Sweeteners as food additives in the XXI century: A review of what is known, and what is to come

Trends and amounts of consumption of low-calorie sweeteners: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

White sugar has been blamed to cause health consequences including diabetes and obesity. With the increased need to decrease sugar intake, attention was shifted towards sugar alternatives also known as low-calorie sweeteners. Low-calorie sweeteners are ubiquitous within food products, but their consumption among Lebanese adults isn't well elucidated. Our study aims to investigate the trends and amounts of low-calorie sweeteners' consumption in addition to their main sources among a sample of Lebanese adults.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted over 384 adult Lebanese individuals from both genders residing in Beirut and Mount-Lebanon from February to August 2020. After excluding eight individuals, 376 completed the survey. To assess the trends, frequency and quantity of low-calorie sweeteners' consumption, a questionnaire was filled by trained and licensed dietitians in addition to a previously validated food frequency questionnaire adapted to the most widely known products in the Lebanese market. Food products were divided into categories, amount of sweeteners in each item was obtained from the label, and analysis was performed according to the type of sweetener they are made of. Frequencies were converted into numbers of servings per day and multiplied by the standard portion size. Daily individual consumption of each sweetener apart was obtained by multiplying the amount of sweetener in each item consumed by total daily consumption. The amount in mg/kg was obtained by dividing total consumption of each sweetener apart by the mean weight of our population. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data entry and analysis.

RESULTS

Results showed that 94.4% were consuming an artificially-sweetened item at least once in the last six months. While weight loss and healthy lifestyle constituted the main reasons for past and current consumption respectively, safety and unpleasant taste affected consumption trends. Pills and powders' consumption was significantly associated with gender (p = 0.032) and dieting (p = 0.000) but not with age (p = 0.831), educational level (p = 0.294), living district (p = 0.421) or income (p = 0.828) where women and dieters used significantly more pills and powders than their counterparts. "Food and beverages" consumption was independent of all factors except age (p = 0.001); it peaked at 26-40 and declined thereafter. Consumption of low-calorie sweeteners came mainly from beverages and was as follows while remaining within the acceptable daily intake limits: aspartame: 98.9 mg/d (1.38 mg/kg/d); sucralose: 22.19 mg/d (0.31 mg/kg/d); acesulfame-K: 39.12 mg/d (0.55 mg/kg/d); stevia 3.28 mg/d (0.05 mg/kg/d). Food and beverages were consumed more than pills and powders due to unintentional consumption.

CONCLUSION

Despite that safety and unpleasant taste affected consumption of low-calorie sweetened products, intake of such products was found to be highly prevalent in the studied population. While remaining within the acceptable daily intake limits, consumption of food and beverages exceeded that of pills and powders due to unintentional consumption making awareness a necessity to help consumers make an informed decision. Moreover, a nation-level study is needed to generalize the results.

Inter-Individual Differences in Cognitive Tasks: Focusing on the Shaping of Decision-Making Strategies

In this paper, we review recent (published and novel) data showing inter-individual variation in decision-making strategies established by mice in a gambling task (MGT for Mouse Gambling Task). It may look intriguing, at first, that congenic animals develop divergent behaviors. However, using large groups of mice, we show that individualities emerge in the MGT, with about 30% of healthy mice displaying risk-averse choices while about 20-25% of mice make risk-prone choices. These strategies are accompanied by different brain network mobilization and individual levels of regional -prefrontal and striatal- monoamines. We further illustrate three ecological ways that influence drastically cognitive strategies in healthy adult mice: sleep deprivation, sucrose or artificial sweetener exposure, and regular exposure to stimulating environments. Questioning how to unmask individual strategies, what are their neural/neurochemical bases and whether we can shape or reshape them with different environmental manipulations is of great value, first to understand how the brain may build flexible decisions, and second to study behavioral plasticity, in healthy adult, as well as in developing brains. The latter may open new avenues for the identification of vulnerability traits to adverse events, before the emergence of mental pathologies.

Metabolic profiling of serum and urine in lactating dairy cows affected by subclinical ketosis using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Ketosis is associated with high milk yield during lactating or insufficient feed intake in lactating dairy cows. However, few studies have been conducted on the metabolomics of ketosis in Korean lactating dairy cows. The present study aimed to investigate the serum and urine metabolites profiling of lactating dairy cows through proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy and comparing those between healthy (CON) and subclinical ketosis (SCK) groups. Six lactating dairy cows were categorized into CON and SCK groups. All experimental Holstein cows were fed total mixed ration. Serum and urine samples were collected from the jugular vein of the neck and by hand sweeping the perineum, respectively. The metabolites in the serum and urine were determined using ¹H-NMR spectroscopy. Identification and quantification of metabolites was performed by Chenomx NMR Suite 8.4 software. Metabolites statistical analysis was performed by Metaboanalyst version 5.0 program. In the serum, the acetoacetate level was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the SCK group than in the CON group, and whereas acetate, galactose and pyruvate levels tended to be higher. CON group had significantly (p < 0.05) higher levels of 5-aminolevulinate and betaine. Indole-3-acetate, theophylline, p-cresol, 3-hydroxymandelate, gentisate, N-acetylglucosamine, N-nitrosodimethylamine, xanthine and pyridoxine levels were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the urine of the SCK group than that in the CON group, which had higher levels of homogentisate, ribose, gluconate, ethylene glycol, maltose, 3-methyl-2-oxovalerate and glycocholate. Some significantly (p < 0.05) different metabolites in the serum and urine were associated with ketosis diseases, inflammation, energy balance and body weight. This study will be contributed useful a future ketosis metabolomics studies in Korea.

Physicochemical, Nutritional, Microstructural, Surface and Sensory Properties of a Model High-Protein Bars Intended for Athletes Depending on the Type of Protein and Syrup Used

The main objective of this study was to investigate the possibility of using a combination of vegetable proteins from soybean (SOY), rice (RPC), and pea (PEA) with liquid syrups: tapioca fiber (TF), oligofructose (OF), and maltitol (ML) in the application of high-protein bars to determine the ability of these ingredients to modify the textural, physicochemical, nutritional, surface properties, microstructure, sensory parameters, and technological suitability. Ten variants of the samples were made, including the control sample made of whey protein concentrate (WPC) in combination with glucose syrup (GS). All combinations used had a positive effect on the hardness reduction of the bars after the storage period. Microstructure and the contact angle showed a large influence on the proteins and syrups used on the features of the manufactured products, primarily on the increased hydrophobicity of the surface of samples made of RPC + ML, SOY + OF, and RPC + TF. The combination of proteins and syrups used significantly reduced the sugar content of the product. Water activity (<0.7), dynamic viscosity (<27 mPas∙g/cm3), and sensory analysis (the highest final ratings) showed that bars made of RPC + OF, SOY + OF, and SOY + ML are characterized by a high potential for use in this type of products.

Rotational Spectrum and Conformational Analysis of Perillartine: Insights into the Structure-Sweetness Relationship

We used high-resolution rotational spectroscopy coupled to a laser ablation source to study the conformational panorama of perillartine, a solid synthetic sweetener. Four conformers were identified under the isolation conditions of the supersonic expansion, showing that all of them present an E configuration of the C=N group with respect to the double bond of the ring. The observed structures were verified against Shallenberger–Acree–Kier’s sweetness theory to shed light on the structure–sweetness relationship for this particular oxime, highlighting a deluge of possibilities to bind the receptor.

A novel multi-layer prediction approach for sweetness evaluation based on systematic machine learning modeling

Nowadays, computational approaches have drawn more and more attention when exploring the relationship between sweetness and chemical structure instead of traditional experimental tests. In this work, we proposed a novel multi-layer sweetness evaluation system based on machine learning methods. It can be used to evaluate sweet properties of compounds with different chemical spaces and categories, including natural, artificial, carbohydrate, non-carbohydrate, nutritive and non-nutritive ones, suitable for different application scenarios. Furthermore, it provided quantitative predictions of sweetness. In addition, sweetness-related chemical basis and structure transforming rules were obtained by using molecular cloud and matched molecular pair analysis (MMPA) methods. This work systematically improved the data quality, explored the best machine learning algorithm and molecular characterizing strategy, and finally obtained robust models to establish a multi-layer prediction system (available at: https://github.com/ifyoungnet/ChemSweet). We hope that this study could facilitate food scientists with efficient screening and precise development of high-quality sweeteners.

Low Dose of Sucralose Alter Gut Microbiome in Mice

Sucralose is a non-nutritive artificial sweetener (NNS) used in foods or beverages to control blood glucose levels and body weight gain. The consumption of NNS has increased in recent years over the world, and many researches have indicated long-term sucralose administration altered the gut microbiome composition of mice. These studies all focus on the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defined acceptable daily intake (ADI), approximately 5 mg/kg BW/day for human. In our study, mice were given with T1-4 (0.0003, 0.003, 0.03, and 0.3 mg/mL) of sucralose, respectively, Control group mice were given normal water. In particular, 0.3 mg/mL of sucralose was equal to the ADI (5 mg/kg BW/day). After 16 weeks, all mice were weighted and sacrificed, the liver of each mouse was isolated and weighed, segments of jejunum, ileum and colon were collected for H&E-stained. The contents of jejunum, ileum, cecum and colon were collected for 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The results showed sucralose administration affects the intestinal barrier function evidenced by distinct lymphocyte aggregation in ileum and colon while not change the mice body weight. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the mice gut microbiome suggested sucralose administration significantly changed the composition of gut microbiota, especially in T1 and T4 group. For example, a reduction of probiotics abundance (Lachnoclostridium and Lachnospiraceae) was found in cecum of T4 group mice compared with Control group. On the other hand, Allobaculum, which was reported positively correlated with diabetes, was increased in the T1 and T4 group. In addition, the potential pathogens, including Tenacibaculum, Ruegeria, Staphylococcus were also increased in jejunum, ileum and colon by sucralose administration in T1 and T4 group. These new findings indicate that low dose of sucralose (T1) alter gut microbiome in mice, and these adverse health effects are equal to ADI level (T4). Overall, our study provides guidance and suggestions for the use of sucralose in foods and beverages.

Natural sweeteners: Sources, extraction and current uses in foods and food industries

Food producers have leaned towards alternative natural and synthetic sweeteners in food formulations to satisfy market demands. Even so, several synthetic sweeteners (e.g., aspartame, saccharin, sucralose) are becoming less popular due to health-related concerns, lower nutritional values, and controversies around their safety. Conversely, natural sweeteners confer favourable customer perceptions due to their association to a healthier lifestyle and higher nutritional values. This article discusses the evidence of natural sweeteners in the available commercial products. A comprehensive review of natural sweeteners is presented, which includes their resources, properties and extraction methods, as well as a discussion on several emerging technologies that offer improvements to the traditional extraction methods. Finally, the progress of natural sweeteners in the food industry is assessed, and the commercial food products containing these natural sweeteners are mentioned.

The Influence of the Syrup Type on Rheology, Color Differences, Water Activity, and Nutritional and Sensory Aspects of High-Protein Bars for Sportsmen

Most often, high-protein bars consist of a protein preparation in the form of a loose powder, stuck together with a syrup mixture, ensuring a stable mass. According to the legal regulations in force, at least 20% of the energy value must come from protein for the product to be called high-protein. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of different syrup sources (oligofructose, maltitol, tapioca fiber, and chickpea-maize fiber) on rheology, water activity, color, and nutritional and sensorial properties of high-protein bars. Texture has changed depending on the type of syrup used. A significant increase of the hardness parameter referring to the control sample was noted for bars containing chickpea-maize liquid fiber in chocolate (311.65 N), with low adhesiveness simultaneously (54.71 N). Samples without chocolate made with the use of oligofructose syrup had apparently higher dynamic viscosities than other bars (226.67 mPas · g/cm3). The water activity of all tested bars indicated the high stability of samples over time (<0.80), except for samples without chocolate made of PM syrup. The color of the tested bars was from light cream to Earth yellow. Bars obtained with tapioca liquid fiber had the lowest nutritional value. Results presented in this study suggest that selecting the correct type of syrup may significantly influence the functional properties of high-protein bars.

Hunger, Obesity, Public Policies, and Food-Based Dietary Guidelines: A Reflection Considering the Socio-Environmental World Context

Nowadays, the world has been characterized by hunger, obesity, and food loss and waste (FLW). With the COVID-19 pandemic, the food issue became more intense, serious, and evident. Hunger demands urgent actions. Obesity levels have been raised and are removing health and quality of life from the population. Production planting practices and the food supply chain are not necessarily ecologically friendly. Sustainability issues greatly intensify social problems. As well as food loss (FL), food waste (FW), and sustainability concerns, obesity, and malnutrition are enhanced due to the lack of knowledge by the population. Processed food (PF), packaging, and additives, despite still needing improvement, are essential to food security control. Nowadays, hunger is not due to insufficient agricultural practices but rather to inequality and absence of adequate public policies. In the context of a certain abundance of food production and processing, the hunger scenario in contrast to FLW is an ethical, social, moral, and sustainable issue. In this context, a Food-Based Dietary Guideline (FBDG) can be an important public policy tool from the health, nutrition, environmental, and educational points of view. Despite the effort, the literature shows that FBDGs can be better used to fulfill healthiness and sustainability purposes. In this scenario, the elaboration/revision of the FBDG, adopting a clearer, simpler, and a better-suited communication strategy is essential. In this way, this article discusses the importance of the FBDG as a public policy tool, not only regarding health issues but also communication strategies, production sustainability, and humanitarian ones, which are crucial to FBDG's efficiency.

Enrichment of the rebaudioside A concentration in Stevia rebaudiana extract with cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase from Bacillus licheniformis DSM 13

Stevia rebaudiana is a sweet herbaceous perennial plant, which is frequently used in the preparation of plant-based sweeteners. The demand for such sweeteners continues to increase due to purposeful nutrition and modern-day metabolic syndromes. More than 20 types of steviol glycosides provide a sweet taste, which are more than 300 times sweeter than sucrose. They are formed of two main components, namely stevioside and rebaudioside A. Only a handful of studies have dealt with Stevia rebaudiana leaf extracts, the conversion of pure stevioside into the preferred rebaudioside A is more common. The aim of this study was to enrich the rebaudioside A content of Stevia rebaudiana leaf extract using enzymatic bioconversion by applying fermented cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase from Bacillus licheniformis DSM13. Two differently processed plant materials, namely dried and lyophilized Stevia rebaudiana plants, were extracted and compared. Following the bioconversion, the rebaudioside A content was on average doubled. The maximum increase was fivefold with a 70-80% conversion of the stevioside.

Erythritol modulates the polarization of macrophages: Potential role of tumor necrosis factor-α and Akt pathway

Low-calorie sweeteners are substitutes for sugar and frequently used by patients with cardiometabolic diseases. Erythritol, a natural low-calorie sugar alcohol, was linked to cardiometabolic diseases in several recent metabolomics studies. However, the characterization of its role in disease development is lacking. Macrophage polarization orchestrates the immune response in various inflammatory conditions, most notably cardiometabolic disease. Therefore, the physiological effects of Erythritol on THP-1 macrophages were investigated. We observed an increased cellular abundance of proinflammatory M1 macrophages, characterized by CD11c, TNF-α, CD64, CD38, and HLA-DR markers and decreased anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages, characterized by mannose receptor CD206. The, Erythritol increased ROS generation, and the activation of the AKT pathway, cytosolic calcium overload, and cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase. Concomitantly, an increased population of necroptotic macrophages was observed. In conclusion, we provide evidence that Erythritol induced the proinflammatory phenotype in THP-1 macrophages and this was associated with an increased population of necroptotic macrophages. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This assessment provides evidence of the effects of Erythritol on macrophages, particularly THP-1-derived macrophages. Our results support the role of Erythritol in driving the inflammation that is associated with cardiometabolic diseases and provide insights in the role of Erythritol as an inducer of necroptosis in THP-1 derived macrophages that could be associated the disease.

Metabolic engineering of Pseudomonas putida for production of the natural sweetener 5-ketofructose from fructose or sucrose by periplasmic oxidation with a heterologous fructose dehydrogenase

5-Ketofructose (5-KF) is a promising low-calorie natural sweetener with the potential to reduce health problems caused by excessive sugar consumption. It is formed by periplasmic oxidation of fructose by fructose dehydrogenase (Fdh) of Gluconobacter japonicus, a membrane-bound three-subunit enzyme containing FAD and three haemes c as prosthetic groups. This study aimed at establishing Pseudomonas putida KT2440 as a new cell factory for 5-KF production, as this host offers a number of advantages compared with the established host Gluconobacter oxydans. Genomic expression of the fdhSCL genes from G. japonicus enabled synthesis of functional Fdh in P. putida and successful oxidation of fructose to 5-KF. In a batch fermentation, 129 g l-1 5-KF were formed from 150 g l-1 fructose within 23 h, corresponding to a space-time yield of 5.6 g l-1  h-1 . Besides fructose, also sucrose could be used as substrate for 5-KF production by plasmid-based expression of the invertase gene inv1417 from G. japonicus. In a bioreactor cultivation with pulsed sucrose feeding, 144 g 5-KF were produced from 358 g sucrose within 48 h. These results demonstrate that P. putida is an attractive host for 5-KF production.

Impact of Maltitol and Sorbitol on Technological and Sensory Attributes of Biscuits

Overconsumption of sugars in diets is associated with many health problems, including dental diseases, diabetes and obesity. However, removing sugar from products such as biscuits is still a challenge for manufacturers and has been limited in Europe since the evolution of the EU regulation in January 2018, allowing only polyols and non-sweetening bulking agents as sugar substitutes. This study investigated the effects of fully replacing sugar with two polyols, maltitol and sorbitol, in short-dough biscuits. Morphological, textural and visual characteristics were studied as well as sensory properties. The reformulated biscuits were more compact in shape and structure. They were also less prone to checking, which was attributed to a more homogeneous water distribution at the end of baking, especially with sorbitol. Polyol biscuits were surprisingly colourful, especially sorbitol ones, although polyols are not normally involved in Maillard reactions. Sensory tests, however, showed a depreciation of the products compared to the control. Sorbitol biscuits were the least preferred but maltitol ones were quite well accepted compared to the control. Thus, maltitol is an excellent potential substitute for this type of product.

Artificial Sweeteners: History and New Concepts on Inflammation

Since the introduction of artificial sweeteners (AS) to the North American market in the 1950s, a growing number of epidemiological and animal studies have suggested that AS may induce changes in gut bacteria and gut wall immune reactivity, which could negatively affect individuals with or susceptible to chronic inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a disorder that has been growing exponentially in westernized countries. This review summarizes the history of current FDA-approved AS and their chemical composition, metabolism, and bacterial utilization, and provides a scoping overview of the disease mechanisms associated with the induction or prevention of inflammation in IBD. We provide a general outlook on areas that have been both largely and scarcely studied, emerging concepts using silica, and describe the effects of AS on acute and chronic forms of intestinal inflammation.

Custard apple puree, fructooligosaccharide and soy protein hydrolysate as alternative ingredients in low carb pound cake

The optimum formulation of a low carb pound cake was determined using alternative ingredients to replace the main sources of digestible carbohydrates in the standard formulation. Surface response methodology was a useful tool in the investigation of the use of custard apple puree (CAP), fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and soy protein hydrolysate (SPH) as partial or total replacers for wheat flour, sucrose, and powdered whole milk, respectively. The quality of pound cakes was assessed by measuring the batter and cake properties. The percentage of ingredients substitution affected the specific gravity of the batter, cakes specific volume, crumb firmness, instrumental color parameters (L*, a*, b*) and number and circularity of alveoli from pound cake slices. The model equations developed can be used for predicting the quality of the pound cake. The optimum formulation of low carb pound cake with 40.98% of CAP, 94.94% of FOS and 100% of SPH, in replacement of wheat flour, sucrose and powdered whole milk, respectively, has a 93.70% of desirability. A reduction of 60.67% in digestible carbohydrates was reached. The main reduction occurs in the starch content due to the wheat flour replacement and the non-reducing sugar content due to the sucrose partial substitution. The low carb pound cake had a moderate glycemic index (60.08%), a low glycemic load (4.69%) and accepted by the judges through sensory analysis, with an acceptability index of 72.08 ± 3.97%.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-021-05155-9.

Sugar-Free Milk Chocolate as a Carrier of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Probiotics: A Potential Functional Food for the Diabetic Population

Chocolate is an adequate matrix to deliver bioactive ingredients. However, it contains high sugar levels, one of the leading causes of chronic degenerative diseases. This work aimed to evaluate the effects of milk chocolate reformulation with alternative sugar sweeteners (Sw; isomalt + stevia), probiotics (Prob), and ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on its physicochemical properties and consumers' acceptability. Lactobacillus plantarum 299v (L. p299v) and Lactobacillus acidophilus La3 (DSMZ 17742) were added as Prob strains, and fish oil (FO) was added as the source of ω-3 PUFAs. Prob addition resulted in chocolates with >2 × 107 colony forming unit (CFU) per serving size (12 g). Except for Prob, aw values of all treatments were <0.46. Sw and Sw + Prob presented the nearest values to the control in hardness, whereas Sw without FO increased fracturability. FO, Sw + FO, and Sw + Prob + FO contained 107.4 ± 12.84, 142.9 ± 17.9, and 133.78 ± 8.76 mg of ω-3 PUFAs per chocolate, respectively. Prob + FO increased the resistance of chocolate to shear stress, while Sw + FO showed a similar flow behavior to the control. The consumers' acceptability of Sw + Prob chocolate was adequate, while Sw + Prob + FO had higher acceptability than Prob + FO. Health benefits of reformulated milk chocolates requires further assessment by in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies.

Optimization of a saccharin molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction procedure and evaluation by MIR hyperspectral imaging for analysis of diet tea by HPLC

Saccharin was determined based on a new molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) procedure. The polymer was synthesized with a hybrid monomer of metacrylic acid and 3-amino propril tetraethoxysilane and saccharin as template. After the synthesis, the saccharin removal from the MIP was verified by the UV analysis of the solutions used in the template removal procedure, as well as by the direct MIP analysis using FTIR hyperspectral image and chemometrics. The residual saccharin concentrations observed in the image analysis revealed a narrow concentration distribution consistent with a homogenous material. The MISPE was performed with homemade cartridges containing 200 mg of the MIP. The results obtained with standards and diet tea samples confirmed high affinity, adsorption capacity and selectivity of the MIP. The MISPE cartridge exhibited recoveries of 100 ± 3% in six extraction cycles. The diet tea analysis showed a significant reduction of the interferences, which can considerable simplifies the HPLC-UV analysis.

Influence of a prebiotic and natural sweeteners on the sensory profile of skyr yogurt with mango pulp

Skyr yogurts have been gaining prominence because of their different sensory characteristics. Due to their healthy appeal, the use of natural sweeteners to replace sucrose in this type of yogurt can be an alternative for incorporating a sweet taste, in addition to increasing the functionality of the product through the incorporation of prebiotics. This study aimed to determine whether the addition of fructooligosaccharide (FOS), sucrose, stevia, and thaumatin affects the sensory profile of the skyr yogurt with mango pulp and its acceptance in two Brazilian regions. Eight formulations of skyr with mango pulp were developed. The compositional parameters evaluated were moisture, protein, lipids, ash, and carbohydrate. The tests performed were ideal sweetness and mango flavor, sweetness equivalence for each sweetener used, Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA), and consumer testing in the Southeast and Northeast regions of Brazil. In general, the addition of FOS did not impact the characteristics of the formulated skyr yogurt. The type of sweetener had an impact on the sensory profile and acceptance of the skyr yogurt, affected characteristics such as mango flavor, sweet taste, sweet aftertaste, bitter taste, bitter aftertaste, and metallic flavor. The results of the affective test demonstrated that, for consumers in the Southeast, mango flavor is a positive attribute in this yogurt, and for Northeastern consumers, in addition to mango flavor, sweetness must also be taken into consideration. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study may be useful for the dairy industry because in the literature, there is still a lack of sensory studies of skyr yogurt, especially when sucrose substitutes are used. The results of the consumer test in this work reinforce the importance of studies related to consumer preferences with cultural differences.

Context effect of environmental setting and product information in acceptability testing of tea and cola: A study comparing sensory engagement in a traditional sensory booth and a study commons

Sensory evaluation of food relies heavily on the eating context. The objective of this study was to determine how the context effect, created from differences in environmental setting and product information, affects consumer's acceptability of two types of beverages. Participants of this study rated five ready-to-drink tea products and five diet cola products on a 9-point hedonic scale. Environmental setting differences were created by altering testing locations, and product information differences were created by serving the same samples with or without product name and image. Self-reported sensory engagement was measured in each location. Tea samples showed significantly higher appearance liking ratings in the sensory booth location as well as higher flavor liking ratings when product information was provided. Cola samples did not show a significant effect of testing location but did show a significant product information by sample interaction, where well-established brands received higher ratings when product information was provided. Overall, results were product-specific; testing location does not appear to have a large influence on hedonic scores for certain beverages, and the impact of product information varies largely depending on the product type and brand. The laboratory sensory booth setting provided higher panelist engagement overall. Additional research on the combination of external context and meal, sample, or social context is needed to fully explore the effect of eating context in sensory tests. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Findings from this study can help the food industry comprehend how test location may impact results of acceptability testing of different beverage products, both in terms of hedonic scores and sensory engagement. Results of this study also evidence the influence of sample information on product acceptability and how this influence differs based on the type of beverage and the popularity of the brand tested.

Sweet Talk: A Qualitative Study Exploring Attitudes towards Sugar, Sweeteners and Sweet-Tasting Foods in the United Kingdom

Worldwide initiatives currently aim to reduce free sugar intakes, but success will depend on consumer attitudes towards sugar and the alternatives. This work aimed to explore attitudes towards sugar, sweeteners and sweet-tasting foods, towards consumption and related policies, in a sample of the general public of the UK. Focus groups and interviews were conducted with 34 adults (7 males, ages: 18-65 years). Thematic analysis identified six themes: 'Value' (e.g., pleasure, emotions), 'Angle' (e.g., disinterest), 'Personal Relevance' (to be concerned and/or change one's own behavior), 'Personal Responsibility' (one has an active relationship with these food items), 'Understanding' (the acquisition, comprehension and application of information) and 'It's Not Up to Me' (a passive approach, because intake is subjected to other factors). Both positive and negative attitudes towards sugar, sweeteners and sweet-tasting foods were expressed in all themes. Participants also reported varied engagement with and motivations towards all food items, with implications for intakes. Suggested challenges and potential strategies for reducing free sugar intakes highlighted the need for differing approaches. Future work should assess associations between attitudes and intakes. For greatest population benefit, evidence of the dominant attitudes in those in greatest need of reduced free sugar intakes would be of value.

Dissection of the potential pharmacological function of neohesperidin dihydrochalcone - a food additive - by in vivo substances profiling and network pharmacology

Food additives are widely used in our daily life, and the side-effects caused by them have gained extensive attention around the world. Notably, constituent-oriented metabolites, in some sense, always contribute to pharmacological changes, inducing toxicity, therapeutic effects, etc. Characterization of the metabolites and their potential functions is of great importance to the practical applications. In this work, an integrated strategy by combining metabolite profiling and network pharmacology was applied to characterize the metabolic features and reveal pharmacological changes of neohesperidin dihydrochalcone (NHDC) in vivo to demonstrate its pharmacological mechanism and potential functions. As a result, a total of 19 metabolites (3 in plasma, 19 in urine, 8 in feces, 3 in heart, 5 in liver, 0 in spleen, 1 in lung, 2 in kidneys and 2 in brain) were screened and 18 of them were characterized for the first time. Phase I metabolic reactions of hydrolysis and phase II reactions of glucuronidation, sulfation, glutamylation, N-butyryl glycylation and lactylation were the main metabolic reactions of NHDC in vivo. Moreover, the results analyzed by network pharmacology revealed that, in addition to common pathways (steroid hormone biosynthesis) of NHDC, metabolites' targets were involved in pathways in cancer, ovarian steroidogenesis, proteoglycans in cancer, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway and progesterone-mediated oocyte maturation, indicating that these functional changes might result in potential novel functions or other side-effects, such as a disorder of steroid hormones. Our work provided the metabolic features and functional modifications of NHDC in vivo for the first time, and meaningful information for further pharmacological validations or potential functions is supplied.

The complex relationship between metabolic syndrome and sweeteners

Metabolic syndrome is a multifactorial disorder originating from central obesity through a high caloric intake and a sedentary lifestyle. Metabolic syndrome increases the risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D) disease, converting it to one of the costliest chronic diseases, which reduces life quality. A strategy proposed by the food industry to reduce this problem is the generation of low-caloric products using sweeteners, which are compounds that can substitute sucrose, given their sweet taste. For many years, it was assumed that sweeteners did not have a relevant interaction in metabolism. However, recent studies have demonstrated that sweeteners interact either with metabolism or with gut microbiota, in which sweet-taste receptors play an essential role. This review presents an overview of the industrial application of most commonly consumed sweeteners. In addition, the interaction of sweeteners within the body, including their absorption, distribution, metabolism, gut microbiota metabolism, and excretion is also reviewed. Furthermore, the complex relationship between metabolic syndrome and sweeteners is also discussed, presenting results from in vivo and clinical trials. Findings from this review indicate that, in order to formulate sugar-free or noncaloric food products for the metabolic syndrome market, several factors need to be considered, including the dose, proportions, human metabolism, and interaction of sweeteners with gut microbiota and sweet-taste receptors. More clinical studies, including the metabolic syndrome, are needed to better understand the interaction of sweeteners with the human body, as well as their possible effect on the generation of dysbiosis.

Determination of sweeteners in wine by liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC/MS)

Sweeteners are food additive substances that give a sweet taste to foods but their use in oenological practices is forbidden. Making use of the capabilities of liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, a method for wine analysis was developed and validated for the detection and quantitation of some of the most widely used sweeteners: aspartame, potassium acesulfame, sodium cyclamate, saccharin, sucralose and stevioside. A matrix-matched calibration was used for all compounds obtaining a linear concentration range from 50 μg/L to 1000 μg/L. The limit of detection ranged from 0.002 mg/L to 0.014 mg/L, and the limit of quantification varied between 0.005 mg/L and 0.048 mg/L. Precision and recovery were assessed for 50 μg/L, 250 μg/L and 1000 μg/L with repeatability and intermediate precision values from 0.6% to 21.6% and 2.7% to 26.4% respectively, and recoveries ranging from 60% to 126%. These results were achieved using minimal sample preparation with a fast and high throughput method that is applicable to a wide range of wine matrices.

Impaired Intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila and Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Ligands Contribute to Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice

Noncaloric artificial sweeteners (NAS) are extensively introduced into commonly consumed drinks and foods worldwide. However, data on the health effects of NAS consumption remain elusive. Saccharin and sucralose have been shown to pass through the human gastrointestinal tract without undergoing absorption and metabolism and directly encounter the gut microbiota community. Here, we aimed to identify a novel mechanism linking intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) to saccharin/sucralose-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in mice. Saccharin/sucralose consumption altered the gut microbial community structure, with significant depletion of A. muciniphila abundance in the cecal contents of mice, resulting in disruption of intestinal permeability and a high level of serum lipopolysaccharide, which likely contributed to systemic inflammation and caused NAFLD in mice. Saccharin/sucralose also markedly decreased microbiota-derived AHR ligands and colonic AHR expression, which are closely associated with many metabolic syndromes. Metformin or fructo-oligosaccharide supplementation significantly restored A. muciniphila and AHR ligands in sucralose-consuming mice, consequently ameliorating NAFLD.

IMPORTANCE Our findings indicate that the gut-liver signaling axis contributes to saccharin/sucralose consumption-induced NAFLD. Supplementation with metformin or fructo-oligosaccharide is a potential therapeutic strategy for NAFLD treatment. In addition, we also developed a new nutritional strategy by using a natural sweetener (neohesperidin dihydrochalcone [NHDC]) as a substitute for NAS and free sugars.

The sensory properties and metabolic impact of natural and synthetic sweeteners

The global rise in obesity, type II diabetes, and other metabolic disorders in recent years has been attributed in part to the overconsumption of added sugars. Sugar reduction strategies often rely on synthetic and naturally occurring sweetening compounds to achieve their goals, with popular synthetic sweeteners including saccharin, cyclamate, acesulfame potassium, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, alitame, and advantame. Natural sweeteners can be further partitioned into nutritive, including polyols, rare sugars, honey, maple syrup, and agave, and nonnutritive, which include steviol glycosides and rebaudiosides, luo han guo (monk fruit), and thaumatin. We choose the foods we consume largely on their sensory properties, an area in which these sugar substitutes often fall short. Here, we discuss the most popular synthetic and natural sweeteners, with the goal of providing an understanding of differences in the sensory profiles of these sweeteners versus sucrose, that they are designed to replace, essential for the effectiveness of sugar reduction strategies. In addition, we break down the influence of these sweeteners on metabolism, and present results from a large survey of consumers' opinions on these sweeteners. Consumer interest in clean label foods has driven a move toward natural sweeteners; however, neither natural nor synthetic sweeteners are metabolically inert. Identifying sugar replacements that not only closely imitate the sensory profile of sucrose but also exert advantageous effects on body weight and metabolism is critical in successfully the ultimate goals of reducing added sugar in the average consumer's diet. With so many options for sucrose replacement available, consumer opinion and cost, which vary widely with suagr replacements, will also play a vital role in which sweeteners are successful in widespread adoption.

Sucrose replacement: a sensory profile and time-intensity analysis of a tamarind functional beverage with artificial and natural non-nutritive sweeteners

BACKGROUND

Tamarind pulp contains polyphenolic compounds that exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects with a positive impact on human health. The elaboration of a tamarind-based functional beverage, without the addition of sucrose, can be an alternative to traditional caloric beverages. This study aimed to evaluate the sensory profile and time intensity of a functional tamarind beverage containing artificial and natural non-nutritive sweeteners.

RESULTS

The results of the acceptance test, check-all-that-apply, and time-intensity tests showed that there were no statistically significant differences between the means of samples sweetened with sucralose and samples sweetened with sucrose for attributes relating to appearance, aroma, flavor, or texture, or for overall impression. Samples with natural sweeteners had lower means for overall product impression and a lower percentage of purchase intention. The perception of astringency, bitter taste, and bitter aftertaste may be linked to the lower global impression of the product. The descriptors 'tamarind flavor' and 'refreshment sensation' were higher in products that were more liked. The sample sweetened with stevia showed higher levels of sweetness, bitterness, and longer sweet stimulus duration in the time-intensity test.

CONCLUSION

The sample sweetened with sucralose was the best alternative to sucrose in the functional tamarind beverage. The analyzed sweeteners did not show changes in the perception of the natural characteristics of the fruit used, such as tamarind flavor, refreshment sensation, and astringency. However, the attributes related to sweet and bitter aftertaste experienced in samples with natural sweeteners may have influenced the reduction in the intention to purchase the product. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sweetness Perception is not Involved in the Regulation of Blood Glucose after Oral Application of Sucrose and Glucose Solutions in Healthy Male Subjects

SCOPE

This study investigates the effect of the sweetness of a sucrose versus an isocaloric glucose solution in dietary concentrations on blood glucose regulation by adjusting the sweetness level using the sweet taste inhibitor lactisole.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 27 healthy males participated in this randomized, crossover study with four treatments: 10% glucose, 10% sucrose, 10% sucrose + 60 ppm lactisole, and 10% glucose + 60 ppm lactisole. Plasma glucose, insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and glucagon levels are measured at baseline and 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min after beverage consumption. Test subjects rated the sucrose solution to be sweeter than the isocaloric glucose solution, whereas no difference in sweetness is reported after addition of lactisole to the sucrose solution. Administration of the less sweet glucose solution versus sucrose led to higher blood glucose levels after 30 min, as reflected by a lower ΔAUC for sucrose (1072 ± 136) than for glucose (1567 ± 231). Application of lactisole leads to no differences in glucose, insulin, or glucagon responses induced by sucrose or glucose.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that the structure of the carbohydrate has a stronger impact on the regulation of blood glucose levels than the perceived sweetness.

A rational review on the effects of sweeteners and sweetness enhancers on appetite, food reward and metabolic/adiposity outcomes in adults

Numerous strategies have been investigated to overcome the excessive weight gain that accompanies a chronic positive energy balance. Most approaches focus on a reduction of energy intake and the improvement of lifestyle habits. The use of high intensity artificial sweeteners, also known as non-caloric sweeteners (NCS), as sugar substitutes in foods and beverages, is rapidly developing. NCS are commonly defined as molecules with a sweetness profile of 30 times higher or more that of sucrose, scarcely contributing to the individual's net energy intake as they are hardly metabolized. The purpose of this review is first, to assess the impact of NCS on eating behaviour, including subjective appetite, food intake, food reward and sensory stimulation; and secondly, to assess the metabolic impact of NCS on body weight regulation, glucose homeostasis and gut health. The evidence reviewed suggests that while some sweeteners have the potential to increase subjective appetite, these effects do not translate in changes in food intake. This is supported by a large body of empirical evidence advocating that the use of NCS facilitates weight management when used alongside other weight management strategies. On the other hand, although NCS are very unlikely to impair insulin metabolism and glycaemic control, some studies suggest that NCS could have putatively undesirable effects, through various indirect mechanisms, on body weight, glycemia, adipogenesis and the gut microbiota; however there is insufficient evidence to determine the degree of such effects. Overall, the available data suggests that NCS can be used to facilitate a reduction in dietary energy content without significant negative effects on food intake behaviour or body metabolism, which would support their potential role in the prevention of obesity as a complementary strategy to other weight management approaches. More research is needed to determine the impact of NCS on metabolic health, in particular gut microbiota.

Human Health Effects of Lactose Consumption as a Food and Drug Ingredient

Lactose is a reducing sugar consisting of galactose and glucose, linked by a β (1→4) glycosidic bond, considered as an antioxidant due to its α-hydroxycarbonyl group. Lactose is widely ingested through the milk and other unfermented dairy products and is considered to be one of the primary foods. On the other hand, lactose is also considered as one of the most widely used excipients for the development of pharmaceutical formulations. In this sense, lactose has been related to numerous drug-excipient or drug-food pharmacokinetic interactions. Intolerance, maldigestion and malabsorption of carbohydrates are common disorders in clinical practice, with lactose-intolerance being the most frequently diagnosed, afflicting 10% of the world's population. Four clinical subtypes of lactose intolerance may be distinguished, namely lactase deficiency in premature infants, congenital lactase deficiency, adult-type hypolactasia and secondary lactase intolerance. An overview of the main uses of lactose in human nutrition and in the pharmaceutical industry and the problems derived from this circumstance are described in this review.

Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of camel milk yogurt as influenced by monk fruit sweetener

Camel milk, similar to cow milk, contains all of the essential nutrients as well as potentially health-beneficial compounds with anticarcinogenic, antihypertensive, and antioxidant properties. Camel milk has been used for the treatment of allergies to cow milk, diabetes, and autism. Camel milk helps decrease cholesterol levels in blood and improves metabolism. One of the most desirable food tastes is sweetness. However, the excessive ingestion of sugar negatively affects human health. Monk fruit sweetener is a natural, 0-calorie sweetener with many health-beneficial functions. Monk fruit sweetener helps decrease symptoms of asthma and diabetes, prevents oxidation and cancer, protects the liver, regulates immune function, and lowers glucose levels. Monk fruit sweetener is 100 to 250 times sweeter than sucrose. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of different concentrations of monk fruit sweetener on the physicochemical properties and microbiological counts of drinking yogurt made from camel milk. Camel milk drinking yogurt was produced with 0, 0.42, 1.27, and 2.54 g/L of monk fruit sweetener and stored for 42 d. The physicochemical characteristics and microbiological counts of yogurts were measured at d 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42. For the physicochemical characteristics, pH, titratable acidity, viscosity, and color [lightness-darkness (L*), red-green axis (a*), yellow-blue axis (b*), chroma (C*), and hue angle (h*)] values were evaluated. The counts of Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, coliforms, and yeast and mold were determined. Three replications were conducted. The sweetener addition significantly influenced pH, viscosity, and color (a*, b*, C*, and h*) values. Control samples had significantly higher pH values, lower viscosity, lower b* and C* values, and higher h* values than the samples with 1.27 and 2.54 g/L of monk fruit sweetener. Growth of S. thermophilus, L. bulgaricus, and probiotic culture L. acidophilus was not affected by the incorporation of monk fruit sweetener. Monk fruit sweetener can be added in camel milk yogurts as a health-beneficial 0-calorie sweetener.

Transglycosylation of Steviol Glycosides and Rebaudioside A: Synthesis Optimization, Structural Analysis and Sensory Profiles

To improve flavor profiles, three cyclodextrin glucosyltransferases (CGTases) from different bacteriological sources, Paenibacillus macerans, Geobacillus sp. and Thermoanaerobacter sp., were used with an extract of steviol glycosides (SVglys) and rebaudioside A (RebA) as acceptor substrates in two parallel sets of reactions. A central composite experimental design was employed to maximize the concentration of glucosylated species synthesized, considering temperature, pH, time of reaction, enzymatic activity, maltodextrin concentration and SVglys/RebA concentration as experimental factors, together with their interactions. Liquid chromatography coupled to a diode-array detector (LC-DAD), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) were used to characterize and identify the chemical structures obtained along the optimization. To assess the impact on the sensory properties, a sensory analysis was carried out with a group of panelists that evaluated up to 16 sensorial attributes. CGTase transglucosylation of the C-13 and/or C-19 led to the addition of up to 11 glucose units to the steviol aglycone, which meant the achievement of enhanced sensory profiles due to a diminution of bitterness and licorice appreciations. The outcome herein obtained supposes the development of new potential alternatives to replace free sugars with low-calorie sweeteners with added health benefits.

High-Quality Gluten-Free Sponge Cakes without Sucrose: Inulin-Type Fructans as Sugar Alternatives

Due to its structural and organoleptic functions, sucrose is one of the primary ingredients of many baked confectionery products. In turn, the growing awareness of the association between sugar overconsumption and the development of chronic diseases has prompted the urgent need to reduce the amount of refined sugar in foods. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of complete sucrose replacement with inulin-type fructans (ITFs), namely fructooligosaccharide (FOS), inulin (INU) or oligofructose-enriched inulin (SYN), with different degrees of polymerization on the technological parameters and sensory quality of gluten-free sponge cakes (GFSs). The use of ITFs as the sole sweetening ingredient resulted in the similar appearance of the experimental GFSs to that of the control sample. In addition, all GFSs containing ITFs had similar height, while their baking weight loss was significantly (p < 0.05) lower compared to the control products. The total sugar exchange for long-chain INU increased the crumb hardness, while the crumb of the GFS with FOS was as soft as of the control products. The sensory analysis showed that the GFS containing FOS obtained the highest scores for the overall quality assessment, similar to the sugar-containing control sponge cake. The results obtained prove that sucrose is not necessary to produce GFSs with appropriate technological parameters and a high sensory quality. Thus, it can be concluded that sucrose can be successfully replaced with ITF, especially with FOS, in this type of baked confectionery product.

Strategies for lowering the added sugar in yogurts

The rising awareness about the adverse health effects of high sugar consumption has led to regulatory amendments for triggering sugar reduction in food products. Sugar reduction in yogurt is a challenging endeavor due to the changes in taste, flavor, texture, maintenance of food functionality, shelf-life, cost and consumer acceptability. A review of the scientific literature, patents, and web articles revealed several approaches being explored by the dairy industry to reduce the sugar addition. A careful assessment of these strategies and their critical analysis is presented in this review. The strategies for sugar reduction involve multifaceted approaches including the use of alternative low-calorie sweeteners, honey, fruit preparations, novel cultures, lactase addition, inulin fiber addition, and flavor interventions. Much of the work so far has focused on development of low-calorie alternative sweeteners, and novel sweeteners-based solutions are evolving. The use of food structuring approaches remains to be explored for sugar reduction in yogurt.

Risk assessment related to food additives and food processing-derived chemical contaminants exposure for the Portuguese population

The European Food Risk Assessment Fellowship Programme (EU-FORA) is an initiative by EFSA, aimed at building scientific capacity in food safety risk assessment in the EU. Current paper reports on the activities of this fellow, undertaken in participation of the third, 2019-2020 cycle of the EU-FORA programme while placed at the University of Porto, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, in Portugal. The work programme offered by the hosting site was related to risk assessment on food additives and contaminants. The fellow's hands-on work consisted of two practical exercises, which aimed to assess the exposure to the 10 intense sweeteners authorised in the EU and a process contaminant, acrylamide, for the Portuguese general population.

Structure-Property Relationship of Amorphous Maltitol as Tableting Excipient

Maltitol shows interesting properties compared with mannitol or sorbitol, two other polyols, which are widely used as a pharmaceutical excipients for tablet compaction. For this study, the properties of an amorphous polyol, maltitol, were investigated using a tablet press simulator. The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior of amorphous maltitol compared to SweetPearl® P 200, a pure product, and SweetPearl® P 300 DC, a textured crystalline maltitol excipient for direct compression. The physicochemical and pharmacotechnical properties were compared, revealing a major change in properties after amorphization. The study of the tabletability, mean yield pressure, elastic properties, etc. shows that the compression behavior of amorphous powders has been significantly altered. The results showed specific properties of amorphous maltitol with good tabletability at low compaction pressure. The stability of the amorphous and the evolution of its behavior in compression were then studied, showing a direct link between its recrystallization and the change in its properties. The use of a stabilizing agent, maltotriitol, slowed down the recrystallization, maintaining the specific properties of the amorphous material in compression for a longer period of time.

Sugar Reduction in Dairy Food: An Overview with Flavoured Milk as an Example

Owing to the public health concern associated with the consumption of added sugar, the World Health Organization recommends cutting down sugar in processed foods. Furthermore, due to the growing concern of increased calorie intake from added sugar in sweetened dairy foods, the present review provides an overview of different types and functions of sugar, various sugar reduction strategies, and current trends in the use of sweeteners for sugar reduction in dairy food, taking flavoured milk as a central theme where possible to explore the aforementioned aspects. The strength and uniqueness of this review are that it brings together all the information on the available types of sugar and sugar reduction strategies and explores the current trends that could be applied for reducing sugar in dairy foods without much impact on consumer acceptance. Among different strategies for sugar reduction, the use of natural non-nutritive sweeteners (NNSs), has received much attention due to consumer demand for natural ingredients. Sweetness imparted by sugar can be replaced by natural NNSs, however, sugar provides more than just sweetness to flavoured milk. Sugar reduction involves multiple technical challenges to maintain the sensory properties of the product, as well as to maintain consumer acceptance. Because no single sugar has a sensory profile that matches sucrose, the use of two or more natural NNSs could be an option for food industries to reduce sugar using a holistic approach rather than a single sugar reduction strategy. Therefore, achieving even a small sugar reduction can significantly improve the diet and health of an individual.