The anti-inflammatory prostaglandin 15d-PGJ2 and its nuclear receptor PPARgamma are decreased in schizophrenia

Autophagy Modulation in Disease Therapy: Where Do We Stand?

Since it was first described more than 50 years ago autophagy has been examined in many contexts, from cell survival to pathogen sequestration and removal. In more recent years our understanding of autophagy has developed sufficiently to allow effective targeted therapeutics to be developed against various diseases. The field of autophagy research is expanding rapidly, demonstrated by increases in both numbers of investigators in the field and the breadth of topics being addressed. Some diseases, such as the many cancers, have come to the fore in autophagy therapeutics research as a better understanding of their underlying mechanisms has surfaced. Numerous treatments are being developed and explored, from creative applications of the classic autophagy modulators chloroquine and rapamycin, to repurposing drugs approved for other treatments, such as astemizole, which is currently in use as an antimalarial and chronic rhinitis treatment. The landscape of autophagy modulation in disease therapy is rapidly changing and this review hopes to provide a cross-section of the current state of the field.

RETRACTED: Increased neuroinflammatory and arachidonic acid cascade markers, and reduced synaptic proteins, in the postmortem frontal cortex from schizophrenia patients

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal). This article has been retracted at the request of the Editors. The National Institutes of Health has found that Dr. Jagadeesh S. Rao engaged in research misconduct by falsifying data. Data in Figures 1A, 1E, 3E and 3F were falsified. Dr. Rao was solely responsible for the falsification. None of the other authors are implicated in any way.

DNA methylation patterns of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma gene associated with liver fibrosis and inflammation in chronic hepatitis B

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma) is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression of inflammatory mediators in liver injury. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) suppresses the PPAR gamma-mediated transactivation in liver cancerous cell lines. However, the role of PPAR gamma in patients with chronic HBV infection has not fully demonstrated. Our present study was firstly to determine the clinical relevance of peripheral PPAR gamma mRNA levels in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients, and then, the DNA methylation of PPAR gamma promoter was investigated. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from 91 CHB patients and 18 healthy controls. The mRNA level of PPAR gamma was determined by quantitative real-time PCR; meanwhile, the CpG island methylation was assessed by methylation-specific PCR. CHB patients showed significantly lower mRNA level of PPAR gamma than healthy controls (P = 0.005). The mRNA level was decreased in HBV-DNA-positive group than HBV-DNA-negative group (P = 0.041). Interaction analysis demonstrated that the DNA methylation pattern was responsible for the suppression of peripheral PPAR gamma transcription in CHB patients (P = 0.003). Furthermore, the hypermethylation of PPAR gamma gene promoter was significantly associated with liver inflammation and fibrosis in CHB. In conclusion, DNA methylation patterns were responsible for the decreased mRNA level of peripheral PPAR gamma in CHB patients. Liver inflammation and fibrosis were found to be associated with hypermethylation of PPAR gamma promoter.

Epigenetic modifications in hepatic stellate cells contribute to liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis represents the final common pathway of virtually all types of chronic liver diseases, and it has been a major public health concern. Many genes have been demonstrated to be involved in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis, while the mechanisms underlying gene regulation still needs further research. On the other hand, hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are quiescent cells in the perisinusoidal space in liver. HSCs facilitate hepatocytes interactions via releasing soluble inflammatory factors and producing extracellular matrix. HSCs can be activated in response to liver injury, and they differentiate to myofibroblasts, which greatly contribute to the fibrogenesis process. Various epigenetic procedures, including DNA methylation, histone modification and formation of particular chromatin structure, play crucial roles in the gene transcriptional expression in HSCs, regulating various vital processes. For instance, epigenetic modulation on the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) gene promoter accounts for HSC differentiation through interacting pathways. Aberrant expression of a series of histones and chemokines in activated HSCs can aggravate inflammation and oxidative stress, which in turn promotes differentiation of HSCs to myofibroblasts and enhances the whole fibrogenesis process. Degradation of extracellular matrix is also regulated through epigenetic modulation on matrix associated enzymes. Moreover, fibrosis-related epigenetic modifications in the parental generation may be inherited to their offspring. In this review, we firstly summarize the vital epigenetic modifications of fibrosis-related genes in HSCs, and highlight specific nucleic acid sequences and structures in gene promoters as important action sites, which may provide indicators for liver fibrosis diagnosis in the future.

Neuroinflammation and psychiatric illness

Multiple lines of evidence support the pathogenic role of neuroinflammation in psychiatric illness. While systemic autoimmune diseases are well-documented causes of neuropsychiatric disorders, synaptic autoimmune encephalitides with psychotic symptoms often go under-recognized. Parallel to the link between psychiatric symptoms and autoimmunity in autoimmune diseases, neuroimmunological abnormalities occur in classical psychiatric disorders (for example, major depressive, bipolar, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorders). Investigations into the pathophysiology of these conditions traditionally stressed dysregulation of the glutamatergic and monoaminergic systems, but the mechanisms causing these neurotransmitter abnormalities remained elusive. We review the link between autoimmunity and neuropsychiatric disorders, and the human and experimental evidence supporting the pathogenic role of neuroinflammation in selected classical psychiatric disorders. Understanding how psychosocial, genetic, immunological and neurotransmitter systems interact can reveal pathogenic clues and help target new preventive and symptomatic therapies.

Risperidone normalizes increased inflammatory parameters and restores anti-inflammatory pathways in a model of neuroinflammation

Inflammation, caused by both external and endogenous factors, has been implicated as a main pathophysiological feature of chronic mental illnesses, including schizophrenia. An increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines has been described both in experimental models and in schizophrenia patients. However, not much is known about the effects that antipsychotic drugs have on intra- and intercellular mechanisms controlling inflammation. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible anti-inflammatory effect of a standard schizophrenia treatment not only at the level of soluble mediators, but also at intra- and intercellular inflammatory pathways. The present study was conducted in a model of mild neuroinflammation using a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge that was not an endotoxaemic dose (0.5 mg/kg i.p.) in young adult rats.

MAIN RESULTS

single doses of risperidone (0.3-3.0 mg/kg i.p.) prevented increased inflammatory parameters induced by LPS in brain cortex [expression of inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1β and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, activity of the inducible inflammatory enzymes nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and inflammatory nuclear transcription factor κB] and restored anti-inflammatory pathways decreased by LPS challenge (deoxyprostaglandins and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ). This is the first study demonstrating that risperidone elicits a preventive effect on the anti-inflammatory arm of the homeostatic mechanism controlling inflammation in a model of mild encephalitis in rats. Our findings suggest a possible protective effect of risperidone on brain cells.

Altered immune function in unaffected first-degree biological relatives of schizophrenia patients

Inflammatory and immune processes have been implicated in the etiopathology of schizophrenia. We demonstrate the existence of immune function alteration, assessed by serum cytokine's levels, not only in schizophrenia patients but also in their unaffected first-degree relatives. This finding may provide a new data for considering cytokines as schizophrenic disease biomarkers.

Activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory system in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with borderline personality disorder

A case-control study including patients (n = 20) with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and healthy controls (n = 33) was carried out. To avoid interferences of other clinical conditions on biological findings, patients were free of current major depressive episodes or substance dependence disorders, and had no life history of schizophrenia, bipolar or neuropsychiatric disorders. Patients were free of medication for at least two weeks at the time of the study. Studies carried out in peripheral mononuclear blood cells and plasma evidence a systemic inflammatory condition in unstable-impulsive BPD patients. Specifically, a significant increase in some intracellular components of two main pro-inflammatory pathways such as iNOS and COX-2, as well as an increase in the plasma levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL1β. Interestingly, patients have an increase in the protein expression of the anti-inflammatory subtype of nicotinic receptor α7nAChR. This finding may reflect a possible mechanism trying to maintain intracellular inflammation pathways under control. All together, these results describe an imbalanced, pro-inflammatory and oxidant phenotype in BPD patients independent of plasma cotinine levels. Although more scientific evidence is needed, the determination of multiple components of pro- and anti-inflammatory cellular pathways have interesting potential as biological markers for BPD and other generalized impulsive syndromes, specially data obtained with α7nAChR and its lack of correlation with plasma levels of nicotine metabolites. Their pharmacological modulation with receptor modulators can be a promising therapeutic target to take into account in mental health conditions associated with inflammatory or oxido/nitrosative consequences. Also, identifying at-risk individuals would be of importance for early detection and intervention in adolescent subjects before they present severe behavioural problems.