site in the gastrointestinal tract. In this study, a nanotube-in-microsphere drug delivery platform is developed by encapsulating HNTs in a pH-responsive polymer using microfluidics. Drugs with different physicochemical properties and synergistic effect on colon cancer therapy were simultaneously incorporated in the microspheres. The prepared microspheres prevented the premature release of the loaded drugs after exposure to the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract, but allowed their simultaneously fast release, and enhanced the drug permeability and the inhibition of colon cancer cell proliferation in response to the colon pH.

Multifunctional microspherical magnetic and pH responsive carriers for combination anticancer therapy engineered by droplet-based microfluidics

Drug loaded luminescent porous silicon diatoms and magnetic bacterial nanowires were encapsulated within pH sensitive polymer forming biodegradable microcapsules using droplet-based microfluidics for targeting colorectal cancer.

Gold Nanorods, DNA Origami, and Porous Silicon Nanoparticle-functionalized Biocompatible Double Emulsion for Versatile Targeted Therapeutics and Antibody Combination Therapy

Gold nanorods, DNA origami, and porous silicon nanoparticle-functionalized biocompatible double emulsion are developed for versatile molecular targeted therapeutics and antibody combination therapy. This advanced photothermal responsive all-in-one biocompatible platform can be easily formed with great therapeutics loading capacity for different cancer treatments with synergism and multidrug resistance inhibition, which has great potential in advancing biomedical applications.

Microfluidic Hydrodynamic Focusing for Synthesis of Nanomaterials

Microfluidics expands the synthetic space such as heat transfer, mass transport, and reagent consumption to conditions not easily achievable in conventional batch processes. Hydrodynamic focusing in particular enables the generation and study of complex engineered nanostructures and new materials systems. In this review, we present an overview of recent progress in the synthesis of nanostructures and microfibers using microfluidic hydrodynamic focusing techniques. Emphasis is placed on distinct designs of flow focusing methods and their associated mechanisms, as well as their applications in material synthesis, determination of reaction kinetics, and study of synthetic mechanisms.

Selective Release of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Cargos from Multi-Stimuli-Responsive Nanogels

Highly stable multi-stimuli-responsive nanogels for selective release of simultaneously encapsulated hydrophobic and hydrophilic cargos in a spatiotemporally controlled manner are demonstrated here. The nanogel is composed of hydrophilic pH- and thermoresponsive poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) and hydrophobic photocleavable o-nitrobenzyl (ONB) linkage. The hydrophobic cargos were noncovalently encapsulated into lipophilic interiors of the nanogels, while the hydrophilic cargos were chemically linked to the nanogel precursor polymer PDMAEMA through a redox-cleavable disulfide junction. For these dual-loaded nanogels, hydrophobic cargos can be released in response to temperature, pH, and UV light, while the hydrophilic cargos can be released in response to redox reagent. The stimuli-selective release of hydrophobic and hydrophilic cargos affords the system with great potential applications in combination chemotherapy, tissue engineering, anticorrosion, and smart nanoreactors.

Active diffusion of nanoparticles of maternal origin within the embryonic brain

Aim: To investigate porous silicon (PSi) nanoparticles (NPs) behavior in the embryonic brain. Materials & methods: Fluorescently labeled PSi NPs were injected into the embryonic brains intraventricularly and to the mother intravenously (iv.). Brain histology from different time points up to 3 days was analyzed and live brains imaged with two-photon microscopy. Results: PSi NPs were able to penetrate 80% of the embryonic cortical depth. Particle motility was confirmed in real-time in vivo. PSi NPs were able to penetrate the embryonic cortex after either iv. maternal or intraventricular injection. No developmental of macromorphological changes or increased cell apoptosis was observed. Conclusion: PSi NPs penetrate deep in the brain tissues of embryos after intraventricular injection and after iv. injection to the mother.

In vivo dual-delivery of glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitor through composites prepared by microfluidics for diabetes therapy

Oral delivery of proteins is still a challenge in the pharmaceutical field. Nanoparticles are among the most promising carrier systems for the oral delivery of proteins by increasing their oral bioavailability. However, most of the existent data regarding nanosystems for oral protein delivery is from in vitro studies, lacking in vivo experiments to evaluate the efficacy of these systems. Herein, a multifunctional composite system, tailored by droplet microfluidics, was used for dual delivery of glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor (iDPP4) in vivo. Oral delivery of GLP-1 with nano- or micro-systems has been studied before, but the simultaneous nanodelivery of GLP-1 with iDPP4 is a novel strategy presented here. The type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rat model, induced through the combined administration of streptozotocin and nicotinamide, a non-obese model of T2DM, was used. The combination of both drugs resulted in an increase in the hypoglycemic effects in a sustained, but prolonged manner, where the iDPP4 improved the therapeutic efficacy of GLP-1. Four hours after the oral administration of the system, blood glucose levels were decreased by 44%, and were constant for another 4 h, representing half of the glucose area under the curve when compared to the control. An enhancement of the plasmatic insulin levels was also observed 6 h after the oral administration of the dual-drug composite system and, although no statistically significant differences existed, the amount of pancreatic insulin was also higher. These are promising results for the oral delivery of GLP-1 to be pursued further in a chronic diabetic model study.

Versatile Nanosystem-Based Cancer Theranostics: Design Inspiration and Predetermined Routing

The relevance of personalized medicine, aimed at a more individualized drug therapy, has inspired research into nano-based concerted diagnosis and therapeutics (theranostics). As the intention is to "kill two birds with one stone", scientists have already described the emerging concept as a treasured tailor for the future of cancer therapy, wherein the main idea is to design "smart" nanosystems to concurrently discharge both therapeutic and diagnostic roles. These nanosystems are expected to offer a relatively clearer view of the ingenious cellular trafficking pathway, in-situ diagnosis, and therapeutic efficacy. We herein present a detailed review of versatile nanosystems, with prominent examples of recently developed intelligent delivery strategies which have gained attention in the field of theranostics. These nanotheranostics include various mechanisms programmed in novel platforms to enable predetermined delivery of cargo to specific sites, as well as techniques to overcome the notable challenges involved in the efficacy of theranostics.

Platelet Lysate-Modified Porous Silicon Microparticles for Enhanced Cell Proliferation in Wound Healing Applications

The new frontier in the treatment of chronic nonhealing wounds is the use of micro- and nanoparticles to deliver drugs or growth factors into the wound. Here, we used platelet lysate (PL), a hemoderivative of platelets, consisting of a multifactorial cocktail of growth factors, to modify porous silicon (PSi) microparticles and assessed both in vitro and ex vivo the properties of the developed microsystem. PL-modified PSi was assessed for its potential to induce proliferation of fibroblasts. The wound closure-promoting properties of the microsystem were then assessed in an in vitro wound healing assay. Finally, the PL-modified PSi microparticles were evaluated in an ex vivo experiment over human skin. It was shown that PL-modified PSi microparticles were cytocompatible and enhanced the cell proliferation in different experimental settings. In addition, this microsystem promoted the closure of the gap between the fibroblast cells in the wound healing assay, in periods of time comparable with the positive control, and induced a proliferation and regeneration process onto the human skin in an ex vivo experiment. Overall, our results show that PL-modified PSi microparticles are suitable microsystems for further development toward applications in the treatment of chronic nonhealing wounds.

Fabrication and Characterization of a Porous Silicon Drug Delivery System with an Initiated Chemical Vapor Deposition Temperature-Responsive Coating

This paper reports on the fabrication of a pSi-based drug delivery system, functionalized with an initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD) polymer film, for the sustainable and temperature-dependent delivery of drugs. The devices were prepared by loading biodegradable porous silicon (pSi) with a fluorescent anticancer drug camptothecin (CPT) and coating the surface with temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-diethylene glycol divinyl ether) (pNIPAM-co-DEGDVE) or non-stimulus-responsive poly(aminostyrene) (pAS) via iCVD. CPT released from the uncoated oxidized pSi control with a burst release fashion (∼21 nmol/(cm(2) h)), and this was almost identical at temperatures both above (37 °C) and below (25 °C) the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the switchable polymer used, pNIPAM-co-DEGDVE (28.5 °C). In comparison, the burst release rate from the pSi-pNIPAM-co-DEGDVE sample was substantially slower at 6.12 and 9.19 nmol/(cm(2) h) at 25 and 37 °C, respectively. The final amount of CPT released over 16 h was 10% higher at 37 °C compared to 25 °C for pSi coated with pNIPAM-co-DEGDVE (46.29% vs 35.67%), indicating that this material can be used to deliver drugs on-demand at elevated temperatures. pSi coated with pAS also displayed sustainable drug delivery profiles, but these were independent of the release temperature. These data show that sustainable and temperature-responsive delivery systems can be produced by functionalization of pSi with iCVD polymer films. Benefits of the iCVD approach include the application of the iCVD coating after drug loading without causing degradation of the drug commonly caused by exposure to factors such as solvents or high temperatures. Importantly, the iCVD process is applicable to a wide array of surfaces as the process is independent of the surface chemistry and pore size of the nanoporous matrix being coated.

Inkjet printing based assembly of thermoresponsive core–shell polymer microcapsules for controlled drug release

A thermoresponsive polymer microcapsule with a hollow core–porous shell structure was fabricated based on inkjet printing, which can be used to control drug release by changing the temperature at around 38 °C.

Cisplatin and doxorubicin dual-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles for controlled drug delivery

Multicomponent therapeutic platforms have been proposed to minimize dosage of each drug and reduce toxicity, leading to achieving a synergistic effect and maximizing therapeutic efficacy.

Sustained release of hydrophobic drugs by the microfluidic assembly of multistage microgel/poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticle composites

The poor solubility of many newly discovered drugs has resulted in numerous challenges for the time-controlled release of therapeutics. In this study, an advanced drug delivery platform to encapsulate and deliver hydrophobic drugs, consisting of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles incorporated within poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) microgels, was developed. PLGA nanoparticles were used as the hydrophobic drug carrier, while the PEG matrix functioned to slow down the drug release. Encapsulation of the hydrophobic agents was characterized by fluorescence detection of the hydrophobic dye Nile Red within the microgels. In addition, the microcomposites prepared via the droplet-based microfluidic technology showed size tunability and a monodisperse size distribution, along with improved release kinetics of the loaded cargo compared with bare PLGA nanoparticles. This composite system has potential as a universal delivery platform for a variety of hydrophobic molecules.

Microfluidic Assembly of a Multifunctional Tailorable Composite System Designed for Site Specific Combined Oral Delivery of Peptide Drugs

Multifunctional tailorable composite systems, specifically designed for oral dual-delivery of a peptide (glucagon-like peptide-1) and an enzymatic inhibitor (dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4)), were assembled through the microfluidics technique. Both drugs were coloaded into these systems for a synergistic therapeutic effect. The systems were composed of chitosan and cell-penetrating peptide modified poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and porous silicon nanoparticles as nanomatrices, further encapsulated in an enteric hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetylsuccinate polymer. The developed multifunctional systems were pH-sensitive, inherited by the enteric polymer, enabling the release of the nanoparticles only in the simulated intestinal conditions. Moreover, the encapsulation into this polymer prevented the degradation of the nanoparticles' modifications. These nanoparticles showed strong and higher interactions with the intestinal cells in comparison with the nonmodified ones. The presence of DPP4 inhibitor enhanced the peptide permeability across intestinal cell monolayers. Overall, this is a promising platform for simultaneously delivering two drugs from a single formulation. Through this approach peptides are expected to increase their bioavailability and efficiency in vivo both by their specific release at the intestinal level and also by the reduced enzymatic activity. The use of this platform, specifically in combination of the two antidiabetic drugs, has clinical potential for the therapy of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Simple Microfluidic Approach to Fabricate Monodisperse Hollow Microparticles for Multidrug Delivery

Herein, we report the production of monodisperse hollow microparticles from three different polymers, namely, pH-responsive acetylated dextran and hypromellose acetate succinate and biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), at varying polymer concentrations using a poly(dimethylsiloxane)-based microfluidic device. Hollow microparticles formed during solvent diffusion into the continuous phase when the polymer close to the interface solidified, forming the shell. In the inner part of the particle, phase separation induced solvent droplet formation, which dissolved the shell, forming a hole and a hollow-core particle. Computational simulations showed that, despite the presence of convective recirculation around the droplet, the mass-transfer rate of the solvent dissolution from the droplet to the surrounding phase was dominated by diffusion. To illustrate the potential use of hollow microparticles, we simultaneously encapsulated two anticancer drugs and investigated their loading and release profiles. In addition, by utilizing different polymer shells and polymer concentrations, the release profiles of the model drugs could be tailored according to specific demands and applications. The high encapsulation efficiency, controlled drug release, unique hollow microparticle structure, small particle size (<7 μm), and flexibility of the polymer choice could make these microparticles advanced platforms for pulmonary drug delivery.

Silicon nanostructures for cancer diagnosis and therapy

The emergence of nanotechnology suggests new and exciting opportunities for early diagnosis and therapy of cancer. During the recent years, silicon-based nanomaterials featuring unique properties have received great attention, showing high promise for myriad biological and biomedical applications. In this review, we will particularly summarize latest representative achievements on the development of silicon nanostructures as a powerful platform for cancer early diagnosis and therapy. First, we introduce the silicon nanomaterial-based biosensors for detecting cancer markers (e.g., proteins, tumor-suppressor genes and telomerase activity, among others) with high sensitivity and selectivity under molecular level. Then, we summarize in vitro and in vivo applications of silicon nanostructures as efficient nanoagents for cancer therapy. Finally, we discuss the future perspective of silicon nanostructures for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

A versatile and robust microfluidic platform toward high throughput synthesis of homogeneous nanoparticles with tunable properties

A versatile and robust microfluidic nanoprecipitation platform for high throughput synthesis of nanoparticles is fabricated. The versatility of this platform is proven through the successful preparation of different types of nanoparticles. This platform presents great robustness, with homogeneous nanoparticles always being obtained, regardless of the formulation parameters. The diameter and surface charge of the prepared nanoparticles can also be easily tuned.

ATP-responsive DNA-graphene hybrid nanoaggregates for anticancer drug delivery

Stimuli-triggered drug delivery systems are primarily focused on the applications of the tumor microenvironmental or cellular physiological cues to enhance the release of drugs at the target site. In this study, we applied adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP), the primary "energy molecule", as a trigger for enhanced release of preloaded drugs responding to the intracellular ATP concentration that is significantly higher than the extracellular level. A new ATP-responsive anticancer drug delivery strategy utilizing DNA-graphene crosslinked hybrid nanoaggregates as carriers was developed for controlled release of doxorubicin (DOX), which consists of graphene oxide (GO), two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA, denoted as DNA1 and DNA2) and ATP aptamer. The single-stranded DNA1 and DNA2 together with the ATP aptamer serve as the linkers upon hybridization for controlled assembly of the DNA-GO nanoaggregates, which effectively inhibited the release of DOX from the GO nanosheets. In the presence of ATP, the responsive formation of the ATP/ATP aptamer complex causes the dissociation of the aggregates, which promoted the release of DOX in the environment with a high ATP concentration such as cytosol compared with that in the ATP-deficient extracellular fluid. This supports the development of a novel ATP-responsive platform for targeted on-demand delivery of anticancer drugs inside specific cells.

Self-delivery nanoparticles from an amphiphilic covalent drug couple of irinotecan and bendamustine for cancer combination chemotherapy

We demonstrate an approach to prepare an anticancer drug self-delivery system from an amphiphilic covalent drug couple (Ir–Bd) for cancer combination chemotherapy.

Generation of controlled monodisperse porous polymer particles by dipped inkjet injection

A piezoelectric drop-on-demand (DOD) inkjet microchip with its nozzle immersed in organic phase was used to generate monodisperse porous polymer particles.

Amine-modified hyaluronic acid-functionalized porous silicon nanoparticles for targeting breast cancer tumors

Active targeting of nanoparticles to receptor-overexpressing cancer cells has great potential for enhancing the cellular uptake of nanoparticles and for reducing fast clearance of the nanoparticles from the body. Herein, we present a preparation method of a porous silicon (PSi)-based nanodelivery system for breast cancer targeting, by covalently conjugating a synthesized amide-modified hyaluronic acid (HA(+)) derived polymer on the surface of undecylenic acid-modified thermally hydrocarbonized PSi (UnTHCPSi) nanoparticles. The resulting UnTHCPSi-HA(+) nanoparticles showed relatively small size, reduced polydispersibility, high biocompatibility, improved colloidal and human plasma stability, as well as enhanced cellular interactions and internalization. Moreover, we demonstrated that the enhanced cellular association of UnTHCPSi-HA(+) relies on the capability of the conjugated HA(+) to bind and consequently target CD44 receptors expressed on the surface of breast cancer cells, thus making the HA(+)-functionalized UnTHCPSi nanoparticles a suitable and promising nanoplatform for the targeting of CD44-overexpressing breast tumors and for drug delivery.