Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus : An update on the epidemiology, treatment options and infection control

Prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of Staphylococcus sp. isolated from food, food contact surfaces and food handlers in a Moroccan hospital kitchen

Food poisoning risk related to the consumption of contaminated food with known foodborne pathogens or antibiotic-resistant bacteria is currently a serious threat for public health. Thus, pathogenic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus strains are considered as one of the major cause of foodborne diseases in hospitals. The present study aims to determine the prevalence and the antibiotic resistance patterns of Staphylococcus in various types of hospital food samples, work surfaces and its carriage by food handlers. A total of 608 collected samples including 300 food samples, 238 food contact surfaces and 70 nasal and hand samples were tested. The identified Staphylococcus and their antibiotic resistance patterns were analysed using the agar disk-diffusion and PCR method was used for mecA resistance gene amplification. The prevalence of S. aureus and the coagulase-negative staphylococci were 17·33 and 23·33%, respectively. The antibiotic resistance reached 100% towards oxacillin and Penicillin G for both S. aureus and CoNs. The mecA gene was detected in 5·71% (4/70) and 7·69% (4/52) of S. aureus and CoNs strains, respectively. The outcome of this study enlightens isolation of MRSA strains and resistant CoNs from food, food contact surfaces and food handlers. The presence of this resistant species in this critical setting, where products were intended to vulnerable and immunocompromised patients, represents a serious threat to this community. It can be a source of nosocomial infection and more precautions must be taken to prevent staphylococci food contamination mainly in hospitals. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first study describing the antibiotic resistance patterns of Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus isolated from hospital food, food contact surfaces and food handlers samples in a Moroccan hospital kitchen. High levels of multi-resistance were reported. The alarming outcome of this study emphasizes the crucial need of implementing an approach to fight multidrug-resistant staphylococci mainly in healthcare settings, where the community have already compromised health issues.

Ability of biofilm production and molecular analysis of spa and ica genes among clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the phenotypic and genotypic characterization of biofilm formation and spa and ica genes among clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Result

This cross-sectional study was performed on 146 Staphylococcus aureus isolates from hospitalized patients in Isfahan Province Hospitals. MRSA isolates were confirmed using disk diffusion test with oxacillin disk and amplification of mecA gene by PCR assays. Ability of biofilm production was evaluated targeting the icaA and icaD genes. Of 146 Staphylococcus aureus isolates, 24 (16.4%) carried mecA genes and identified as MRSA strains. Strong ability of biofilm production was seen among 76.02% (111/146) S. aureus isolates and 87.5% (21/24) MRSA strains, respectively. Also, 75.0% (18/24) MRSA isolates carried icaA and icaD was not detected in these strains. Analysis of spa gene showed 70.83% (17/24) MRSA strains were spa positive. From which 14 and 3 strains identified with one band (150, 270, 300, 360, 400 bp) and two bands (150–300 bp), respectively. According to data obtained, the prevalence of MRSA isolates from Isfahan Province Hospitals is relatively high and a remarkable percentage of them show strong power in biofilm production. Also analysis of spa gene showed a fairly large diversity among MRSA strains.

Bioprospecting of indigenous myxobacteria from Iran and potential of Cystobacter as a source of anti-MDR compounds

Drug resistance is a critical issue in future clinical treatment. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is among the pathogens that need indispensable drug-discovery efforts. The myxobacteria are a unique group of bacteria that have recently been regarded for their potency to produce new drugs with high chemical diversity and unusual mode of actions. The present study was conducted to isolate and screen myxobacteria for the first time from Iran habitats and evaluate their antibacterial activity against the multidrug-resistant strain of S. aureus. Out of 62 soil and rotten plant samples, 51 myxobacteria were isolated. The isolates belonged to Myxococcus, Corallococcus, Pyxidicoccus, and Cystobacter genera based on morphology and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Secondary metabolites of the selected strains were screened for activity on MDR strain with resistance to multiple antibiotic classes. The semi-purified fraction from Cystobacter sp. UTMC 4086 showed potent activity against MDR S. aureus with minimum inhibitory effect at 5 ≥ μg per mL compared with vancomycin (5 μg per mL) as well as no toxicity against Artemia salina. Hence, the strain Cystobacter sp. UTMC 4086 can be a valuable candidate for antibiotic discovery against MRSA and its metabolites can be subjected to further purification and analysis aimed at the identification of the effective chemical entity.

Clinical, Epidemiologic, and Laboratory Aspects of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections

Oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (abbreviated MRSA for historical reasons) is a major pathogen responsible for both hospital- and community-onset disease. Resistance to oxacillin in most clinical isolates of S. aureus is mediated by PBP2a, a penicillin-binding protein with low affinity to beta-lactams, encoded primarily by the mecA gene. Rapid and accurate methods of susceptibility testing of S. aureus isolates to identify MRSA infections are important tools to limit the spread of this organism. This review focuses on the clinical significance of MRSA infections and new approaches for the laboratory diagnosis and epidemiologic typing of MRSA strains.

One Health Approach Reveals the Absence of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Autochthonous Cattle and Their Environments

Antimicrobial resistance represents one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century, and it is globally recognized that addressing this problem requires a concerted One Health approach involving humans, animals, and the environment. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) currently represents a global burden; it is resistant to almost all beta-lactams and some MRSA strains are highly multiresistant. S. aureus infection in cattle results in major economic losses in the food industry. Moreover, cases of livestock-associated MRSA strains responsible for invasive life-threatening infections have been reported among human patients in contact with infected or colonized animals. The autochthonous Maronesa cattle breed is a threatened rustic traditional Portuguese breed of mountain cattle of high importance for the Vila Real region. It has been used for centuries as motive power in all kinds of agricultural work and also for meat production, which is its current dominant use and the main source of economic value, being the Maronesa meat commercialized with PDO - Protected Designation of Origin. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and transmission of MRSA in cattle of the Maronesa breed, through a concerted One Health approach comprising human, water, and soil samples of the animals’ handlers and environments. In a total of 195, 63, 40, and 43 cattle, human, water, and soil samples screened in selective ORSAB media supplemented with 2 mg/L oxacillin; only one human sample harbored a MRSA isolate which was ascribed to spa-type t9413 and to ST30, one of the most common genetic lineages associated with community-acquired MRSA. Considering the increasing reports of MRSA isolation from cattle and handlers in Europe, the absence of this major human and animal pathogen in Maronesa cattle and their production systems represents a serendipitous result, valuing this important autochthonous breed. To our knowledge, this is the first study to determine MRSA prevalence and transmission in Maronesa cattle. Through a concerted One Health approach, this study revealed that the Maronesa cattle and their surrounding environments do not represent reservoirs for Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Caspase-11 counteracts mitochondrial ROS-mediated clearance of Staphylococcus aureus in macrophages

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a growing health concern due to increasing resistance to antibiotics. As a facultative intracellular pathogen, MRSA is capable of persisting within professional phagocytes including macrophages. Here, we identify a role for CASP11 in facilitating MRSA survival within murine macrophages. We show that MRSA actively prevents the recruitment of mitochondria to the vicinity of the vacuoles they reside in to avoid intracellular demise. This process requires CASP11 since its deficiency allows increased association of MRSA-containing vacuoles with mitochondria. The induction of mitochondrial superoxide by antimycin A (Ant A) improves MRSA eradication in casp11-/- cells, where mitochondria remain in the vicinity of the bacterium. In WT macrophages, Ant A does not affect MRSA persistence. When mitochondrial dissociation is prevented by the actin depolymerizing agent cytochalasin D, Ant A effectively reduces MRSA numbers. Moreover, the absence of CASP11 leads to reduced cleavage of CASP1, IL-1β, and CASP7, as well as to reduced production of CXCL1/KC. Our study provides a new role for CASP11 in promoting the persistence of Gram-positive bacteria.

Capsaicin and gingerol analogues inhibit the growth of efflux-multidrug resistant bacteria and R-plasmids conjugal transfer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

Capsicum and ginger are used widely in human diets and in folklore medicines. Chemically, gingerol is a relative of capsaicin and both classes of compounds are notable for their spiciness and characteristic pungent aroma. Previous studies have demonstrated that these compounds contain antimicrobial compounds with robust pharmacological importance.

AIM

The present study evaluated the in vitro antibacterial activities of capsaicinoids and gingerols against a panel of clinical MRSA strains and their inhibitory effect on the conjugal transfer of R-plasmids harboured in E. coli.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Crude methanol extract of C. annum was fractionated using solid phase extraction (SPE) and screened for R-plasmid transfer inhibition: TP114, PUB 307, PKM 101, R6K and R7K. The bio-guided assay led to the isolation of bioactive compounds with strong R-plasmid transfer inhibition. The compounds were identified using Nuclear Magnetic resonance (NMR) and Mass spectroscopy (MS). Capsaicin analogues nonivamide, 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were screened for antimicrobial activity against a panel of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Gram-negative bacteria strains using microdilution method while the plasmid transfer inhibition assay of the compounds was determined by broth mating method.

RESULTS

The bioactive fraction Ca-11 showed good inhibition rates (8.57-25.52%) against three R-plasmids PUB307, PKM 101, TP114 followed by the crude extract of C. annum (8.59%) respectively leading to the bioassay-guided isolation of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin as the bioactive principles. The antiplasmid effect of pure capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were broad and within active ranges (5.03-31.76%) against the various antibiotic resistance-conferring plasmids including R6K, R7K. Capsaicin, 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol had good broad antibacterial activity with MIC values ranging from 8 to 256 mg/L against effluxing MRSA strains SA1199B (NorA), XU212 (TetK) and RN4220 (MsrA). While they exhibited moderate antibacterial activity (128-512 mg/L) against the Gram-negative bacteria. The effect of 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol and nonivamide on the plasmids were very active on PKM 101 (6.24-22.16%), PUB 307 (1.22-45.63%) and TP114 (0.1-7.19%) comparative to the positive control plumbagin (5.70-31.76%).

CONCLUSION

These results are suggestive that the R-plasmids could possess substrate for capsaicinoids-like compounds and for their ability to inhibit the plasmid conjugation processes. Plant natural products possess the potential value of antibacterial and mechanistic antiplasmid activity as demonstrated by the compounds and should be evaluated in developing antimicrobial leads to novel mechanism against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Host-Targeted Therapeutics against Multidrug Resistant Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative intracellular pathogen that invades and replicates within many types of human cells. S. aureus has shown to rapidly overcome traditional antibiotherapy by developing multidrug resistance. Furthermore, intracellular S. aureus is protected from the last-resort antibiotics—vancomycin, daptomycin, and linezolid—as they are unable to achieve plasma concentrations sufficient for intracellular killing. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop novel anti-infective therapies against S. aureus infections. Here, we review the current state of the field and highlight the exploitation of host-directed approaches as a promising strategy going forward.

Occurrence of multidrug-resistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among healthy farm animals: a public health concern

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an emerging pathogen causing serious public health threats. This study was conducted to investigate the occurrence of multidrug-resistant MRSA among apparently healthy farm animals to shed the light on the potential role of these animals as a reservoir for such pathogen. For this purpose, 195 nasal swabs from apparently healthy farm animals (52 sheep, 51 goats, 47 cattle and 45 buffalo) were screened for multidrug-resistant MRSA. MRSA was isolated using a selective chromogenic medium and identified by colonial characters, Gram’s stain films, conventional biochemical tests, coagulase test, resistance to cefoxitin and amplification of nuc and mecA genes. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing profile was performed by disk diffusion method to identify multidrug-resistant MRSA. Of 195 samples, 7 yielded MRSA with an overall prevalence 3.6%, whereas the prevalence rates were 3.8%, 3.9%, 4.3% and 2.2% for sheep, goats, cattle and buffalo, respectively. All MRSA isolates were multidrug-resistant strains. The phylogenetic analysis of 2 mecA gene sequences from the obtained isolates revealed that both sequences were clustered in the same clade with those derived from human clinical cases from different countries to highlight the public health burden of such strains. The distribution of multidrug-resistant MRSA among all examined farm animal species being apparently healthy points out that farm animals could represent a potential reservoir for multidrug-resistant MRSA with public health implications.

Enhancement in Site-Specific Delivery of Carvacrol against Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Induced Skin Infections Using Enzyme Responsive Nanoparticles: A Proof of Concept Study

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) induced skin infections have become a challenging problem due to the escalating antibiotic resistance. Carvacrol (CAR) has been reported to be effective against MRSA. However, due to its characteristics, CAR exhibits low skin retention. In this study, CAR was formulated into site-specific nanoparticle (NPs) delivery system using poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), following incorporation into a hydrogel matrix to facilitate dermal delivery. The release study exhibited significantly higher release of CAR from PCL NPs in the presence of bacterial lipase, highlighting its potential for differential delivery. Moreover, encapsulation of CAR in PCL NPs resulted in a two-fold increase in its anti-MRSA activity. Dermatokinetic studies revealed that the NPs loaded hydrogel was able to enhance skin retention of CAR after 24 h (83.29 ± 3.15%), compared to free CAR-loaded hydrogel (0.85 ± 0.14%). Importantly, this novel approach exhibited effective antimicrobial activity in an ex-vivo skin infection model. Hence, these findings have proven the concept that the loading of CAR into a responsive NPs system can lead to sustained antimicrobial effect at the desired site, and may provide a novel effective approach for treatment of MRSA induced skin infections. However, further studies must be conducted to investigate in-vivo efficacy of the developed system in an appropriate infection model.

Resistance and cross-resistance in Staphylococcus spp. strains following prolonged exposure to different antiseptics

OBJECTIVES

This aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of staphylococci to develop resistance and cross-resistance to antibiotics following exposure to antiseptics.

METHODS

The antibiotic susceptibility profile as well as the antiseptic minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) were determined for Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates and reference strains (methicillin resistant or not) before and after prolonged exposure to low concentrations of two antiseptics, namely chlorhexidine digluconate (CHG) and octenidine dihydrochloride (OCT).

RESULTS

Resistance was observed to both tested antiseptics following exposure. CHG exposure led to increased MICs in five of the six tested strains of S. epidermidis and S. aureus and also led to clinically decreased susceptibility to gentamicin in S. aureus ATCC 43300 (MRSA) and to penicillin and tetracycline in S. aureus ATCC 25923 (MSSA). OCT exposure led to an increased MIC only in S. epidermidis ATCC 12228 (MSSE) and also led to a clinically decreased susceptibility to penicillin in S. aureus clinical strain SAL. One strain (MSSE) showed a four-fold increase in the MIC against CHG. Several strains showed a two-fold increase in the MIC against CHG and only one strain (MSSE) against OCT.

CONCLUSION

These results support the urgent need to apply the same administration rules currently accepted for antibiotics to antiseptics in order to preserve the benefits both of antiseptics and antibiotics.

Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus EMRSA-15 clone as the predominant cause of diabetic foot ulcer infections in Portugal

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are often found in infected diabetic foot ulcers, in which the prevalence may reach 40%. These complications are one of the main causes of morbidity in diabetic patients. The objectives of this study were to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of MRSA strains in infected diabetic foot ulcers and to characterize their genetic lineages. Samples collected from 42 type 2 diabetic patients, presenting infected foot ulcers, were seeded onto ORSAB plates with 2 mg/L of oxacillin for MRSA isolation. Susceptibility to 14 antimicrobial agents was tested by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. The presence of resistance genes, virulence factors, and the immune evasion cluster system was studied by PCR. All isolates were characterized by MLST, accessory gene regulator (agr), spa, and staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec (SCCmec) typing. Twenty-five MRSA strains were isolated. All isolates showed resistance to penicillin and cefoxitin. Sixteen isolates showed phenotypic resistance to erythromycin being 7 co-resistant to clindamycin. Resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was found in 2 isolates harboring the dfrA and dfrG genes. The IEC genes were detected in 80% of isolates, 16 of which were ascribed to IEC-type B. Isolates were assigned to 12 different spa types. The MLST analysis grouped the isolates into 7 sequence types being the majority (68%) ascribed to SCCmec type IV. In this study, there was a high prevalence of the EMRSA-15 clone presenting multiple resistances in diabetic foot ulcers making these infections complicated to treat leading to a higher morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients.

Clinical and Pharmacokinetic Outcomes of Peak-Trough-Based Versus Trough-Based Vancomycin Therapeutic Drug Monitoring Approaches: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Vancomycin therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is based on achieving 24-h area under the concentration-time curve to minimum inhibitory concentration cure breakpoints (AUC24/MIC). Approaches to vancomycin TDM vary, with no head-to-head randomized controlled trial (RCT) comparisons to date.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to compare clinical and pharmacokinetic outcomes between peak-trough-based and trough-only-based vancomycin TDM approaches and to determine the relationship between vancomycin AUC24/MIC and cure rates.

METHODS

A multicentered pragmatic parallel-group RCT was conducted in Hamad Medical Corporation hospitals in Qatar. Adult non-dialysis patients initiated on vancomycin were randomized to peak-trough-based or trough-only-based vancomycin TDM. Primary endpoints included vancomycin AUC24/MIC ratio breakpoint for cure and clinical effectiveness (therapeutic cure vs therapeutic failure). Descriptive, inferential, and classification and regression tree (CART) statistical analyses were applied. NONMEM.v.7.3 was used to conduct population pharmacokinetic analyses and AUC24 calculations.

RESULTS

Sixty-five patients were enrolled [trough-only-based-TDM (n = 35) and peak-trough-based-TDM (n = 30)]. Peak-trough-based TDM was significantly associated with higher therapeutic cure rates compared to trough-only-based TDM [76.7% vs 48.6%; p value = 0.02]. No statistically significant differences were observed for all-cause mortality, neutropenia, or nephrotoxicity between the two groups. Compared to trough-only-based TDM, peak-trough-based TDM was associated with less vancomycin total daily doses by 12.05 mg/kg/day (p value = 0.027). CART identified creatinine clearance (CLCR), AUC24/MIC, and TDM approach as significant determinants of therapeutic outcomes. All patients [n = 19,100%] with CLCR ≤ 7.85 L/h, AUC24/MIC ≤ 1256, who received peak-trough-based TDM achieved therapeutic cure. AUC24/MIC > 565 was identified to be correlated with cure in trough-only-based TDM recipients [n = 11,84.6%]. No minimum AUC24/MIC breakpoint was detected by CART in the peak-trough-based group.

CONCLUSION

Maintenance of target vancomycin exposures and implementation of peak-trough-based vancomycin TDM may improve vancomycin-associated cure rates. Larger scale RCTs are warranted to confirm these findings.

Characterization of SCCmec, spa types and Multi Drug Resistant of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates among inpatients and outpatients in a referral hospital in Shiraz, Iran

Objectives

Molecular typing such as spa typing is used to control and prevent Staphylococcus aureus widespread in hospitals and communities. Hence, the aim of this study was to find the most common types of S. aureus strain circulating in Shiraz via spa and SCCmec typing methods.

Results

Total of 159 S. aureus isolates were collected from two tertiary hospitals in Shiraz. Isolates were identified by biochemical tests. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests were performed by standard disk diffusion method and then genetic analysis of bacteria was performed using SCCmec and spa typing. In this study 31.4% of the isolates were methicillin-resistant S. aureus. The majority of isolates were SSCmec type III. Spa type t030 was the most prominent type among MRSA strains. For the first time in Iran, spa003, t386, t1877, t314, t186, t1816, t304, t325, t345 were reported in this study. It was shown that there is a possibility that these spa types are native to this region. Our findings showed that SCCmec II, III and IV disseminate from hospital to community and vice versa. Thus, effective monitoring of MRSA in hospital and community is necessary.

Design, Synthesis, and Anti-Bacterial Evaluation of Triazolyl-Pterostilbene Derivatives

Staphylococcus aureus resistance to current antibiotics has become the greatest global challenge facing public health. The development of new antimicrobial agents is urgent and important and is needed to provide additional therapeutic options. In our previous study, we found out that pterostilbene exhibited potent antibacterial activity, especially against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). According to previous studies, 1,2,3-triazole, with the characteristic of increasing the interaction with the target readily and enhancing water solubility, were widely used in the approved anti-bacterial drugs. Therefore, these results attract our interest to use the structure of pterostilbene as a scaffold for the hybrid 1,2,3-triazole moiety to develop a novel anti-MRSA infection agent. In this study, we demonstrated the design and synthesis of a series of triazolylpterostilbene derivatives. Among these compounds, compound 4d exhibited the most potent anti-MRSA activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 1.2–2.4 μg/mL and a minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) value of 19.5–39 μg/mL. The structure–activity relationship and antibacterial mechanism were investigated in this study. Molecular docking studies were carried out to verify and rationalize the biological results. In this study, the results confirmed that our design could successfully increase the inhibitory activity and specificity against MRSA. Compound 4d could be used as a candidate for anti-bacterial agents and in depth vivo studies should be further investigated.

Myrtenol Attenuates MRSA Biofilm and Virulence by Suppressing sarA Expression Dynamism

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a deleterious human pathogen responsible for severe morbidity and mortality worldwide. The pathogen has attained high priority in the World Health Organization (WHO) - Multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens list. Emerging MDR strains of S. aureus are clinically challenging due to failure in conventional antibiotic therapy. Biofilm formation is one of the underlying mechanisms behind the antibiotic resistance. Hence, attenuating biofilm formation has become an alternative strategy to control persistent infections. The current study is probably the first that focuses on the antibiofilm and antivirulence potential of myrtenol against MRSA and its clinical isolates. Myrtenol exhibited a concentration-dependent biofilm inhibition without causing any harmful effect on cell growth and viability. Further, microscopic analysis validated the biofilm inhibitory efficacy of myrtenol against MRSA. In addition, myrtenol inhibited the synthesis of major virulence factors including slime, lipase, α-hemolysin, staphyloxanthin and autolysin. Inhibition of staphyloxanthin in turn sensitized the MRSA cells to healthy human blood and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Notably, myrtenol treated cells were deficient in extracellular DNA (eDNA) mediated autoaggregation as eDNA releasing autolysis was impaired by myrtenol. Biofilm disruptive activity on preformed biofilms was observed at concentrations higher than minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) of myrtenol. Also, the non-cytotoxic effect of myrtenol on human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) was evidenced by trypan blue and Alamar blue assays. Transcriptional analysis unveiled the down-regulation of global regulator sarA and sarA mediated virulence genes upon myrtenol treatment, which is well correlated with results of phenotypic assays. Thus, the results of the present study revealed the sarA mediated antibiofilm and antivirulence potential of myrtenol against MRSA.

An Eye on Staphylococcus aureus Toxins: Roles in Ocular Damage and Inflammation

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common pathogen of the eye, capable of infecting external tissues such as the tear duct, conjunctiva, and the cornea, as well the inner and more delicate anterior and posterior chambers. S. aureus produces numerous toxins and enzymes capable of causing profound damage to tissues and organs, as well as modulating the immune response to these infections. Unfortunately, in the context of ocular infections, this can mean blindness for the patient. The role of α-toxin in corneal infection (keratitis) and infection of the interior of the eye (endophthalmitis) has been well established by comparing virulence in animal models and α-toxin-deficient isogenic mutants with their wild-type parental strains. The importance of other toxins, such as β-toxin, γ-toxin, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), have been analyzed to a lesser degree and their roles in eye infections are less clear. Other toxins such as the phenol-soluble modulins have yet to be examined in any animal models for their contributions to virulence in eye infections. This review discusses the state of current knowledge of the roles of S. aureus toxins in eye infections and the controversies existing as a result of the use of different infection models. The strengths and limitations of these ocular infection models are discussed, as well as the need for physiological relevance in the study of staphylococcal toxins in these models.

Molecular Characterization of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in West Bank-Palestine

Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a public health threat and a major cause of hospital-acquired and community-acquired infections. This study aimed to investigate the genetic diversity of MRSA isolates from 2015 to 2017 and to characterize the major MRSA clones and anti-biogram trends in Palestine.

Methodology: Isolates were obtained from 112 patients admitted to different hospitals of West Bank and East Jerusalem, originating from different clinical sources. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns, staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec (SCCmec) typing, and Staphylococcus aureus protein A (spa) typing were determined. Also, a panel of toxin genes and virulence factors was studied, including: Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (PVL), ACME-arcA, Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1 (TSST-1), and Exfoliative Toxin A (ETA).

Results: Of the 112 confirmed MRSA isolates, 100% were resistant to all β-lactam antibiotics. Resistance rates to other non- β-lactam classes were as the following: 18.8% were resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, 23.2% were resistant to gentamicin, 34.8% to clindamycin, 39.3% to ciprofloxacin, and 63.4% to erythromycin. All MRSA isolates were susceptible to vancomycin (100%). Of all isolates, 32 isolates (28.6%) were multidrug- resistant (MDR). The majority of the isolates were identified as SCCmec type IV (86.6%). The molecular typing identified 29 spa types representing 12 MLST-clonal complexes (CC). The most prevalent spa types were: spa type t386 (CC1)/(12.5%), spa type t044 (CC80)/(10.7%), spa type t008 (CC8)/(10.7%), and spa type t223 (CC22)/(9.8%). PVL toxin gene was detected in (29.5%) of all isolates, while ACME-arcA gene was present in 18.8% of all isolates and 23.2% had the TSST-1 gene. The two most common spa types among the TSST-1positive isolates were the spa type t223 (CC22)/(Gaza clone) and the spa type t021 (CC30)/(South West Pacific clone). All isolates with the spa type t991 were ETA positive (5.4%). USA-300 clone (spa type t008, positive for PVL toxin gene and ACME-arcA genes) was found in nine isolates (8.0%).

Conclusions: Our results provide insights into the epidemiology of MRSA strains in Palestine. We report a high diversity of MRSA strains among hospitals in Palestine, with frequent SCCmec type IV carriage. The four prominent clones detected were: t386-IV/ CC1, the European clone (t044/CC80), Gaza clone (t223/CC22), and the USA-300 clone (t008/CC8).

Liposomes containing biosurfactants isolated from Lactobacillus gasseri exert antibiofilm activity against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains

Staphylococcus aureus is the major causative agent of skin and soft tissue infections, whose prevention and treatment have become more difficult due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains. In this regard, the development of an effective treatment represents a challenge that can be overcome by delivering new antibiofilm agents with appropriate nanocarriers. In this study, a biosurfactant (BS) isolated from Lactobacillus gasseri BC9 and subsequently loaded in liposomes (LP), was evaluated for its ability to prevent the development and to eradicate the biofilm of different methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains. BS from L. gasseri BC9 was not cytotoxic and was able to prevent formation and to eradicate the biofilm of different MRSA strains. BS loaded liposomes (BS-LP) presented a mean diameter (lower than 200 nm) suitable for topical administration and a low polydispersity index (lower than 0.2) that were maintained over time for up 28 days. Notably, BS-LP showed higher ability than free BS to inhibit S. aureus biofilm formation and eradication. BS-LP were loaded in lyophilized matrices able to quickly dissolve (dissolution time lower than 5 s) upon contact with exudate, thus allowing vesicle reconstitution. In conclusion, in this work, we demonstrated the antibiofilm activity of Lactobacillus-derived BS and BS-LP against clinically relevant MRSA strains. Furthermore, the affordable production of lyophilized matrices containing BS-LP for local prevention of cutaneous infections was established.

Prevalence of nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in patients at hospital admission in The Netherlands, 2010-2017: an observational study

OBJECTIVES

We determined the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nasal carriage upon hospital admission, among patients who were screened preoperatively for nasal S. aureus carriage between 2010 and 2017. We also aimed to evaluate the prevalence of MRSA carriers without the standard risk factors.

METHODS

We conducted an observational study to determine the prevalence of MRSA nasal carriage among patients who were screened preoperatively for nasal S. aureus carriage between 2010 and 2017. Samples of cardiothoracic patients were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), other samples were cultured using chromogenic agar plates. A Poisson regression model with robust error variance was used to assess whether there was a trend in the prevalence of MRSA over time.

RESULTS

In total, 31 093 nasal swabs were obtained from 25 660 patients. Three-hundred and seventy-five swabs (1.2%) had an invalid result. Therefore, 30 718 swabs (98.8%) were included in our analysis. Overall, S. aureus was detected in 7981/30 718 patients (26.0% 95% CI 25.5-26.5%) of whom 41 were MRSA (0.13% 95% CI 0.10-0.18%). The MRSA prevalence varied from 0.03% to 0.17% over the years without evidence of a changing trend over time (p = 0.40). Results of the questionnaire revealed that 30 of the 41 patients (73.2%) had no known risk factors for MRSA carriage (0.10%; 95% CI 0.07-0.14%).

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed a sustained low prevalence of MRSA carriage upon hospital admission over 7 years. This supports the effectiveness of the Dutch Search and Destroy policy, in combination with a restrictive antibiotic prescription policy.

Screening of mecI Gene in Staphylococcus Strains Isolated in Transylvania Region of Romania

In the last few decades, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains have become a serious health care problem. However, in the European Union/European Economic Area countries the prevalence of the invasive MRSA isolates has decreased in recent years; in Romania, the considerably high prevalence of these strains is still unchanged. In this study, 396 staphylococcal strains were screened using molecular biology techniques for the presence of the nucA, mecA, and mecI genes and for the detection of the possible mutations accumulated in the mecI gene. More than half of the collected Staphylococcus strains (59.34%) were determined as S. aureus, and 63 strains were considered as MRSA. Small number of MRSA strains (n = 6; 54.54% of invasive S. aureus) originated from hemoculture. The mecI gene was present in 22 MRSA strains and in 4 methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci strains. The majority of the mecI-positive MRSA strains contained the C to T substitution at position 202; furthermore, one previously undescribed mutation (C to G transversion at nucleotide position 285) was detected in one MRSA strain.

Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Octocoral-Associated Microbes-New Chances for Blue Growth

Octocorals (Cnidaria, Anthozoa Octocorallia) are magnificent repositories of natural products with fascinating and unusual chemical structures and bioactivities of interest to medicine and biotechnology. However, mechanistic understanding of the contribution of microbial symbionts to the chemical diversity of octocorals is yet to be achieved. This review inventories the natural products so-far described for octocoral-derived bacteria and fungi, uncovering a true chemical arsenal of terpenes, steroids, alkaloids, and polyketides with antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antifouling, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimalarial activities of enormous potential for blue growth. Genome mining of 15 bacterial associates (spanning 12 genera) cultivated from Eunicella spp. resulted in the identification of 440 putative and classifiable secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), encompassing varied terpene-, polyketide-, bacteriocin-, and nonribosomal peptide-synthase BGCs. This points towards a widespread yet uncharted capacity of octocoral-associated bacteria to synthetize a broad range of natural products. However, to extend our knowledge and foster the near-future laboratory production of bioactive compounds from (cultivatable and currently uncultivatable) octocoral symbionts, optimal blending between targeted metagenomics, DNA recombinant technologies, improved symbiont cultivation, functional genomics, and analytical chemistry are required. Such a multidisciplinary undertaking is key to achieving a sustainable response to the urgent industrial demand for novel drugs and enzyme varieties.

Cross-transmission in the Dental Office: Does This Make You Ill?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Recently, numerous scientific publications were published which shed new light on the possible risks of infection for dental healthcare workers and their patients. This review aimed to provide the latest insights in the relative risks of transmission of (pathogenic) micro-organisms in the dental office.

RECENT FINDINGS

Of all different routes of micro-organism transmission during or immediately after dental treatment (via direct contact/via blood-blood contact/via dental unit water and aerosols), evidence of transmission is available. However, the recent results put the risks in perspective; infections related to the dental office are most likely when infection control measures are not followed meticulously.

SUMMARY

The risk for transmission of pathogens in a dental office resulting in an infectious disease is still unknown; it seems to be limited in developed countries but it cannot be considered negligible. Therefore, maintaining high standards of infection preventive measures is of high importance for dental healthcare workers to avoid infectious diseases due to cross-contamination.

Streptomyces as a Prominent Resource of Future Anti-MRSA Drugs

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) pose a significant health threat as they tend to cause severe infections in vulnerable populations and are difficult to treat due to a limited range of effective antibiotics and also their ability to form biofilm. These organisms were once limited to hospital acquired infections but are now widely present in the community and even in animals. Furthermore, these organisms are constantly evolving to develop resistance to more antibiotics. This results in a need for new clinically useful antibiotics and one potential source are the Streptomyces which have already been the source of several anti-MRSA drugs including vancomycin. There remain large numbers of Streptomyces potentially undiscovered in underexplored regions such as mangrove, deserts, marine, and freshwater environments as well as endophytes. Organisms from these regions also face significant challenges to survival which often result in the production of novel bioactive compounds, several of which have already shown promise in drug development. We review the various mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in MRSA and all the known compounds isolated from Streptomyces with anti-MRSA activity with a focus on those from underexplored regions. The isolation of the full array of compounds Streptomyces are potentially capable of producing in the laboratory has proven a challenge, we also review techniques that have been used to overcome this obstacle including genetic cluster analysis. Additionally, we review the in vivo work done thus far with promising compounds of Streptomyces origin as well as the animal models that could be used for this work.